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Zhang P, Qian Y, Wang L, Suo J, Yin L, Wang Y, Zhang L, Wang Z. The Association of Intraocular Efavirenz Concentrations and HIV-1 Viral Load Among Persons With HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2024; 96:299-303. [PMID: 38534141 DOI: 10.1097/qai.0000000000003426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Efavirenz (EFV) is commonly used in combination antiretroviral therapy. However, in our previous study, many persons living with HIV exhibited ocular complications despite undergoing effective combination antiretroviral therapy. Here, we aimed to determine the intraocular EFV concentrations in the vitreous and analyze the factors affecting viral load in the vitreous in patients with HIV-associated retinopathies. DESIGN Observational, retrospective study. METHODS Fourteen patients receiving EFV in combination with an antiretroviral therapy who underwent pars plana vitrectomy were enrolled between January 2019 and August 2022. The patients were divided into 2 groups based on presence or absence of retinal detachment (RD). Patient characteristics and HIV-1 RNA levels in plasma and vitreous were recorded during pars plana vitrectomy. Paired blood plasma and vitreous samples were obtained for EFV concentration analysis using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS The median age of the enrolled patients was 48 years (interquartile range, 32.25-53.25), including 12 men and 2 women. Median vitreous and plasma EFV concentrations were 141.5 (interquartile range, 69.63-323.75) and 2620 ng/mL (1680-4207.5), respectively. Median ratio of vitreous/plasma EFV concentrations in the paired samples among all participants was 0.053 (0.018-0.118). Median vitreous/plasma EFV concentrations significantly differed between the non-RD and RD groups (0.04 vs 0.12, P = 0.042). CONCLUSIONS The vitreous EFV concentrations were insufficient to inhibit viral replication in intraocular tissues, which may be because of poor penetration of the blood-retinal barrier. High vitreous EFV concentrations were associated with RD, indicating a correlation between the EFV concentration and the severity of blood-retinal barrier disruption. It implied that EFV was not a suitable antiviral drug to inhibit HIV-1 replication in ocular tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China ; and
| | - Yiwen Qian
- Department of Ophthalmology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China ; and
| | - Luoziyi Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China ; and
| | - Jinshan Suo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China ; and
| | - Lin Yin
- Department of Clinical Research Center, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University
| | - Yuceng Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China ; and
| | - Lijun Zhang
- Department of Clinical Research Center, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University
| | - Zhiliang Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Huashan Hospital of Fudan University, Shanghai, China ; and
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Todorović Z, Dragović G, Lukić R. Pharmacokinetic and toxicological considerations affecting antiretroviral drug dosing in pregnant women. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2024; 20:419-437. [PMID: 38738389 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2024.2353762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION To prevent mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) during pregnancy, the appropriate dosing regimens of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs need to be determined. Reliable data about pharmacokinetic (PK) characteristics of ARVs from randomized clinical trials (RCTs) are lacking, and post-marketing observational studies may offer valuable, but sometimes insufficient data, especially in pregnant people living with HIV (PLWHIV). This review article is focused PK and toxicological considerations affecting ARV dosing in pregnant PLWHIV. AREAS COVERED In our search, we included studies focused on PKs of ARVs in pregnancy available on PubMed, abstracts from recent global conferences and data from modeling studies. There are no significant changes in PKs of nucleoside/nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors throughout pregnancy. In contrast, the PKs of PIs and INSTIs are more variable, especially in the second and third trimesters. EXPERT OPINION Pregnant women are left out of RCTs. To the greatest extent possible, future research should include pregnant persons in RCTs, including PK studies, strictly considering maternal and fetal safety. Alternative innovative approaches/models need to be developed to obtain reliable data about rational pharmacotherapy of ARVs in the effective PMTCT of HIV, with maximum safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoran Todorović
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Gordana Dragović
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Relja Lukić
- Faculty of Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynaecology Clinic GAK "Narodni Front", University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
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Courville J, Roupe K, Arold G. Re-discover the value of protein binding assessments in hepatic and renal impairment studies and its contributions in drug labels and dose decisions. Clin Transl Sci 2024; 17:e13810. [PMID: 38716900 PMCID: PMC11077687 DOI: 10.1111/cts.13810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
One of the key pharmacokinetic properties of most small molecule drugs is their ability to bind to serum proteins. Unbound or free drug is responsible for pharmacological activity while the balance between free and bound drug can impact drug distribution, elimination, and other safety parameters. In the hepatic impairment (HI) and renal impairment (RI) clinical studies, unbound drug concentration is often assessed; however, the relevance and impact of the protein binding (PB) results is largely limited. We analyzed published clinical safety and pharmacokinetic studies in subjects with HI or RI with PB assessment up to October 2022 and summarized the contribution of PB results on their label dose recommendations. Among drugs with HI publication, 32% (17/53) associated product labels include PB results in HI section. Of these, the majority (9/17, 53%) recommend dose adjustments consistent with observed PB change. Among drugs with RI publication, 27% (12/44) of associated product labels include PB results in RI section with the majority (7/12, 58%) recommending no dose adjustment, consistent with the reported absence of PB change. PB results were found to be consistent with a tailored dose recommendation in 53% and 58% of the approved labels for HI and RI section, respectively. We further discussed the interpretation challenges of PB results, explored treatment decision factors including total drug concentration, exposure-response relationships, and safety considerations in these case examples. Collectively, comprehending the alterations in free drug levels in HI and RI informs treatment decision through a risk-based approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jocelyn Courville
- Clinical Pharmacology—Drug Development SolutionICON plcBlue BellPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Kathryn Roupe
- Clinical Pharmacology, PharmacokineticsWorldwide Clinical TrialsAustinTexasUSA
| | - Gerhard Arold
- Clinical Pharmacology—Drug Development SolutionICON plcLangenGermany
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Tempestilli M, Mondi A, D'Avolio A, Forini O, Pinnetti C, Mazzotta V, Gagliardini R, Beccacece A, De Nicolò A, Faccendini P, Cimini E, Maggi F, Girardi E, Nicastri E, Boffito M, Vaia F, Antinori A. Pharmacokinetics of tecovirimat in subjects with Mpox. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2024; 63:107068. [PMID: 38141836 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2023.107068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the pharmacokinetics (PK) of tecovirimat in subjects with Mpox. METHODS This monocentric, prospective, observational study enrolled subjects with Mpox who received standard treatment with oral tecovirimat. Plasma samples for PK assessment were collected at steady state (5-8 days after initiation of antiviral therapy), before and 3, 5, 7 and 12 h after tecovirimat administration. Drug concentrations were determined by validated liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. PK parameters were calculated using Phoenix 8.1. RESULTS Overall, 14 male patients hospitalized for severe Mpox with ongoing tecovirimat treatment were enrolled in this study. Six of the 14 patients were living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), all of whom were on antiretroviral therapy (ART) and virologically suppressed at the time of hospitalization. Significant differences in tecovirimat PK were observed in subjects without HIV compared with subjects with HIV. In subjects with HIV, the maximum tecovirimat plasma concentration (39%, P≤0.0001), minimum tecovirimat plasma concentration (42%, P=0.0079) and area under the curve from zero to the last measured time-point (40%, P≤0.0001) were significantly lower compared with subjects without HIV, but all concentrations remained above the in-vitro calculated 90% inhibitory concentration. No significant associations were found between demographic/clinical data and tecovirimat PK. All patients recovered completely within 14 (range 6-36) days of treatment initiation. CONCLUSIONS This study found a significant decrease in plasma exposure of tecovirimat in Mpox patients with HIV on effective ART compared with those without HIV, with no evident impact on clinical outcomes. Although these results need to be confirmed in larger studies, they may provide useful information on the PK of tecovirimat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Tempestilli
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Clinical Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Annalisa Mondi
- Clinical and Research Infectious Diseases Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy.
| | - Antonio D'Avolio
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Olindo Forini
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Clinical Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Carmela Pinnetti
- Clinical and Research Infectious Diseases Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Valentina Mazzotta
- Clinical and Research Infectious Diseases Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Roberta Gagliardini
- Clinical and Research Infectious Diseases Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Alessia Beccacece
- Clinical and Research Infectious Diseases Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Amedeo De Nicolò
- Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacogenetics, Amedeo di Savoia Hospital, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Paolo Faccendini
- Pharmacy Unit, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Eleonora Cimini
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Clinical Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Maggi
- Laboratory of Virology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Enrico Girardi
- Scientific Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Emanuele Nicastri
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology and Clinical Pharmacology, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Marta Boffito
- Chelsea and Westminster Healthcare NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
| | - Francesco Vaia
- General Direction, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy; General Directorate for Health Prevention, Ministry of Health, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Antinori
- Clinical and Research Infectious Diseases Department, National Institute for Infectious Diseases Lazzaro Spallanzani IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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Barker CT, Wang FB, Vaidya NK. Modeling Antiretrovial Treatment to Mitigate HIV in the Brain: Impact of the Blood-Brain Barrier. Bull Math Biol 2023; 85:105. [PMID: 37730794 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-023-01204-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Current research in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) focuses on eradicating virus reservoirs that prevent or dampen the effectiveness of antiretroviral treatment (ART). One such reservoir, the brain, reduces treatment efficacy via the blood-brain barrier (BBB), causing an obstacle to drug penetration into the brain. In this study, we develop a mathematical model to examine the impact of the BBB on ART effectiveness for mitigating brain HIV. A thorough analysis of the model allowed us to fully characterize the global threshold dynamics with the viral clearance and persistence in the brain for the basic reproduction number less than unity and greater than unity, respectively. Our model showed that the BBB has a significant role in inhibiting the effect of ART within the brain despite the effective viral load suppression in the plasma. The level of impact, however, depends on factors such as the CNS Penetration Effectiveness (CPE) score, the slope of the drug dose-response curves, the ART initiation timing, and the number of drugs in the ART protocol. These results suggest that reducing the plasma viral load to undetectable levels due to some drug regimen may not necessarily indicate undetectable levels of HIV in the brain. Thus, the effect of the BBB on viral suppression in the brain must be considered for developing proper treatment protocols against HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin T Barker
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Drury University, Missouri, USA
| | - Feng-Bin Wang
- Department of Natural Science in the Center for General Education, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 333, Guishan, Taiwan
- Community Medicine Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Keelung 204, Keelung Branch, Taiwan
- National Center for Theoretical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106, Taiwan
| | - Naveen K Vaidya
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, San Diego State University, California, San Diego, USA.
- Computational Science Research Center, San Diego State University, California, San Diego, USA.
- Viral Information Institute, San Diego State University, California, San Diego, USA.
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Mykris TM, Weinhold J, Winchester LC, Scarsi KK, Fletcher CV, Podany AT, Avedissian SN. Quantification of nine antiretroviral drugs in cerebrospinal fluid: An approach to overcome sample collection tube adsorption. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2023; 1227:123810. [PMID: 37429153 PMCID: PMC10529871 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2023.123810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
A highly sensitive LC-MS/MS methods were developed and validated to quantify nine antiretrovirals (atazanavir [ATV], tenofovir [TFV], emtricitabine [FTC], darunavir [DRV], dolutegravir [DTG], efavirenz [EFV], lamivudine [3TC], raltegravir [RAL], and ritonavir [RTV]) in human cerebral spinal fluid (CSF). The approach remedies adsorption issues caused by polypropylene based sample collection tubes. 1% ammonium hydroxide in methanol was added in an amount equal to the volume of each quality control (QC) or patient sample. Protein precipitation was utilized with a CSF sample volume of 100 μL and a 100 μL of methanol:ACN and vortexed. Chromatographic separation was achieved with a 3 × 100 ACE® C18 column for ATV, DRV, DTG, EFV, RTV and RAL, and a 2 × 100 Polar RP column for TFV/FTC/3TC. Mobile phase was methanol:water:formic acid (70:30:0.1, v/v/v) for ATV, DRV, DTG, EFV and RTV (10 uL injection, flow rate: 1.00 mL/min), ACN:water:formic acid (35:65:0.1, v/v/v) for RAL (50 uL injection, flow rate: 1.00 mL/min), ACN:water:formic acid (2:98:0.1, v/v/v) for TFV, FTC and 3TC (50 uL injection, flow rate: 0.35 mL/min). Column temperature was 40° C across all assays. The mass spectrometer was operated in positive, multiple-reaction-monitoring (MRM) mode with electrospray ionization (ESI) for all analytes with the exception of EFV, which was operated in negative, MRM mode with ESI. The assay was linear over the calibration range of 1 to 250 ng/mL for all analytes. The addition of 1% ammonium hydroxide in sample tubes overcame up to 44% negative bias in QC samples and allowed the methods to meet full validation criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Mykris
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Jonathan Weinhold
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Lee C Winchester
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Kimberly K Scarsi
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Courtney V Fletcher
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA; Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA
| | - Anthony T Podany
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA.
| | - Sean N Avedissian
- Antiviral Pharmacology Laboratory, College of Pharmacy, University of Nebraska Medical Center. Omaha, NE, USA.
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Hong H, Aslam-Mir U, Kajubi R, Wallender E, Mwebaza N, Dorsey G, Rosenthal PJ, Aweeka FT, Huang L. Efavirenz-Based Antiretroviral Therapy but Not Pregnancy Increased Unbound Piperaquine Exposure in Women during Malaria Chemoprevention. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0142722. [PMID: 36916944 PMCID: PMC10112216 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01427-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine (DP) is highly effective for malaria chemoprevention during pregnancy, but the standard dosing of DP that is used for nonpregnant adults may not be optimal for pregnant women. We previously reported that the pharmacokinetic exposure of total piperaquine (PQ; both bound and unbound to plasma proteins) is reduced significantly in the context of pregnancy or efavirenz (EFV)-based antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, as PQ is >99% protein-bound, reduced protein binding during pregnancy may lead to an increase in the pharmacologically active unbound drug fraction (fu), relative to the total PQ. We investigated the impact of pregnancy and EFV use on the fu of PQ to inform the interpretation of pharmacokinetics. Plasma samples from 0 to 24 h after the third (final) DP dose were collected from pregnant women at 28 weeks gestation who were receiving or not receiving EFV-based ART as well as from women 34 to 54 weeks postpartum who were not receiving EFV-based ART, who served as controls. Unbound PQ was quantified via ultrafiltration and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, with fu being calculated as PQunbound/PQtotal. The geometric mean fu did not differ between pregnant and postpartum women (P = 0.66), but it was 23% (P < 0.01) greater in pregnant women receiving EFV-based ART, compared to that in postpartum women who were not receiving EFV-based ART. The altered drug-protein binding, potentially due to the displacement of PQ from plasma proteins by EFV, resulted in only a 14% lower unbound PQ exposure (P = 0.13) in the presence of a 31% lower total PQ exposure (P < 0.01), as estimated by the area under the concentration time curve from 0 to 24 h post-last dose in pregnant women who were receiving EFV-based ART. The results suggest that the impact of pregnancy and EFV-based ART on the exposure and, in turn, the efficacy of PQ for malaria prevention may not be as significant as was suggested by the changes in the total PQ exposure. Further study during the terminal elimination phase (e.g., on day 28 post-dose) would help better characterize the unbound PQ exposure during the full dosing interval and, thus, the overall efficacy of PQ for malaria chemoprevention in this special population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Howard Hong
- Drug Research Unit, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Usman Aslam-Mir
- Drug Research Unit, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Richard Kajubi
- Infectious Disease Research Collaboration, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Erika Wallender
- Drug Research Unit, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Norah Mwebaza
- Infectious Disease Research Collaboration, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Grant Dorsey
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Philip J. Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Francesca T. Aweeka
- Drug Research Unit, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Liusheng Huang
- Drug Research Unit, Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
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Clark KM, Kim JG, Wang Q, Gao H, Presti RM, Shan L. Chemical inhibition of DPP9 sensitizes the CARD8 inflammasome in HIV-1-infected cells. Nat Chem Biol 2023; 19:431-439. [PMID: 36357533 PMCID: PMC10065922 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01182-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) induce pyroptosis of HIV-1-infected CD4+ T cells through induction of intracellular HIV-1 protease activity, which activates the CARD8 inflammasome. Because high concentrations of NNRTIs are required for efficient elimination of HIV-1-infected cells, it is important to elucidate ways to sensitize the CARD8 inflammasome to NNRTI-induced activation. We show that this sensitization can be achieved through chemical inhibition of the CARD8 negative regulator DPP9. The DPP9 inhibitor Val-boroPro (VbP) can kill HIV-1-infected cells without the presence of NNRTIs and act synergistically with NNRTIs to promote clearance of HIV-1-infected cells in vitro and in humanized mice. More importantly, VbP is able to enhance clearance of residual HIV-1 in CD4+ T cells isolated from people living with HIV (PLWH). We also show that VbP can partially overcome NNRTI resistance. This offers a promising strategy for enhancing NNRTI efficacy in the elimination of HIV-1 reservoirs in PLWH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kolin M Clark
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Josh G Kim
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Qiankun Wang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Hongbo Gao
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Rachel M Presti
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Liang Shan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
- Andrew M. and Jane M. Bursky Center for Human Immunology and Immunotherapy Programs, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA.
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Kim JG, Shan L. Beyond Inhibition: A Novel Strategy of Targeting HIV-1 Protease to Eliminate Viral Reservoirs. Viruses 2022; 14:1179. [PMID: 35746649 PMCID: PMC9231271 DOI: 10.3390/v14061179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 05/23/2022] [Accepted: 05/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
HIV-1 protease (PR) is a viral enzyme that cleaves the Gag and Gag-Pol polyprotein precursors to convert them into their functional forms, a process which is essential to generate infectious viral particles. Due to its broad substrate specificity, HIV-1 PR can also cleave certain host cell proteins. Several studies have identified host cell substrates of HIV-1 PR and described the potential impact of their cleavage on HIV-1-infected cells. Of particular interest is the interaction between PR and the caspase recruitment domain-containing protein 8 (CARD8) inflammasome. A recent study demonstrated that CARD8 can sense HIV-1 PR activity and induce cell death. While PR typically has low levels of intracellular activity prior to viral budding, premature PR activation can be achieved using certain non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), resulting in CARD8 cleavage and downstream pyroptosis. Used together with latency reversal agents, the induction of premature PR activation to trigger CARD8-mediated cell killing may help eliminate latent reservoirs in people living with HIV. This represents a novel strategy of utilizing PR as an antiviral target through premature activation rather than inhibition. In this review, we discuss the viral and host substrates of HIV-1 protease and highlight potential applications and advantages of targeting CARD8 sensing of HIV-1 PR.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liang Shan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, Saint Louis, MO 63110, USA;
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10
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Slower Recovery with Early Lopinavir/Ritonavir use in Pediatric COVID-19 Patients: A Retrospective Observational Study. Paediatr Drugs 2022; 24:269-280. [PMID: 35428969 PMCID: PMC9012665 DOI: 10.1007/s40272-022-00500-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES There was initially insufficient understanding regarding suitable pharmacological treatment for pediatric Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients. Lopinavir-ritonavir (LPV/r) was originally used for the treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) infection. It was also used in patients with severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) with positive results. Nonetheless, results from recent randomized controlled trials and observational studies on COVID-19 patients were unfavorable. We sought to evaluate the clinical outcomes associated with early treatment with LPV/r for pediatric COVID-19 patients. STUDY DESIGN A total of 933 COVID-19 patients aged ≤ 18 years were admitted between 21 January 2020 and 31 January 2021 in Hong Kong. Exposure was receiving LPV/r within the first two days of admission. Time to clinical improvement, hospital discharge, seroconversion and hyperinflammatory syndrome, cumulative costs, and hospital length of stay were assessed. Multivariable Cox proportional hazard and linear models were performed to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and their 95% confidence intervals (CI) of time-to-event and continuous outcomes, respectively. RESULTS LPV/r users were associated with longer time to clinical improvement (HR 0.51, 95% CI 0.38-0.70; p < 0.001), hospital discharge (HR 0.51, 95% CI 0.38-0.70; p < 0.001) and seroconversion (HR 0.59, 95% CI 0.43-0.80; p < 0.001) when compared with controls. LPV/r users were also associated with prolonged hospital length of stay (6.99 days, 95% CI 6.23-7.76; p < 0.001) and higher costs at 30 days (US$11,709 vs US$8270; p < 0.001) as opposed to controls. CONCLUSION Early treatment with LPV/r for pediatric COVID-19 patients was associated with longer time to clinical improvement. Our study advocates the recommendation against LPV/r use for pediatric patients across age groups.
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11
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Kip AE, Blesson S, Alves F, Wasunna M, Kimutai R, Menza P, Mengesha B, Beijnen JH, Hailu A, Diro E, Dorlo TPC. Low antileishmanial drug exposure in HIV-positive visceral leishmaniasis patients on antiretrovirals: an Ethiopian cohort study. J Antimicrob Chemother 2021; 76:1258-1268. [PMID: 33677546 PMCID: PMC8050768 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkab013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Despite high HIV co-infection prevalence in Ethiopian visceral leishmaniasis (VL) patients, the adequacy of antileishmanial drug exposure in this population and effect of HIV-VL co-morbidity on pharmacokinetics of antileishmanial and antiretroviral (ARV) drugs is still unknown. Methods HIV-VL co-infected patients received the recommended liposomal amphotericin B (LAmB) monotherapy (total dose 40 mg/kg over 24 days) or combination therapy of LAmB (total dose 30 mg/kg over 11 days) plus 28 days 100 mg/day miltefosine, with possibility to extend treatment for another cycle. Miltefosine, total amphotericin B and ARV concentrations were determined in dried blood spots or plasma using LC–MS/MS. Results Median (IQR) amphotericin B Cmax on Day 1 was 24.6 μg/mL (17.0–34.9 μg/mL), which increased to 40.9 (25.4–53.1) and 33.2 (29.0–46.6) μg/mL on the last day of combination and monotherapy, respectively. Day 28 miltefosine concentration was 18.7 (15.4–22.5) μg/mL. Miltefosine exposure correlated with amphotericin B accumulation. ARV concentrations were generally stable during antileishmanial treatment, although efavirenz Cmin was below the 1 μg/mL therapeutic target for many patients. Conclusions This study demonstrates that antileishmanial drug exposure was low in this cohort of HIV co-infected VL patients. Amphotericin B Cmax was 2-fold lower than previously observed in non-VL patients. Miltefosine exposure in HIV-VL co-infected patients was 35% lower compared with adult VL patients in Eastern Africa, only partially explained by a 19% lower dose, possibly warranting a dose adjustment. Adequate drug exposure in these HIV-VL co-infected patients is especially important given the high proportion of relapses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke E Kip
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital/Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Fabiana Alves
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Peninah Menza
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Bewketu Mengesha
- Leishmaniasis Research and Treatment Center, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Jos H Beijnen
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital/Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Asrat Hailu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Parasitology, School of Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Ermias Diro
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Gondar, Gondar, Ethiopia
| | - Thomas P C Dorlo
- Department of Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Antoni van Leeuwenhoek Hospital/Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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12
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Boffito M, Back DJ, Flexner C, Sjö P, Blaschke TF, Horby PW, Cattaneo D, Acosta EP, Anderson P, Owen A. Toward Consensus on Correct Interpretation of Protein Binding in Plasma and Other Biological Matrices for COVID-19 Therapeutic Development. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2021; 110:64-68. [PMID: 33113246 PMCID: PMC8359231 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.2099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The urgent global public health need presented by severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has brought scientists from diverse backgrounds together in an unprecedented international effort to rapidly identify interventions. There is a pressing need to apply clinical pharmacology principles and this has already been recognized by several other groups. However, one area that warrants additional specific consideration relates to plasma and tissue protein binding that broadly influences pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. The principles of free drug theory have been forged and applied across drug development but are not currently being routinely applied for SARS-CoV-2 antiviral drugs. Consideration of protein binding is of critical importance to candidate selection but requires correct interpretation, in a drug-specific manner, to avoid either underinterpretation or overinterpretation of its consequences. This paper represents a consensus from international researchers seeking to apply historical knowledge, which has underpinned highly successful antiviral drug development for other viruses, such as HIV and hepatitis C virus for decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Boffito
- Chelsea & Westminster HospitalLondonUK
- Department of Infectious DiseaseImperial College LondonLondonUK
| | - David J. Back
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
| | - Charles Flexner
- Bloomberg School of Public HealthJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Peter Sjö
- Drugs for Neglected Diseases Initiative (DNDi)GenevaSwitzerland
| | - Terrence F. Blaschke
- Department of MedicineStanford University School of MedicineStanfordCaliforniaUSA
| | - Peter W. Horby
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global HealthNuffield Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Dario Cattaneo
- Unit of Clinical PharmacologyASST FatebenefratelliSacco University HospitalMilanItaly
| | - Edward P. Acosta
- Department of Pharmacology and ToxicologyUniversity of Alabama at BirminghamBirminghamAlabamaUSA
| | - Peter Anderson
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical SciencesUniversity of ColoradoAuroraColoradoUSA
| | - Andrew Owen
- Department of Pharmacology and TherapeuticsUniversity of LiverpoolLiverpoolUK
- Centre of Excellence in Long‐acting Therapeutics (CELT)University of LiverpoolUK
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13
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Maurer TS. Nonspecific Binding Considerations in the Rational Design and Development of Small Molecule COVID-19 Therapeutics. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2021; 110:294-296. [PMID: 33410139 PMCID: PMC8359223 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.2159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tristan S Maurer
- Worldwide Research and Development, Pfizer Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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14
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Zhao S, Gockenbach M, Grimstein M, Sachs HC, Mirochnick M, Struble K, Belew Y, Wang J, Capparelli EV, Best BM, Johnson T, Momper JD, Maharaj AR. Characterization of Plasma Protein Alterations in Pregnant and Postpartum Individuals Living With HIV to Support Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Model Development. Front Pediatr 2021; 9:721059. [PMID: 34722417 PMCID: PMC8550258 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2021.721059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Alterations in plasma protein concentrations in pregnant and postpartum individuals can influence antiretroviral (ARV) pharmacokinetics. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models can serve to inform drug dosing decisions in understudied populations. However, development of such models requires quantitative physiological information (e.g., changes in plasma protein concentration) from the population of interest. Objective: To quantitatively describe the time-course of albumin and α1-acid glycoprotein (AAG) concentrations in pregnant and postpartum women living with HIV. Methods: Serum and plasma protein concentrations procured from the International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trial Protocol 1026s (P1026s) were analyzed using a generalized additive modeling approach. Separate non-parametric smoothing splines were fit to albumin and AAG concentrations as functions of gestational age or postpartum duration. Results: The analysis included 871 and 757 serum albumin concentrations collected from 380 pregnant (~20 to 42 wks gestation) and 354 postpartum (0 to 46 wks postpartum) women, respectively. Thirty-six and 32 plasma AAG concentrations from 31 pregnant (~24 to 38 wks gestation) and 30 postpartum women (~2-13 wks postpartum), respectively, were available for analysis. Estimated mean albumin concentrations remained stable from 20 wks gestation to term (33.4 to 34.3 g/L); whereas, concentrations rapidly increased postpartum until stabilizing at ~42.3 g/L 15 wk after delivery. Estimated AAG concentrations slightly decreased from 24 wks gestation to term (53.6 and 44.9 mg/dL) while postpartum levels were elevated at two wks after delivery (126.1 mg/dL) and subsequently declined thereafter. Computational functions were developed to quantitatively communicate study results in a form that can be readily utilized for PBPK model development. Conclusion: By characterizing the trajectory of plasma protein concentrations in pregnant and postpartum women living with HIV, our analysis can increase confidence in PBPK model predictions for HIV antiretrovirals and better inform drug dosing decisions in this understudied population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherry Zhao
- Division of Pediatrics and Maternal Health, Office of Rare Diseases, Pediatrics, Urologic and Reproductive Medicine, Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Mary Gockenbach
- Division of Pediatrics and Maternal Health, Office of Rare Diseases, Pediatrics, Urologic and Reproductive Medicine, Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Manuela Grimstein
- Office of Clinical Pharmacology, Office of Translational Sciences, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Hari Cheryl Sachs
- Division of Pediatrics and Maternal Health, Office of Rare Diseases, Pediatrics, Urologic and Reproductive Medicine, Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Mark Mirochnick
- Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Kimberly Struble
- Division of Antivirals, Office of Antimicrobials, Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Yodit Belew
- Division of Antivirals, Office of Antimicrobials, Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Jian Wang
- Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Edmund V Capparelli
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States.,Pediatrics Department, School of Medicine, San Diego-Rady Children's Hospital San Diego, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Brookie M Best
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States.,Pediatrics Department, School of Medicine, San Diego-Rady Children's Hospital San Diego, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Tamara Johnson
- Division of Pediatrics and Maternal Health, Office of Rare Diseases, Pediatrics, Urologic and Reproductive Medicine, Office of New Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD, United States
| | - Jeremiah D Momper
- Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Anil R Maharaj
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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15
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Barik SK, Mohanty KK, Mohanty AK, Rawat P, Gopal G, Bisht D, Patil SA, Singh R, Sharma D, Tripathy SP, Tandon R, Singh TP, Jena S. Identification and differential expression of serotransferrin and apolipoprotein A-I in the plasma of HIV-1 patients treated with first-line antiretroviral therapy. BMC Infect Dis 2020; 20:898. [PMID: 33246440 PMCID: PMC7694411 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-020-05610-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasma proteins are known to interfere the drug metabolism during therapy. As limited information is available regarding the role of plasma proteins in HIV drug resistance during ART in HIV/AIDS patients, the present study aimed to identify and characterize the differentially expressed plasma proteins in the drug resistant and drug respondent groups of HIV-1 infected patients with > 6 years of first line ART. Methods Four-drug resistant (treatment failure) and four-drug respondent (treatment responder) patients were selected for plasma proteomic analysis based on viral load and drug resistance associated mutations from a cohort study designed on the first line ART patients who were enrolled in the antiretroviral therapy center, Sarojini Naidu Medical College, Agra, India from December 2009 to November 2016. After depleting high abundant proteins, plasma proteins were resolved using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis on IPG strips, pH range of 3–10. Spots were selected in the gel based on the density of staining which was common in the drug resistant and drug respondent groups separately. The fold change of each spot was calculated using image-J. Each protein spot was identified using the matrix assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight/time of flight (MALDI-TOF/TOF) after tryptic digestion. Peptide peaks were identified through flex analysis version 3.3, and a search against a protein data base using the internal Mascot. Gene ontology study was completed through STRING v.11 and Panther15.0. Results Out of eight spots from 2D gel samples analyzed by MALDITOF/TOF, two proteins were found to have significant score (> 56) after Flex analysis. These two proteins were identified to be apolipoprotein A1 and serotransferrin. The fold change expression of these two proteins were analyzed in drug resistant and drug respondent group. Apolipoprotein-A1 and serotransferrin were observed to be expressed 1.76 and 1.13-fold more respectively in drug respondent group compared to drug resistant group. The gene ontology analysis revealed the involvement of these two proteins in various important physiological processes. Conclusion Apolipoprotein A-I and serotransferrin were found to be expressed more in drug respondent group compared to drug resistant group. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12879-020-05610-6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushanta Kumar Barik
- National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases, ICMR, Tajganj, Agra, Uttar-Pradesh, 282004, India
| | - Keshar Kunja Mohanty
- National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases, ICMR, Tajganj, Agra, Uttar-Pradesh, 282004, India.
| | | | - Preeti Rawat
- National Dairy Research Institute, ICAR, Karnal, 132001, India
| | - G Gopal
- Cancer Institute, Chennai, 600020, India
| | - Deepa Bisht
- National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases, ICMR, Tajganj, Agra, Uttar-Pradesh, 282004, India
| | - Shripad A Patil
- National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases, ICMR, Tajganj, Agra, Uttar-Pradesh, 282004, India
| | - Rananjay Singh
- National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases, ICMR, Tajganj, Agra, Uttar-Pradesh, 282004, India
| | - Devesh Sharma
- National JALMA Institute for Leprosy and Other Mycobacterial Diseases, ICMR, Tajganj, Agra, Uttar-Pradesh, 282004, India
| | | | - Rekha Tandon
- Sarojini Naidu Medical College, Agra, 282002, India
| | | | - Srikanta Jena
- Ravenshaw University, Cuttack, Odisha, 753003, India
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16
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Reply to the letter to the Editor "Prediction of lopinavir/ritonavir effectiveness in COVID-19 patients: a recall of basic pharmacology concepts". Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 77:793-794. [PMID: 33244631 PMCID: PMC7690333 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-020-03056-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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17
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Antiretroviral Penetration and Drug Transporter Concentrations in the Spleens of Three Preclinical Animal Models and Humans. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2020; 64:AAC.01384-20. [PMID: 32661005 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01384-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Adequate antiretroviral (ARV) concentrations in lymphoid tissues are critical for optimal antiretroviral therapy (ART). While the spleen contains 25% of the body's lymphocytes, there are minimal data on ARV penetration in this organ. This study quantified total and protein-unbound splenic ARV concentrations and determined whether drug transporters, sex, or infection status were modifiers of these concentrations in animal models and humans. Two humanized mice models (hu-HSC-Rag [n = 36; 18 HIV-positive (HIV+) and 18 HIV-negative (HIV-)] and bone marrow-liver-thymus [n = 13; 7 HIV+ and 6 HIV-]) and one nonhuman primate (NHP) model (rhesus macaque [n = 18; 10 SHIV+ and 8 SHIV-]) were dosed to steady state with ARV combinations. HIV+ human spleens (n = 14) from the National NeuroAIDS Tissue Consortium were analyzed postmortem (up to 24 h postdose). ARV concentrations were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), drug transporter concentrations were measured with LC-MS proteomics, and protein binding in NHP spleens was determined by rapid equilibrium dialysis. Mice generally had the lowest splenic concentrations of the three species. Protein binding in splenic tissue was 6 to 96%, compared to 76 to 99% in blood plasma. NHPs had quantifiable Mrp4, Bcrp, and Ent1 concentrations, and humans had quantifiable ENT1 concentrations. None significantly correlated with tissue ARV concentrations. There was also no observable influence of infection status or sex. With these dosing strategies, NHP splenic penetration most closely resembled that of humans. These data can inform tissue pharmacokinetic scaling to humans to target HIV reservoirs by identifying important species-related differences.
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18
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Whyte-Allman SK, Bendayan R. HIV-1 Sanctuary Sites-the Role of Membrane-Associated Drug Transporters and Drug Metabolic Enzymes. AAPS JOURNAL 2020; 22:118. [PMID: 32875457 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-020-00498-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Despite significant advances in the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV) infection with highly active antiretroviral drug therapy, the persistence of the virus in cellular and anatomic reservoirs is a major obstacle preventing total HIV eradication. Viral persistence could result from a variety of contributing factors including, but not limited to, non-adherence to treatment and adverse drug reactions, latently infected cells carrying replication-competent virus, drug-drug interactions, and inadequate antiretroviral drug (ARV) concentrations reached in several anatomic sites such as the brain, testis, and gut-associated lymphoid tissues. The distribution of ARVs at specific sites of infection is primarily dependent on drug physicochemical properties and drug plasma protein binding, as well as drug efflux, influx, and metabolic processes. A thorough understanding of the functional roles of drug transporters and metabolic enzymes in the disposition of ARVs in immune cell types and tissues that are characterized as HIV reservoirs and sanctuaries is critical to overcome the challenge of suboptimal drug distribution at sites of persistent HIV infection. This review summarizes the current knowledge related to the expression and function of drug transporters and metabolic enzymes in HIV cellular and anatomic reservoirs, and their potential contribution to drug-drug interactions and insufficient drug concentration at these sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sana-Kay Whyte-Allman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada
| | - Reina Bendayan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, 144 College Street, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 3M2, Canada.
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19
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Metsu D, Lanot T, Fraissinet F, Concordet D, Gayrard V, Averseng M, Ressault A, Martin-Blondel G, Levade T, Février F, Chatelut E, Delobel P, Gandia P. Comparing ultrafiltration and equilibrium dialysis to measure unbound plasma dolutegravir concentrations based on a design of experiment approach. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12265. [PMID: 32703975 PMCID: PMC7378073 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69102-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Dolutegravir therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) could be improved by measuring the unbound dolutegravir plasma concentration (Cu), particularly in patients experiencing virological failure or toxicity despite achieving appropriate DTG total plasma concentrations. Equilibrium dialysis (ED) is the gold standard to measure Cu, but ED is time consuming, precluding its use in clinical practice. In contrast, ultrafiltration is applicable to TDM, but is sensitive to numerous analytical conditions. In order to evaluate measurements of Cu by ultrafiltration, ultrafiltration conditions were validated by comparison with ED. DTG concentrations were measured by LC–MS/MS. Three ultrafiltration factors (temperature, duration and relative centrifugal force [RCF]) were evaluated and compared to ED (25/37 °C), using a design of experiment strategy. Temperature was found to influence Cu results by ED (p = 0.036) and UF (p = 0.002) when results were analysed with ANOVA. Relative centrifugal force (2000 g) and time (20 min) interacted to influence Cu (p = 0.006), while individually they did not influence Cu (p = 0.88 and p = 0.42 for RCF and time). Ultrafiltration conditions which yielded the most comparable results to ED were 37 °C, 1000 g for 20 min. Ultrafiltration results greatly depended on analytical conditions, confirming the need to validate the method by comparison with ED in order to correctly interpret DTG Cu.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Metsu
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France.,INSERM, CRCT, Toulouse University, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Thomas Lanot
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - François Fraissinet
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | | | | | - Manon Averseng
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Alice Ressault
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Guillaume Martin-Blondel
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Inserm U1043 - CNRS UMR 5282, Toulouse-Purpan Pathophysiology Center, 31173, Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Thierry Levade
- Department of Biochemistry, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France.,INSERM UMR1037, CRCT (Cancer Research Centre of Toulouse), Toulouse University, UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Frédéric Février
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, GCS Ingres-Quercy, Montauban Hospital, Montauban, France
| | - Etienne Chatelut
- INSERM, CRCT, Toulouse University, UPS, Toulouse, France.,Institut Claudius-Regaud, IUCT-Oncopole, Toulouse, France
| | - Pierre Delobel
- Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital of Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Inserm U1043 - CNRS UMR 5282, Toulouse-Purpan Pathophysiology Center, 31173, Toulouse Cedex, France
| | - Peggy Gandia
- Department of Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France. .,INTHERES, INRA, ENVT, Toulouse University, Toulouse, France. .,Laboratoire de Pharmacocinétique Et Toxicologie (Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology Laboratory), Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Purpan (Purpan University Medical Centre), 330 avenue de Grande-Bretagne, 31059, Toulouse, France.
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20
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Hodel EM, Marzolini C, Waitt C, Rakhmanina N. Pharmacokinetics, Placental and Breast Milk Transfer of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant and Lactating Women Living with HIV. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 25:556-576. [PMID: 30894103 DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190320162507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Remarkable progress has been achieved in the identification of HIV infection in pregnant women and in the prevention of vertical HIV transmission through maternal antiretroviral treatment (ART) and neonatal antiretroviral drug (ARV) prophylaxis in the last two decades. Millions of women globally are receiving combination ART throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding, periods associated with significant biological and physiological changes affecting the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD) of ARVs. The objective of this review was to summarize currently available knowledge on the PK of ARVs during pregnancy and transport of maternal ARVs through the placenta and into the breast milk. We also summarized main safety considerations for in utero and breast milk ARVs exposures in infants. METHODS We conducted a review of the pharmacological profiles of ARVs in pregnancy and during breastfeeding obtained from published clinical studies. Selected maternal PK studies used a relatively rich sampling approach at each ante- and postnatal sampling time point. For placental and breast milk transport of ARVs, we selected the studies that provided ratios of maternal to the cord (M:C) plasma and breast milk to maternal plasma (M:P) concentrations, respectively. RESULTS We provide an overview of the physiological changes during pregnancy and their effect on the PK parameters of ARVs by drug class in pregnancy, which were gathered from 45 published studies. The PK changes during pregnancy affect the dosing of several protease inhibitors during pregnancy and limit the use of several ARVs, including three single tablet regimens with integrase inhibitors or protease inhibitors co-formulated with cobicistat due to suboptimal exposures. We further analysed the currently available data on the mechanism of the transport of ARVs from maternal plasma across the placenta and into the breast milk and summarized the effect of pregnancy on placental and of breastfeeding on mammal gland drug transporters, as well as physicochemical properties, C:M and M:P ratios of individual ARVs by drug class. Finally, we discussed the major safety issues of fetal and infant exposure to maternal ARVs. CONCLUSIONS Available pharmacological data provide evidence that physiological changes during pregnancy affect maternal, and consequently, fetal ARV exposure. Limited available data suggest that the expression of drug transporters may vary throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding thereby possibly impacting the amount of ARV crossing the placenta and secreted into the breast milk. The drug transporter's role in the fetal/child exposure to maternal ARVs needs to be better understood. Our analysis underscores the need for more pharmacological studies with innovative study design, sparse PK sampling, improved study data reporting and PK modelling in pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV to optimize their treatment choices and maternal and child health outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E M Hodel
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Molecular & Clinical Pharmacology, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Division of Paediatric Pharmacology & Pharmacometrics, University of Basel Children's Hospital, Basel, Switzerland
| | - C Marzolini
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Molecular & Clinical Pharmacology, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University Hospital of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - C Waitt
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Molecular & Clinical Pharmacology, Liverpool, United Kingdom.,Infectious Diseases Institute, Makerere University College of Health Sciences, Kampala, Uganda.,Royal Liverpool University Hospital, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - N Rakhmanina
- Department of Pediatrics, The George Washington University, School of Medicine & Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, United States.,Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation, Washington, DC, United States
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21
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Ntshangase S, Mdanda S, Singh SD, Naicker T, Kruger HG, Baijnath S, Govender T. Mass Spectrometry Imaging Demonstrates the Regional Brain Distribution Patterns of Three First-Line Antiretroviral Drugs. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:21169-21177. [PMID: 31867510 PMCID: PMC6921606 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b02582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
HIV in the central nervous system (CNS) contributes to the development of HIV-associated neurological disorders (HAND), even with chronic antiretroviral therapy. In order for antiretroviral therapy to be effective in protecting the CNS, these drugs should have the ability to localize in brain areas known to be affected by HIV. Consequently, this study aimed to investigate the localization patterns of three first-line antiretroviral drugs, namely, efavirenz, tenofovir, and emtricitabine, in the rat brain. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) were utilized to assess the pharmacokinetics and brain spatial distribution of the three drugs. Each drug was administered (50 mg/kg) to healthy female Sprague-Dawley rats via intraperitoneal administration. LC-MS/MS results showed that all three drugs could be delivered into the brain, although they varied in blood-brain barrier permeability. MALDI-MSI showed a high degree of efavirenz localization across the entire brain, while tenofovir localized mainly in the cortex. Emtricitabine distributed heterogeneously mainly in the thalamus, corpus callosum, and hypothalamus. This study showed that efavirenz, tenofovir, and emtricitabine might be a potential drug combination antiretroviral therapy for CNS protection against HAND.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sphamandla Ntshangase
- Catalysis
and Peptide Research Unit and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Sipho Mdanda
- Catalysis
and Peptide Research Unit and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Sanil D. Singh
- Catalysis
and Peptide Research Unit and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Tricia Naicker
- Catalysis
and Peptide Research Unit and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Hendrik G. Kruger
- Catalysis
and Peptide Research Unit and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4041, South Africa
| | - Sooraj Baijnath
- Catalysis
and Peptide Research Unit and Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban 4041, South Africa
- E-mail: . Tel: +27 31 260 81799. Cell: +27 84 562 1530(S.B.)
| | - Thavendran Govender
- AnSynth
Pty Ltd., 498 Grove End
Drive, Durban 4000, South Africa
- E-mail: (T.G.)
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22
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Lamorde M, Wang X, Neary M, Bisdomini E, Nakalema S, Byakika-Kibwika P, Mukonzo JK, Khan W, Owen A, McClure M, Boffito M. Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Pharmacogenetics of Efavirenz 400 mg Once Daily During Pregnancy and Post-Partum. Clin Infect Dis 2019; 67:785-790. [PMID: 30124823 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciy161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background A clinical trial showed that efavirenz 400 mg once daily (EFV400) is as effective as the standard adult dose. World Health Organization recommends EFV400 as an alternative first-line agent, but data are lacking in the third trimester of pregnancy (TT). We investigated the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and CYP2B6 pharmacogenetics in HIV-infected women (WLWH) on EFV400 during TT and post-partum (PP). Methods An open-label 2-center study (United Kingdom, Uganda) was conducted in WLWH receiving antiretroviral regimens containing efavirenz 600 mg, who had their efavirenz dose reduced to EFV400. Weekly therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM), steady-state pharmacokinetic profiles (TT and PP), safety, virological efficacy, and CYP2B6 polymorphisms at positions 516 (C > T) and 938 (T > C) were evaluated. Results Twenty-five WLWH of African origin were enrolled. All had viral loads <50 copies/mL at baseline, which were maintained throughout the study. No infant was HIV infected. No WLWH were withdrawn due to low EFV400 TDM results. Geometric mean ratios (TT/PP; 90% confidence interval) for EFV400 maximum observed plasma concentration, area under the curve, and plasma concentration measured 24 hours after the observed dose were 0.97 (.85-1.10), 0.87 (.76-.99), and 0.77 (.65-.91), respectively. Five of 25 WLWH were slow metabolizers. Conclusions Although EFV400 pharmacokinetic parameters were slightly lower for TT compared with PP values, efavirenz concentrations exceeded cutoff levels established by the study and those measured in antiretroviral-naive patients receiving EFV400 in ENCORE1. All subjects maintained a viral load <50 copies/mL, suggesting that EFV400 can be used in pregnant WLWH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Lamorde
- Infectious Diseases Institute, College of Health Science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Xinzhu Wang
- Jeffriess Research Trust Laboratories, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, London
| | - Megan Neary
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool
| | - Elisa Bisdomini
- St Stephen's Clinical Research, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Shadia Nakalema
- Infectious Diseases Institute, College of Health Science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Pauline Byakika-Kibwika
- Infectious Diseases Institute, College of Health Science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Jackson K Mukonzo
- Department of Pharmacology & Therapeutics, College of Health Science, Makerere University, Kampala, Uganda
| | - Waheed Khan
- St Stephen's Clinical Research, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Owen
- Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool
| | - Myra McClure
- Jeffriess Research Trust Laboratories, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, London
| | - Marta Boffito
- Jeffriess Research Trust Laboratories, Department of Medicine, Imperial College, St Mary's Campus, London.,St Stephen's Clinical Research, Chelsea and Westminster Hospital, London, United Kingdom
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23
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Duthaler U, Berger B, Erb S, Battegay M, Letang E, Gaugler S, Natamatungiro A, Mnzava D, Donzelli M, Krähenbühl S, Haschke M. Using dried blood spots to facilitate therapeutic drug monitoring of antiretroviral drugs in resource-poor regions. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019; 73:2729-2737. [PMID: 30052975 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dky254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives We evaluated whether dried blood spots (DBS) are suitable to monitor combined ART when samples are collected in rural Tanzania and transported over a long distance to a specialized bioanalytical laboratory. Methods Plasma and DBS samples were collected in Tanzania from study patients treated with nevirapine, efavirenz or lopinavir. In addition, plasma, whole blood and DBS samples were obtained from a cohort of HIV patients at the site of the bioanalytical laboratory in Switzerland. DBS samples were analysed using a fully automated LC-MS/MS method. Results Comparison of DBS versus plasma concentrations of samples obtained from the bridging study in Switzerland indicated an acceptable bias only for nevirapine (18.4%), whereas for efavirenz and lopinavir a pronounced difference of -47.4% and -48.1% was found, respectively. Adjusting the DBS concentrations by the haematocrit and the fraction of drug bound to plasma proteins removed this bias [efavirenz +9.4% (-6.9% to +25.7%), lopinavir +2.2% (-20.0% to +24.2%)]. Storage and transportation of samples from Tanzania to Switzerland did not affect the good agreement between plasma and DBS for nevirapine [-2.9% (-34.7% to +29.0%)] and efavirenz [-9.6% (-42.9% to +23.8%)]. For lopinavir, however, adjusted DBS concentrations remained considerably below [-32.8% (-70.4% to +4.8%)] corresponding plasma concentrations due to decay of lopinavir in DBS obtained under field conditions. Conclusions Our field study shows that the DBS technique is a suitable tool for therapeutic drug monitoring in resource-poor regions; however, sample stability remains an issue for certain analytes and therefore needs special consideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Urs Duthaler
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University and University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Berger
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University and University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Erb
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University and University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Battegay
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Hospital Epidemiology, University and University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Emili Letang
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland.,ISGlobal, Barcelona Centre for International Health Research (CRESIB), Hospital Clinic, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara, Tanzania
| | | | | | | | - Massimiliano Donzelli
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University and University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University and University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Manuel Haschke
- Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of General Internal Medicine, Inselspital, University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland.,Institute of Pharmacology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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24
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Mdanda S, Ntshangase S, Singh SD, Naicker T, Kruger HG, Baijnath S, Govender T. Mass spectrometric investigations into the brain delivery of abacavir, stavudine and didanosine in a rodent model. Xenobiotica 2019; 50:570-579. [PMID: 31403353 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2019.1655605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
HIV replication in the brain is unopposed due to reduced antiretroviral drug penetration into the central nervous system (CNS). Prevalence of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) has increased severely in patients living with HIV despite current treatments. The aims of this study were to evaluate the brain bio-distribution of alternative nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors, abacavir, stavudine and didanosine in the CNS and to determine their localization patterns in the brain.Sprague-Dawley rats received 50 mg kg-1 single i.p dose of each drug. Mass spectrometric techniques were then used to investigate the pharmacokinetics and localization patterns of these drugs in the brain using LC-MS/MS and mass spectrometric imaging (MSI), respectively.Abacavir, stavudine and didanosine reached the Brain Cmax with concentration of 831.2, 1300 and 43.37 ngmL-1, respectively. Based on MSI analysis Abacavir and Stavudine were located in brain regions that are strongly implicated in the progression of HAND.Abacavir and Stavudine penetrated into CNS, reaching a Cmax that was above the IC50 for HIV (457.6 and 112.0 ngmL-1, respectively), however, it was noted ddI showed poor entry within the brain, therefore, it is recommended that this drug cannot be considered for treating CNS-HIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sipho Mdanda
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa
| | - Sphamandla Ntshangase
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa
| | | | - Tricia Naicker
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa
| | - Hendrik G Kruger
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa
| | - Sooraj Baijnath
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa
| | - Thavendran Govender
- Catalysis and Peptide Research Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa.,Biomedical Resource Unit, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville Campus, Durban, South Africa
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25
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Tseng AL, Wong AY, McLelland CJ, Walmsley SL. Drug interactions are not always predictable: the curious case of valproic acid and dolutegravir and a possible explanation. AIDS 2019; 33:1677-1679. [PMID: 31305336 DOI: 10.1097/qad.0000000000002256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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26
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Thompson CG, Rosen EP, Prince HMA, White N, Sykes C, de la Cruz G, Mathews M, Deleage C, Estes JD, Charlins P, Mulder LR, Kovarova M, Adamson L, Arora S, Dellon ES, Peery AF, Shaheen NJ, Gay C, Muddiman DC, Akkina R, Garcia JV, Luciw P, Kashuba ADM. Heterogeneous antiretroviral drug distribution and HIV/SHIV detection in the gut of three species. Sci Transl Med 2019; 11:eaap8758. [PMID: 31270274 PMCID: PMC8273920 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aap8758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
HIV replication within tissues may increase in response to a reduced exposure to antiretroviral drugs. Traditional approaches to measuring drug concentrations in tissues are unable to characterize a heterogeneous drug distribution. Here, we used mass spectrometry imaging (MSI) to visualize the distribution of six HIV antiretroviral drugs in gut tissue sections from three species (two strains of humanized mice, macaques, and humans). We measured drug concentrations in proximity to CD3+ T cells that are targeted by HIV, as well as expression of HIV or SHIV RNA and expression of the MDR1 drug efflux transporter in gut tissue from HIV-infected humanized mice, SHIV-infected macaques, and HIV-infected humans treated with combination antiretroviral drug therapy. Serial 10-μm sections of snap-frozen ileal and rectal tissue were analyzed by MSI for CD3+ T cells and MDR1 efflux transporter expression by immunofluorescence and immunohistochemistry, respectively. The tissue slices were analyzed for HIV/SHIV RNA expression by in situ hybridization and for antiretroviral drug concentrations by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. The gastrointestinal tissue distribution of the six drugs was heterogeneous. Fifty percent to 60% of CD3+ T cells did not colocalize with detectable drug concentrations in the gut tissue. In all three species, up to 90% of HIV/SHIV RNA was found to be expressed in gut tissue with no exposure to drug. These data suggest that there may be gut regions with little to no exposure to antiretroviral drugs, which may result in low-level HIV replication contributing to HIV persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corbin G Thompson
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Elias P Rosen
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Heather M A Prince
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Nicole White
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Craig Sykes
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Gabriela de la Cruz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Michelle Mathews
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Claire Deleage
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick, MD, USA
| | - Jacob D Estes
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick, MD, USA
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Paige Charlins
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Leila R Mulder
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - Martina Kovarova
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Lourdes Adamson
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Shifali Arora
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Evan S Dellon
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Anne F Peery
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Nicholas J Shaheen
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Cynthia Gay
- School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - David C Muddiman
- W.M. Keck FTMS Laboratory for Human Health Research, Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Ramesh Akkina
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, USA
| | - J Victor Garcia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for AIDS Research, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Paul Luciw
- Department of Pathology, Microbiology and Immunology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Angela D M Kashuba
- Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
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27
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Tian DD, Leonowens C, Cox EJ, González-Pérez V, Frederick KS, Scarlett YV, Fisher MB, Paine MF. Indinavir Increases Midazolam N-Glucuronidation in Humans: Identification of an Alternate CYP3A Inhibitor Using an In Vitro to In Vivo Approach. Drug Metab Dispos 2019; 47:724-731. [PMID: 31028057 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.119.087007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Midazolam is a widely used index substrate for assessing effects of xenobiotics on CYP3A activity. A previous study involving human hepatocytes showed the primary route of midazolam metabolism, 1'-hydroxylation, shifted to N-glucuronidation in the presence of the CYP3A inhibitor ketoconazole, which may lead to an overprediction of the magnitude of a xenobiotic-midazolam interaction. Because ketoconazole is no longer recommended as a clinical CYP3A inhibitor, indinavir was selected as an alternate CYP3A inhibitor to evaluate the contribution of the N-glucuronidation pathway to midazolam metabolism. The effects of indinavir on midazolam 1'-hydroxylation and N-glucuronidation were first characterized in human-derived in vitro systems. Compared with vehicle, indinavir (10 μM) inhibited midazolam 1'-hydroxylation by recombinant CYP3A4, human liver microsomes, and high-CYP3A activity cryopreserved human hepatocytes by ≥70%; the IC50 obtained with hepatocytes (2.7 μM) was within reported human unbound indinavir Cmax (≤5 μM). Midazolam N-glucuronidation in hepatocytes increased in the presence of indinavir in both a concentration-dependent (1-33 μM) and time-dependent (0-4 hours) manner (by up to 2.5-fold), prompting assessment in human volunteers (n = 8). As predicted by these in vitro data, indinavir was a strong inhibitor of the 1'-hydroxylation pathway, decreasing the 1'-hydroxymidazolam/midazolam area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC)0-12h ratio by 80%. Although not statistically significant, the midazolam N-glucuronide/midazolam AUC0-12h ratio increased by 40%, suggesting a shift to the N-glucuronidation pathway. The amount of midazolam N-glucuronide recovered in urine increased 4-fold but remained <10% of the oral midazolam dose (2.5 mg). A powered clinical study would clarify whether N-glucuronidation should be considered when assessing the magnitude of a xenobiotic-midazolam interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan-Dan Tian
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Cathrine Leonowens
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Emily J Cox
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Vanessa González-Pérez
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Kosea S Frederick
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Yolanda V Scarlett
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Michael B Fisher
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
| | - Mary F Paine
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane, Washington (D.-D.T., E.J.C., V.G.-P., M.F.P.); Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, School of Medicine (Y.V.S.) and Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics, Eshelman School of Pharmacy (C.L.), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; and Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Ridgefield, Connecticut (K.S.F., M.B.F.)
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28
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Duwal S, Seeler D, Dickinson L, Khoo S, von Kleist M. The Utility of Efavirenz-based Prophylaxis Against HIV Infection. A Systems Pharmacological Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:199. [PMID: 30918485 PMCID: PMC6424904 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is considered one of the five “pillars” by UNAIDS to reduce HIV transmission. Moreover, it is a tool for female self-protection against HIV, making it highly relevant to sub-Saharan regions, where women have the highest infection burden. To date, Truvada is the only medication for PrEP. However, the cost of Truvada limits its uptake in resource-constrained countries. Similarly, several currently investigated, patent-protected compounds may be unaffordable in these regions. We set out to explore the potential of the patent-expired antiviral efavirenz (EFV) as a cost-efficient PrEP alternative. A population pharmacokinetic model utilizing data from the ENCORE1 study was developed. The model was refined for metabolic autoinduction. We then explored EFV cellular uptake mechanisms, finding that it is largely determined by plasma protein binding. Next, we predicted the prophylactic efficacy of various EFV dosing schemes after exposure to HIV using a stochastic simulation framework. We predicted that plasma concentrations of 11, 36, 1287 and 1486ng/mL prevent 90% sexual transmissions with wild type and Y181C, K103N and G190S mutants, respectively. Trough concentrations achieved after 600 mg once daily dosing (median: 2017 ng/mL, 95% CI:445–9830) and after reduced dose (400 mg) efavirenz (median: 1349ng/mL, 95% CI: 297–6553) provided complete protection against wild-type virus and the Y181C mutant, and median trough concentrations provided about 90% protection against the K103N and G190S mutants. As reduced dose EFV has a lower toxicity profile, we predicted the reduction in HIV infection when 400 mg EFV-PrEP was poorly adhered to, when it was taken “on demand” and as post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP). Once daily EFV-PrEP provided 99% protection against wild-type virus, if ≥50% of doses were taken. PrEP “on demand” provided complete protection against wild-type virus and prevented ≥81% infections in the mutants. PEP could prevent >98% infection with susceptible virus when initiated within 24 h after virus exposure and continued for at least 9 days. We predict that 400 mg oral EFV may provide superior protection against wild-type HIV. However, further studies are warranted to evaluate EFV as a cost-efficient alternative to Truvada. Predicted prophylactic concentrations may guide release kinetics of EFV long-acting formulations for clinical trial design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulav Duwal
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Systems Pharmacology and Disease Control, Institute of Bioinformatics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Seeler
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Systems Pharmacology and Disease Control, Institute of Bioinformatics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Dickinson
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Saye Khoo
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Max von Kleist
- Department of Mathematics and Computer Science, Systems Pharmacology and Disease Control, Institute of Bioinformatics, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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29
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Van den Hof M, Blokhuis C, Cohen S, Scherpbier HJ, Wit FWNM, Pistorius MCM, Kootstra NA, Teunissen CE, Mathot RAA, Pajkrt D. CNS penetration of ART in HIV-infected children. J Antimicrob Chemother 2019; 73:484-489. [PMID: 29126299 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkx396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 09/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Paediatric data on CNS penetration of antiretroviral drugs are scarce. Objectives To evaluate CNS penetration of antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected children and explore associations with neurocognitive function. Patients and methods Antiretroviral drug levels were measured in paired CSF and blood samples of clinically stable HIV-infected children between 8 and 18 years old on long-term combined ART. Plasma drug concentrations were corrected for protein binding. We evaluated CNS penetration using CSF/plasma ratios and compared CSF concentrations with the IC50 as a surrogate marker for effectiveness. Blood-brain barrier permeability was assessed for possible confounding. Associations with neurocognitive function were explored using linear regression analysis. Results Median CSF/plasma ratios (IQR) were: lopinavir 0.059 (0.024-0.157, n = 7), efavirenz 0.681 (0.555-0.819, n = 12), tenofovir 0.021 (0.020-0.024, n = 4), lamivudine 0.464 (0.331-0.607, n = 17), emtricitabine 0.365 (0.343-0.435, n = 3), nevirapine 1.203 (n = 1), zidovudine 0.718 (0.711-1.227, n = 5) and abacavir 1.344 (0.670-2.450, n = 10). CSF concentrations were below the IC50 for tenofovir (100%), emtricitabine (100%), abacavir (50%) and zidovudine (17%). Lamivudine, lopinavir, efavirenz and nevirapine concentrations were all above the IC50. All participants were virologically suppressed in blood and CSF. CSF drug concentrations were not associated with blood-brain barrier permeability or neurocognitive function. Conclusions We showed adequate CSF concentrations of lamivudine, lopinavir, efavirenz and nevirapine, and potential suboptimal CSF concentrations of tenofovir, abacavir and emtricitabine in long-term treated HIV-infected children. None the less, the use of combined antiretroviral drugs led to adequate viral suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malon Van den Hof
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital/Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte Blokhuis
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital/Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Sophie Cohen
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital/Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Henriette J Scherpbier
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital/Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ferdinand W N M Wit
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Center for Infection and Immunity Amsterdam (CINIMA), Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Global Health, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, and Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Development, Pietersbergweg 7, 1105 BM The Netherlands.,HIV Monitoring Foundation, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - M C M Pistorius
- Department of Hospital Pharmacy-Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Neeltje A Kootstra
- Department of Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Charlotte E Teunissen
- Neurochemistry Laboratory and Biobank, Department of Clinical Chemistry, VU University Medical Centre and Neurocampus Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Ron A A Mathot
- Department of Hospital Pharmacy-Clinical Pharmacology Unit, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Dasja Pajkrt
- Department of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Emma Children's Hospital/Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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Duwal S, Dickinson L, Khoo S, von Kleist M. Mechanistic framework predicts drug-class specific utility of antiretrovirals for HIV prophylaxis. PLoS Comput Biol 2019; 15:e1006740. [PMID: 30699105 PMCID: PMC6370240 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Revised: 02/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is no effective vaccine to halt HIV transmission. However, pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) with the drug combination Truvada can substantially decrease HIV transmission in individuals at risk. Despite its benefits, Truvada-based PrEP is expensive and needs to be taken once-daily, which often leads to inadequate adherence and incomplete protection. These deficits may be overcome by next-generation PrEP regimen, including currently investigated long-acting formulations, or patent-expired drugs. However, poor translatability of animal- and ex vivo/in vitro experiments, and the necessity to conduct long-term (several years) human trials involving considerable sample sizes (N>1000 individuals) are major obstacles to rationalize drug-candidate selection. We developed a prophylaxis modelling tool that mechanistically considers the mode-of-action of all available drugs. We used the tool to screen antivirals for their prophylactic utility and identify lower bound effective concentrations that can guide dose selection in PrEP trials. While in vitro measurable drug potency usually guides PrEP trial design, we found that it may over-predict PrEP potency for all drug classes except reverse transcriptase inhibitors. While most drugs displayed graded concentration-prophylaxis profiles, protease inhibitors tended to switch between none- and complete protection. While several treatment-approved drugs could be ruled out as PrEP candidates based on lack-of-prophylactic efficacy, darunavir, efavirenz, nevirapine, etravirine and rilpivirine could more potently prevent infection than existing PrEP regimen (Truvada). Notably, some drugs from this candidate set are patent-expired and currently neglected for PrEP repurposing. A next step is to further trim this candidate set by ruling out compounds with ominous safety profiles, to assess different administration schemes in silico and to test the remaining candidates in human trials. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is a novel, promising strategy to halt HIV transmission. PrEP with Truvada can substantially decrease the risk of infection. However, individuals often inadequately adhere to the once-daily regimen and the drug is expensive. These shortcomings may be overcome by next-generation PrEP compounds, including long-acting formulations. However, poor translatability of animal- and ex vivo/in vitro experiments, and difficulties in conducting long-term trials involving considerable sample sizes (N > 1000 individuals) make drug-candidate selection and optimization of administration schemes costly and often infeasible. We developed a simulation tool that mechanistically considers the mode-of-action of all antivirals. We used the tool to screen all available antivirals for their prophylactic utility and identified lower bound effective concentrations for designing PrEP dosing regimen in clinical trials. We found that in vitro measured drug potency may over-predict PrEP potency, for all antiviral classes except reverse transcriptase inhibitors. We could rule out a number of antivirals for PrEP repurposing and predicted that darunavir, efavirenz, nevirapine, etravirine and rilpivirine provide complete protection at clinically relevant concentrations. Further trimming of this candidate set by compound-safety and by assessing different implementation schemes is envisaged.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulav Duwal
- Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail: (SD); (MvK)
| | - Laura Dickinson
- Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Saye Khoo
- Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Max von Kleist
- Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail: (SD); (MvK)
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Srinivas N, Rosen EP, Gilliland WM, Kovarova M, Remling-Mulder L, De La Cruz G, White N, Adamson L, Schauer AP, Sykes C, Luciw P, Garcia JV, Akkina R, Kashuba ADM. Antiretroviral concentrations and surrogate measures of efficacy in the brain tissue and CSF of preclinical species. Xenobiotica 2018; 49:1192-1201. [PMID: 30346892 DOI: 10.1080/00498254.2018.1539278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
1. Antiretroviral concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are used as surrogate for brain tissue, although sparse data support this. We quantified antiretrovirals in brain tissue across preclinical models, compared them to CSF, and calculated 90% inhibitory quotients (IQ90) for nonhuman primate (NHP) brain tissue. Spatial distribution of efavirenz was performed by mass-spectrometry imaging (MSI). 2. HIV or RT-SHIV-infected and uninfected animals from two humanized mouse models (hemopoietic-stem cell/RAG2-, n = 36; bone marrow-liver-thymus/BLT, n =13) and an NHP model (rhesus macaque, n =18) were dosed with six antiretrovirals. Brain tissue, CSF (NHPs), and plasma were collected at necropsy. Drug concentrations were measured by LC-MS/MS. Rapid equilibrium dialysis determined protein binding in NHP brain. 3. Brain tissue penetration of most antiretrovirals were >10-fold lower (p < 0.02) in humanized mice than NHPs. NHP CSF concentrations were >13-fold lower (p <0.02) than brain tissue with poor agreement except for efavirenz (r = 0.91, p = 0.001). Despite 97% brain tissue protein binding, efavirenz achieved IQ90>1 in all animals and 2-fold greater white versus gray matter concentration. 4. Brain tissue penetration varied across animal models for all antiretrovirals except raltegravir, and extrapolating brain tissue concentrations between models should be avoided. With the exception of efavirenz, CSF is not a surrogate for brain tissue concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nithya Srinivas
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Elias P Rosen
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - William M Gilliland
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Martina Kovarova
- b School of Medicine , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | | | - Gabriela De La Cruz
- b School of Medicine , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Nicole White
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Lourdes Adamson
- d School of Medicine , University of California at Davis , Davis , CA , USA
| | - Amanda P Schauer
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Craig Sykes
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Paul Luciw
- d School of Medicine , University of California at Davis , Davis , CA , USA
| | - J Victor Garcia
- b School of Medicine , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
| | - Ramesh Akkina
- c School of Medicine , Colorado State University , Fort Collins , CO , USA
| | - Angela D M Kashuba
- a Eshelman School of Pharmacy , University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill , Chapel Hill , NC , USA
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Kamboj S, Sethi S, Rana V. Lipid based delivery of Efavirenz: An answer to its erratic absorption and food effect. Eur J Pharm Sci 2018; 123:199-216. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2018.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2018] [Revised: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Ribeiro RMP, Moreira FDL, Moisés ECD, Cavalli RC, Quintana SM, Lanchote VL, Duarte G. Lopinavir/ritonavir treatment increases the placental transfer of bupivacaine enantiomers in human immunodeficiency virus-infected pregnant women. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2018; 84:2415-2421. [PMID: 29959798 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.13700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS The present study evaluated the placental transfer and amniotic fluid distribution of bupivacaine enantiomers in health pregnant women and in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected pregnant women receiving epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section. METHODS Twelve HIV-infected pregnant women (HIV group) were treated long-term (at least 8 weeks) with lopinavir/ritonavir (400/100 mg twice daily), and 12 healthy pregnant women (Control group) who submitted to epidural anaesthesia with racemic bupivacaine (75 mg) during caesarean section were investigated. At delivery, samples of maternal and fetal blood and amniotic fluid were collected (10-20 min after drug administration). RESULTS The placental transfer ratio of bupivacaine enantiomers was significantly higher among the pregnant women from the HIV group when compared with those from the Control group (Mann-Whitney test, P ≤ 0.05). Placental transfer ratios (median and 25th - 75th percentiles) for (+)-(R)-bupivacaine were 0.58 (0.38-0.82) in the HIV group vs. 0.25 (0.18-0.33) in the Control group, and for (-)-(S)-bupivacaine, they were 0.54 (0.34-0.69) in the HIV group vs. 0.25 (0.19-0.29) in the Control group. The transplacental distribution of bupivacaine was stereoselective only in the HIV group. The umbilical artery/umbilical vein ratio and amniotic fluid/maternal vein ratio were low and nonstereoselective, and no statistically significant differences were observed between the groups. CONCLUSIONS This study supports that the placental transfer of both bupivacaine enantiomers was 100% higher in HIV-pregnant women treated with lopinavir/ritonavir when compared with that in healthy pregnant women receiving epidural anaesthesia for caesarean section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Metzker Pereira Ribeiro
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Fernanda de Lima Moreira
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Food Science and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Elaine Christine Dantas Moisés
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Carvalho Cavalli
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silvana Maria Quintana
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Vera Lucia Lanchote
- Department of Clinical Analysis, Food Science and Toxicology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Geraldo Duarte
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil
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Duwal S, Dickinson L, Khoo S, von Kleist M. Hybrid stochastic framework predicts efficacy of prophylaxis against HIV: An example with different dolutegravir prophylaxis schemes. PLoS Comput Biol 2018; 14:e1006155. [PMID: 29902179 PMCID: PMC6001963 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
To achieve the 90-90-90 goals set by UNAIDS, the number of new HIV infections needs to decrease to approximately 500,000 by 2020. One of the 'five pillars' to achieve this goal is pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Truvada (emtricitabine-tenofovir) is currently the only medication approved for PrEP. Despite its advantages, Truvada is costly and requires individuals to adhere to the once-daily regimen. To improve PrEP, many next-generation regimen, including long-acting formulations, are currently investigated. However, pre-clinical testing may not guide candidate selection, since it often fails to translate into clinical efficacy. On the other hand, quantifying prophylactic efficacy in the clinic is ethically problematic and requires to conduct long (years) and large (N>1000 individuals) trials, precluding systematic evaluation of candidates and deployment strategies. To prioritize- and help design PrEP regimen, tools are urgently needed that integrate pharmacological-, viral- and host factors determining prophylactic efficacy. Integrating the aforementioned factors, we developed an efficient and exact stochastic simulation approach to predict prophylactic efficacy, as an example for dolutegravir (DTG). Combining the population pharmacokinetics of DTG with the stochastic framework, we predicted that plasma concentrations of 145.18 and 722.23nM prevent 50- and 90% sexual transmissions respectively. We then predicted the reduction in HIV infection when DTG was used in PrEP, PrEP 'on demand' and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) before/after virus exposure. Once daily PrEP with 50mg oral DTG prevented 99-100% infections, and 85% of infections when 50% of dosing events were missed. PrEP 'on demand' prevented 79-84% infections and PEP >80% when initiated within 6 hours after virus exposure and continued for as long as possible. While the simulation framework can easily be adapted to other PrEP candidates, our simulations indicated that oral 50mg DTG is non-inferior to Truvada. Moreover, the predicted 90% preventive concentrations can guide release kinetics of currently developed DTG nano-formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulav Duwal
- Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Dickinson
- Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Saye Khoo
- Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Max von Kleist
- Department of Mathematics & Computer Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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Unraveling the binding characteristics of the anti-HIV agents abacavir, efavirenz and emtricitabine to bovine serum albumin using spectroscopic and molecular simulation approaches. J Mol Liq 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2017.12.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Comparison of Dried Blood Spots Versus Conventional Plasma Collection for the Characterization of Efavirenz Pharmacokinetics in a Large-Scale Global Clinical Trial—The ENCORE1 Study. Ther Drug Monit 2017; 39:654-658. [DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Population Pharmacokinetic Model Linking Plasma and Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell Concentrations of Efavirenz and Its Metabolite, 8-Hydroxy-Efavirenz, in HIV Patients. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2017; 61:AAC.00207-17. [PMID: 28559276 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00207-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 05/21/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to characterize the population pharmacokinetics (PK) of efavirenz (EFV) and 8-hydroxy-efavirenz (8OHEFV) in plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and to explore covariates affecting the PK parameters. Fifty-one patients had steady-state 0-to-24-h concentrations of EFV and 8OHEFV in plasma with corresponding concentrations in PBMCs, while 261 patients had one or two sparse concentrations at 16 ± 1 h postdose at weeks 4 and/or 16. The pharmacogenetic markers CYP2B6*6, CYP3A5*3, CYP3A5*6, UGT2B7*2, ABCB1 (3435C→T, 3842A→G), OATP1B1*1B, and OATP1B1*5, the presence of a rifampin-based antituberculosis (anti-TB) regimen, baseline body weight and organ function values, and demographic factors were explored as covariates. EFV concentration data were well described by a two-compartment model with first-order absorption (Ka ) and absorption lag time (Alag) (Ka = 0.2 h-1; Alag = 0.83 h; central compartment clearance [CLc/F] for CYP2B6*1/*1 = 18 liters/h, for CYP2B6*1/*6 = 14 liters/h, and for CYP2B6*6/*6 = 8.6 liters/h) and PBMCs as a peripheral compartment. EFV transfer from plasma to PBMCs was first order (CLp/F = 32 liters/h), followed by capacity-limited return (Vmax = 4,400 ng/ml/h; Km = 710 ng/ml). Similarly, 8OHEFV displayed a first-order elimination and distribution to PBMCs, with a capacity-limited return to plasma. No covariate relationships resulted in a significant explanation of interindividual variability (IIV) on the estimated PK parameters of EFV and 8OHEFV, except for CYP2B6*6 genotypes, which were consistent with prior evidence. Both EFV and 8OHEFV accumulated to higher concentrations in PBMCs than in plasma and were well described by first-order input and Michaelis-Menten kinetics removal from PBMCs. CYP2B6*6 genotype polymorphisms were associated with decreased EFV and 8OHEFV clearance.
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Seifert SM, Castillo-Mancilla JR, Erlandson KM, Anderson PL. Inflammation and pharmacokinetics: potential implications for HIV-infection. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2017; 13:641-650. [PMID: 28335648 DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2017.1311323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The physiological changes accompanying inflammation may alter the pharmacokinetics (PK) of certain medications. Individuals infected with HIV have chronically elevated inflammatory markers despite viral suppression following effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), as well as age-related inflammation. Understanding the potential clinical implications of inflammation on the PK of medications is important for understanding dose-response relationships and necessitates future research. Areas covered: An extensive literature search was carried out using PubMed and associated bibliographies to summarize the current state of knowledge regarding altered PK in response to inflammation and its application to the field of HIV. Expert opinion: Preclinical and clinical studies show that inflammation leads to a downregulation of certain drug metabolizing enzymes and both up and down regulation of transporters depending on the transporter and cell type. Decreased gastric acidity, fluid shifts, and plasma protein alterations also occur with inflammation, leading to potential absorption, distribution, and clearance changes. More research is needed including controlled PK studies to address the clinical relevance of these observations, especially in the aging HIV-infected population. Results from future studies will enable us to better predict drug concentrations in individuals with inflammation, in line with efforts to provide personalized pharmacotherapy in our healthcare system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharon M Seifert
- a Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Colorado , Anschutz Medical Campus, USA
| | - Jose R Castillo-Mancilla
- b School of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases , University of Colorado , Anschutz Medical Campus, USA
| | - Kristine M Erlandson
- b School of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases , University of Colorado , Anschutz Medical Campus, USA
| | - Peter L Anderson
- a Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , University of Colorado , Anschutz Medical Campus, USA
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Kumar P, Lakshmi YS, Kondapi AK. An oral formulation of efavirenz-loaded lactoferrin nanoparticles with improved biodistribution and pharmacokinetic profile. HIV Med 2016; 18:452-462. [DOI: 10.1111/hiv.12475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/12/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- P Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics; School of Life Sciences; University of Hyderabad; Hyderabad India
| | - YS Lakshmi
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics; School of Life Sciences; University of Hyderabad; Hyderabad India
| | - AK Kondapi
- Department of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics; School of Life Sciences; University of Hyderabad; Hyderabad India
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Mehmood S, Marcoux J, Gault J, Quigley A, Michaelis S, Young SG, Carpenter EP, Robinson CV. Mass spectrometry captures off-target drug binding and provides mechanistic insights into the human metalloprotease ZMPSTE24. Nat Chem 2016; 8:1152-1158. [PMID: 27874871 PMCID: PMC5123592 DOI: 10.1038/nchem.2591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Off-target binding of hydrophobic drugs can lead to unwanted side effects, either through specific or non-specific binding to unintended membrane protein targets. However, distinguishing the binding of drugs to membrane proteins from that of detergents, lipids and cofactors is challenging. Here, we use high-resolution mass spectrometry to study the effects of HIV protease inhibitors on the human zinc metalloprotease ZMPSTE24. This intramembrane protease plays a major role in converting prelamin A to mature lamin A. We monitored the proteolysis of farnesylated prelamin A peptide by ZMPSTE24 and unexpectedly found retention of the C-terminal peptide product with the enzyme. We also resolved binding of zinc, lipids and HIV protease inhibitors and showed that drug binding blocked prelamin A peptide cleavage and conferred stability to ZMPSTE24. Our results not only have relevance for the progeria-like side effects of certain HIV protease inhibitor drugs, but also highlight new approaches for documenting off-target drug binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahid Mehmood
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, UK
| | - Julien Marcoux
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, UK
| | - Joseph Gault
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, UK
| | - Andrew Quigley
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Susan Michaelis
- Department of Cell Biology, The Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
| | - Stephen G Young
- Departments of Medicine and Human Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095, USA
| | - Elisabeth P Carpenter
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus Research Building, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Carol V Robinson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QZ, UK
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Kamble RN, Mehta PP, Kumar A. Efavirenz Self-Nano-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System: In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation. AAPS PharmSciTech 2016; 17:1240-7. [PMID: 26573159 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-015-0446-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 10/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) is the isotropic and thermodynamically stable mixture of oil, surfactant, co-solvent/surfactant, and drug. It emulsifies spontaneously when introduced into an aqueous phase under a mild agitation. The current study was aimed to prepare SNEDDS to augment solubility, release rate, and oral bioavailability of BCS class II drug, efavirenz (EFV). A series of oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant was screened out by a ternary phase diagram to locate a better homogenous mixture. The prepared SNEDDS was evaluated regarding its appearance, mean droplet size, phase separation, in vitro drug release, and oral bioavailability. Among the screened oil, surfactant, and co-surfactant, Labrafil M 2125 CS, Tween 80, and Transcutol®P mixture exhibited superior solubilizing capacity, respectively. Optimized SNEDDS exhibits 98.39% drug release. SNEDDS dissolution behavior was attributed to oil/surfactant ratios and properties of the surfactant phase. It also demonstrates threefold increments in the area under curve (AUC) in comparison to neat EFV. Furthermore, the optimized SNEDDS does not show any vitrification during its 3-month storage. In the present study, better performance of SNEDDS is explained by various factors like (i) improved surface area of droplets, (ii) superior solubilization potential for hydrophobic drugs due to Labrafil M 2125 CS, and (iii) result of surfactant on mucosal permeability. This study demonstrated that SNEDDS may be an alternative approach for the poorly soluble drugs to improve their solubility and oral bioavailability.
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Pharmacokinetic, Pharmacogenetic, and Other Factors Influencing CNS Penetration of Antiretrovirals. AIDS Res Treat 2016; 2016:2587094. [PMID: 27777797 PMCID: PMC5061948 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2587094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 08/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurological complications associated with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are a matter of great concern. While antiretroviral (ARV) drugs are the cornerstone of HIV treatment and typically produce neurological benefit, some ARV drugs have limited CNS penetration while others have been associated with neurotoxicity. CNS penetration is a function of several factors including sieving role of blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers and activity of innate drug transporters. Other factors are related to pharmacokinetics and pharmacogenetics of the specific ARV agent or mediated by drug interactions, local inflammation, and blood flow. In this review, we provide an overview of the various factors influencing CNS penetration of ARV drugs with an emphasis on those commonly used in sub-Saharan Africa. We also summarize some key associations between ARV drug penetration, CNS efficacy, and neurotoxicity.
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Punyawudho B, Singkham N, Thammajaruk N, Dalodom T, Kerr SJ, Burger DM, Ruxrungtham K. Therapeutic drug monitoring of antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected patients. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2016; 9:1583-1595. [PMID: 27626677 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2016.1235972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) may be beneficial when applied to antiretroviral (ARV). Even though TDM can be a valuable strategy in HIV management, its role remains controversial. Areas covered: This review provides a comprehensive update on important issues relating to TDM of ARV drugs in HIV-infected patients. Articles from PubMed with keywords relevant to each topic section were reviewed. Search strategies limited to articles published in English. Expert commentary: There is evidence supporting the use of TDM in HIV treatment. However, some limitations need to be considered. The evidence supporting the use of routine TDM for all patients is limited, as it is not clear that this strategy offers any advantages over TDM for selected indications. Selected groups of patients including patients with physiological changes, patients with drug-drug interactions or toxicity, and the elderly could potentially benefit from TDM, as optimized dosing is challenging in these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baralee Punyawudho
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy , Chiang Mai University , Chiang Mai , Thailand
| | - Noppaket Singkham
- a Department of Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy , Chiang Mai University , Chiang Mai , Thailand
| | | | - Theera Dalodom
- b HIV-NAT , Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre , Bangkok , Thailand
| | - Stephen J Kerr
- b HIV-NAT , Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre , Bangkok , Thailand.,c The Kirby Institute, University of New South Wales , Sydney , Australia.,d Department of Global Health, Academic Medical Center , University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Development , Amsterdam , The Netherlands
| | - David M Burger
- e Radbound University Medical Center , Nijmegen , The Netherlands
| | - Kiat Ruxrungtham
- b HIV-NAT , Thai Red Cross AIDS Research Centre , Bangkok , Thailand.,f Faculty of Medicine , Chulalongkorn University , Bangkok , Thailand
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A validated method for quantification of efavirenz in dried blood spots using high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Ther Drug Monit 2015; 37:220-8. [PMID: 25162217 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Efavirenz (EFV) is one of the preferred components of first-line antiretroviral treatment. EFV is characterized by a long plasma half-life (40-55 hours) with large interpatient variability, which raises the potential for individualization of therapy. Analyses of EFV levels in plasma require specialized facilities (cold storage/transport) which, in resource-limited settings, can be problematic; dried blood spots (DBS)-EFV measurements thus provide a cheap easy alternative for therapeutic drug monitoring. Our aim was to develop and validate a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry method to quantify EFV in DBS collected as part of clinical trials in resource-limited settings. METHODS DBS for standards, quality control samples, and patient samples were excised and then extracted with ethyl acetate/n-hexane (50/50 vol/vol) after addition of internal standard hexobarbital, and 1 mol/L K2CO3. The extract was evaporated to dryness, the residue reconstituted in mobile phase and analyzed directly by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Gradient elution was on a reverse-phase C18 column using 1 mmol/L ammonium acetate in water and acetonitrile. Quantification was by selected reaction monitoring in negative ionization mode. DBS samples were obtained at several time points over 24 hours from HIV+ patients on either 400 or 600 mg EFV in combination with emtricitabine/tenofovir. RESULTS The internal standard and EFV eluted at 2.68 and 3.54 minutes, respectively in a 5-minute run time. Matrix effects were minimal (-5.4%). Calibration curves were validated over a concentration range of 25-5000 ng/mL. Intra-assay and interassay variations ranged between 6.7% and 8.7% for imprecision and 100.3% and 104.2% for accuracy. Mean recovery was >64%. The DBS data showed a strong positive correlation with a validated plasma EFV assay (R = 0.9764, P < 0.001). EFV concentrations from DBS were approximately 42% lower than the paired plasma values, and the ratio of blood/plasma did not change over the dosing interval. CONCLUSIONS The validated assay is now routinely applied to clinical samples measuring DBS EFV for pharmacokinetic analysis. The methodology is robust, accurate, and sensitive.
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Sicotte M, Bemeur C, Diouf A, Zunzunegui MV, Nguyen VK. Nutritional status of HIV-infected patients during the first year HAART in two West African cohorts. JOURNAL OF HEALTH, POPULATION, AND NUTRITION 2015; 34:1. [PMID: 26825478 PMCID: PMC5026015 DOI: 10.1186/s41043-015-0001-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the association between nutritional markers at initiation and during follow up in two different cohorts of HIV-infected adults initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in West Africa. METHODS The ATARAO study was a one year prospective study carried in Mali. It consisted of a sample of consecutive patients initiating HAART in one of four participating centers during that period. Data were collected at time of treatment initiation (baseline) and every 3 months thereafter. The ANRS 1290 study followed Senegalese patients recruited in similar conditions. Bivariate analyses were used to identify nutritional and immunological covariates of malnutrition at baseline. Longitudinal trajectories of body mass index, hemoglobin and albumin, and their associated factors, were evaluated using mixed linear models. RESULTS In ATARAO, 250 participants were retained for analyses; of which, 36% had a BMI < 18.5 kg/m(2), nearly 60% were anemic and 47.4% hypoalbuminemic at time of treatment initiation. At baseline, low hemoglobin, hypoalbuminemia and low CD4 levels were associated with a BMI < 18.5 kg/m(2). Similarly, low BMI, low albumin and low CD4 counts were linked to anemia; while, hypoalbuminemia was associated with low hemoglobin levels and CD4 counts. In ANRS, out of the 372 participants retained for analyses, 31% had a low BMI and almost 70% were anemic. At baseline, low BMI was associated with low hemoglobin levels and CD4 counts, while anemia was associated with low CD4 counts and female sex. While treatment contributed to early gains in BMI, hemoglobin and albumin in the first 6 months of treatment, initial improvements plateaued or subsided thereafter. Despite HAART, malnutrition persisted in both cohorts after one year, especially in those who were anemic, hypoalbuminemic or had a low BMI at baseline. CONCLUSION In ATARAO and ANRS, malnutrition was common across all indicators (BMI, hemoglobin, albumin) and persisted despite treatment. Low BMI, anemia and hypoalbuminemia were associated with attrition, and with a deficient nutritional and immunological status at baseline, as well as during treatment. In spite of therapy, malnutrition is associated with negative clinical and treatment outcomes which suggests that HAART may not be sufficient to address co-existing nutritional deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryline Sicotte
- Research Center of the Montreal University Hospital Center (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada.
- School of Public Health, Montreal University, Pavilion 7101 Parc Avenue. C.P. 6128, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC, H3C 3 J7, Canada.
- Montreal University Public Health Research Institute (IRSPUM), Montreal, Canada.
| | - Chantal Bemeur
- Research Center of the Montreal University Hospital Center (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada.
- Department of Nutrition, Montreal University, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Assane Diouf
- School of Public Health, Montreal University, Pavilion 7101 Parc Avenue. C.P. 6128, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC, H3C 3 J7, Canada.
- Deparment of Infectious Disease, Fann's University Hospital Center, Dakar, Senegal.
- Fann University Hospital Center, and School of Public Health, Montreal University, Montreal, Canada.
| | - Maria Victoria Zunzunegui
- Research Center of the Montreal University Hospital Center (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada.
- School of Public Health, Montreal University, Pavilion 7101 Parc Avenue. C.P. 6128, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC, H3C 3 J7, Canada.
- Montreal University Public Health Research Institute (IRSPUM), Montreal, Canada.
| | - Vinh-Kim Nguyen
- Research Center of the Montreal University Hospital Center (CRCHUM), Montreal, Canada.
- School of Public Health, Montreal University, Pavilion 7101 Parc Avenue. C.P. 6128, Succ. Centre-Ville, Montreal, QC, H3C 3 J7, Canada.
- Department of Social and Preventative Medicine, Montreal University, Montreal, Canada.
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Waitt CJ, Garner P, Bonnett LJ, Khoo SH, Else LJ. Is infant exposure to antiretroviral drugs during breastfeeding quantitatively important? A systematic review and meta-analysis of pharmacokinetic studies. J Antimicrob Chemother 2015; 70:1928-41. [PMID: 25858354 PMCID: PMC4472329 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkv080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives The objectives of this study were to summarize antiretroviral drug concentrations in breast milk (BM) and exposure of breast-fed infants. Methods This was a systematic review of pharmacokinetic studies of HIV-positive women taking antiretrovirals that measured drugs in BM. The quality of pharmacokinetic and laboratory methods was assessed using pre-defined criteria. Pooled ratios and 95% CIs were calculated using the generalized inverse variance method and heterogeneity was estimated by the I2 statistic. PubMed Central, SCOPUS and LactMed databases were searched. No date or language restrictions were applied. Searches were conducted up to 10 November 2014. Clinical relevance was estimated by comparing ingested dose with the recommended therapeutic dose for each drug. Results Twenty-four studies were included. There was substantial variability in the clinical and laboratory methods used and in reported results. Relative to maternal plasma (MP), NRTIs accumulate in BM, with BM : MP ratios (95% CI estimates) from 0.89 to 1.21 (14 studies, 1159 paired BM and MP samples). NNRTI estimates were from 0.71 to 0.94 (17 studies, 965 paired samples) and PI estimates were from 0.17 to 0.21 (8 studies, 477 paired samples). Relative to the recommended paediatric doses, a breast-fed infant may ingest 8.4% (95% CI 1.9–15.0), 12.5% (95% CI 2.6–22.3) and 1.1% (95% CI 0–3.6) of lamivudine, nevirapine and efavirenz, respectively, via BM. Conclusions Transfer to untreated infants appears quantitatively important for some NRTIs and NNRTIs. The pharmacokinetic methods varied widely and we propose standards for the design, analysis and reporting of future pharmacokinetic studies of drug transfer during breastfeeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catriona John Waitt
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Block A, The Waterhouse Buildings, 1-5 Brownlow Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Paul Garner
- Clinical Sciences Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Laura Jayne Bonnett
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Liverpool, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, 1st Floor Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, UK Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, 8 West Derby Street, Liverpool L69 7BE, UK
| | - Saye Hock Khoo
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Block A, The Waterhouse Buildings, 1-5 Brownlow Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Laura Jayne Else
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Liverpool, Block A, The Waterhouse Buildings, 1-5 Brownlow Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
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Illamola SM, Hirt D, Tréluyer JM, Urien S, Benaboud S. Challenges regarding analysis of unbound fraction of highly bound protein antiretroviral drugs in several biological matrices: lack of harmonisation and guidelines. Drug Discov Today 2015; 20:466-74. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2014.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Cottrell ML, Srinivas N, Kashuba ADM. Pharmacokinetics of antiretrovirals in mucosal tissue. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2015; 11:893-905. [PMID: 25797064 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2015.1027682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In the absence of an HIV vaccine or cure, antiretroviral (ARV)-based prevention strategies are being investigated to reduce HIV incidence. These prevention strategies depend on achieving effective drug concentrations at the site of HIV exposure, which is most commonly the mucosal tissue of the lower gastrointestinal tract and the female genital tract. AREAS COVERED This article collates all known data regarding drug exposure in these vulnerable mucosal tissues and reviews important mechanisms of ARV drug distribution. Research papers and abstracts describing ARV pharmacokinetics (PK) in the female genital tract and lower gastrointestinal mucosal tissues available in MEDLINE® or presented at scientific conferences prior to December 2014 are reviewed in detail. Important influences on ARV mucosal tissue distribution, including protein binding, active drug transport and endogenous hormones are also reviewed. EXPERT OPINION ARVs exhibit highly variable PK in mucosal tissues. In general, ARV exposure is higher in the lower gastrointestinal tract compared with the female genital tract, but concentrations required for protective efficacy are largely unknown. The expected site of HIV exposure represents an important consideration when designing and optimizing ARV-based prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mackenzie L Cottrell
- University of North Carolina, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmacotherapy and Experimental Therapeutics , 1094 Genetic Medicine Building, CB# 7361, 120 Mason Farm Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27599 , USA +1 919 966 9998 ; +1 919 962 0644 ;
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Central Nervous System Penetration of Antiretroviral Drugs: Pharmacokinetic, Pharmacodynamic and Pharmacogenomic Considerations. Clin Pharmacokinet 2015; 54:581-98. [DOI: 10.1007/s40262-015-0257-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Dooley KE, Denti P, Martinson N, Cohn S, Mashabela F, Hoffmann J, Haas DW, Hull J, Msandiwa R, Castel S, Wiesner L, Chaisson RE, McIlleron H. Pharmacokinetics of efavirenz and treatment of HIV-1 among pregnant women with and without tuberculosis coinfection. J Infect Dis 2015; 211:197-205. [PMID: 25081933 PMCID: PMC4334832 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pregnancy and tuberculosis treatment or prophylaxis can affect efavirenz pharmacokinetics, maternal human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) treatment outcomes, and mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) risk. METHODS We evaluated a prospective cohort of pregnant, HIV-infected women with and without tuberculosis in Soweto, South Africa. Pharmacokinetic sampling was performed at gestation week 37 and during the postpartum period. Efavirenz trough concentrations (Cmin) were predicted using population pharmacokinetic models. HIV-viral load was measured at delivery for mothers and at 6 weeks of age for infants. RESULTS Ninety-seven women participated; 44 had tuberculosis. Median efavirenz Cmin during pregnancy was 1.35 µg/mL (interquartile range [IQR], 0.90-2.07 µg/mL; 27% had an efavirenz Cmin of < 1 µg/mL), compared with a median postpartum value of 2.00 µg/mL (IQR, 1.40-3.59 µg/mL; 13% had an efavirenz Cmin of < 1 µg/mL). A total of 72% of pregnant women with extensive CYP2B6 genotypes had an efavirenz Cmin of <1 µg/mL. Rifampin did not reduce the efavirenz Cmin. Isoniazid (for prophylaxis or treatment), though, reduced the rate of efavirenz clearance. At delivery, median durations of ART were 13 weeks (IQR, 9-18 weeks) and 21 weeks (IQR, 13-64 weeks) for women with and those without tuberculosis, respectively; 55% and 83%, respectively, had a viral load of <20 copies/mL (P = .021). There was 1 case of MTCT. CONCLUSIONS Pregnancy increased the risk of low efavirenz concentrations, but MTCT was rare. A detectable HIV-viral load at delivery was more common among pregnant women with tuberculosis, in whom ART was generally initiated later.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E. Dooley
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Paolo Denti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town
| | - Neil Martinson
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand
| | - Silvia Cohn
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | | | | | | | - Jennifer Hull
- Department of Obstetrics, Chris Hani Baragwanath Hospital and University of the Witwatersrand, Soweto, South Africa
| | - Regina Msandiwa
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand
| | - Sandra Castel
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town
| | - Lubbe Wiesner
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town
| | | | - Helen McIlleron
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, University of Cape Town
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