Apoptosis-inducing factor: structure, function, and redox regulation

Cell death in glioblastoma and the central nervous system

Glioblastoma is the commonest and deadliest primary brain tumor. Glioblastoma is characterized by significant intra- and inter-tumoral heterogeneity, resistance to treatment and dismal prognoses despite decades of research in understanding its biological underpinnings. Encompassed within this heterogeneity and therapy resistance are severely dysregulated programmed cell death pathways. Glioblastomas recapitulate many neurodevelopmental and neural injury responses; in addition, glioblastoma cells are composed of multiple different transformed versions of CNS cell types. To obtain a greater understanding of the features underlying cell death regulation in glioblastoma, it is important to understand the control of cell death within the healthy CNS during homeostatic and neurodegenerative conditions. Herein, we review apoptotic control within neural stem cells, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and neurons and compare them to glioblastoma apoptotic control. Specific focus is paid to the Inhibitor of Apoptosis proteins, which play key roles in neuroinflammation, CNS cell survival and gliomagenesis. This review will help in understanding glioblastoma as a transformed version of a heterogeneous organ composed of multiple varied cell types performing different functions and possessing different means of apoptotic control. Further, this review will help in developing more glioblastoma-specific treatment approaches and will better inform treatments looking at more direct brain delivery of therapeutic agents.

MIA40 suppresses cell death induced by apoptosis-inducing factor 1

Mitochondria harbor respiratory complexes that perform oxidative phosphorylation. Complex I is the first enzyme of the respiratory chain that oxidizes NADH. A dysfunction in complex I can result in higher cellular levels of NADH, which in turn strengthens the interaction between apoptosis-inducing factor 1 (AIFM1) and Mitochondrial intermembrane space import and assembly protein 40 (MIA40) in the mitochondrial intermembrane space. We investigated whether MIA40 modulates the activity of AIFM1 upon increased NADH/NAD+ balance. We found that in model cells characterized by an increase in NADH the AIFM1-MIA40 interaction is strengthened and these cells demonstrate resistance to AIFM1-induced cell death. Either silencing of MIA40, rescue of complex I, or depletion of NADH through the expression of yeast NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase-2 sensitized NDUFA13-KO cells to AIFM1-induced cell death. These findings indicate that the complex of MIA40 and AIFM1 suppresses AIFM1-induced cell death in a NADH-dependent manner. This study identifies an effector complex involved in regulating the programmed cell death that accommodates the metabolic changes in the cell and provides a molecular explanation for AIFM1-mediated chemoresistance of cancer cells.

Exploring the role of parthanatos in CNS injury: Molecular insights and therapeutic approaches

BACKGROUND

Central nervous system (CNS) injury causes severe organ damage due to both damage resulting from the injury and subsequent cell death. However, there are currently no effective treatments for countering the irreversible loss of cell function. Parthanatos is a poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1)-dependent form of programmed cell death that is partly responsible for neural cell death. Consequently, the mechanism by which parthanatos promotes CNS injury has attracted significant scientific interest.

AIM OF REVIEW

Our review aims to summarize the potential role of parthanatos in CNS injury and its molecular and pathophysiological mechanisms. Understanding the role of parthanatos and related molecules in CNS injury is crucial for developing effective treatment strategies and identifying important directions for future in-depth research.

KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW

Parthanatos (from Thanatos, the personification of death according to Greek mythology) is a type of programmed cell death that is initiated by the overactivation of PARP-1. This process triggers a cascade of reactions, including the accumulation of poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR), the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) after its release from mitochondria, and subsequent massive DNA fragmentation caused by migration inhibitory factor (MIF) forming a complex with AIF. Secondary molecular mechanisms, such as excitotoxicity and oxidative stress-induced overactivation of PARP-1, significantly exacerbate neuronal damage following initial mechanical injury to the CNS. Furthermore, parthanatos is not only associated with neuronal damage but also interacts with various other types of cell death. This review focuses on the latest research concerning the parthanatos cell death pathway, particularly considering its regulatory mechanisms and functions in CNS damage. We highlight the associations between parthanatos and different cell types involved in CNS damage and discuss potential therapeutic agents targeting the parthanatos pathway.

Inducing Targeted, Caspase-Independent Apoptosis with New Chimeric Proteins for Treatment of Solid Cancers

Background: Most newly developed anticancer treatments trigger tumor cell death through apoptosis, for which involvement of caspases activity is essential. However, numerous mutations in apoptotic pathways that lead to cancer and favor resistance to apoptosis are known; most are related to caspase-dependent apoptosis pathways and thus have low efficacy. To overcome these limitations, we constructed a novel chimeric protein, GnRH-AIF, using a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analog as a targeting moiety and the apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) in its cleaved form as a killing moiety, fused at the cDNA level. AIF has a crucial role in the caspase-independent apoptotic pathway. A wide variety of solid tumors overexpress GnRH-receptors (GnRH-R) that are targeted by the new GnRH-AIF chimeric protein. Methods and Results: In this study, we constructed, expressed, and highly purified GnRH-AIF chimeric proteins. We demonstrated the ability of the chimera to enter and specifically and very efficiently kill solid cancer cell lines overexpressing GnRH-R. Most importantly, upon its entry, GnRH-AIFs translocate to the nucleus where it causes DNA fragmentation leading to a direct caspase-independent apoptotic death. As AIFs lack nuclease activity, our findings also emphasize that cell death induced by GnRH-AIF is dependent on the presence of the ENDOG and PPIA proteins, known to participate in the formation of a DNA-degradosome complex. Finally, we demonstrated the high anti-tumor efficacy of the GnRH-AIF ex vivo, in a human, colon cancer organoid model. Conclusions: Our study shows the potential of using a GnRH-AIF chimeric protein as a novel approach to treat solid cancers that overexpress GnRH-R, via a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway.

Investigating the causal relationships between mitochondrial proteins and dementia with Lewy bodies

BackgroundDisruptions in mitochondrial function have been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases. However, the specific role of mitochondrial proteins in the pathogenesis of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) remains poorly understood.ObjectiveThis study aims to investigate potential causal relationships between mitochondrial proteins and DLB risk using Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis.MethodsCausal associations between 66 mitochondrial proteins (MPs) and DLB were assessed by MR analysis, utilizing data from comprehensive genome-wide association studies (GWAS), with various analytical methods, including the inverse variance weighted, MR-Egger, and weighted median. Cochran's Q statistics assessed the heterogeneity of instrumental variables.ResultsGenetic predispositions to increased levels of ES1 protein homolog and apoptosis-inducing factor 1 (AIF-1) were associated with an elevated risk of DLB. Conversely, genetic predispositions to increased levels of glutaredoxin-2 (GLRX-2), complement component 1 Q subcomponent-binding protein (C1QBP), and mitochondrial glutamate carrier 2 (GC2) were found to be protective against DLB. Sensitivity analyses revealed no heterogeneity or horizontal pleiotropy among the selected instrumental variables.ConclusionsOur MR study identifies specific MPs potentially causally linked to DLB risk. These findings offer new insights into the MP-related mechanisms underlying DLB pathogenesis and highlight potential therapeutic targets.

Patho-physiological effects of environmental relevant concentrations of lufenuron in male Japanese quails

The widespread utilization of synthetic chemicals contaminates the land and water environments. The present investigation determined the effects of sub-lethal concentrations of lufenuron in the male Japanese quail. The birds exposed to lufenuron showed the clinical signs of behavioral, digestive, nervous and reproductive upsets. The drug significantly (p < 0.05) decreased the feed intake, body weight, absolute and relative weights of visceral organs (kidneys, liver, brain, heart, testes), RBCs count, HCT, Hg concentration, serum proteins and anti-oxidants enzymes (SOD, CAT, LPO, GSH) while concentrations of hepatic, cardiac and renal biomarkers were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in the birds treated with higher doses (15 mg/kg and 20 mg/kg) of lufenuron, in a time and dose dependent manner. Comet assay revealed significantly (p < 0.05) increased frequency of DNA damage in the isolated cells of liver, kidneys and intestine along with a significant (p < 0.05) increased frequency of micronucleus in the erythrocytes. The visceral organs showed prominent histo-pathological ailments in the birds exposed to higher doses of lufenuron. Our study is the first comprehensive report that demonstrates the significant physio-biochemical health effects of lufenuron on complete clinico-hematological parameters of free ranging fauna (quail) of the natural ecosystem, even at sub-lethal environment relevant concentrations.

Rhopalurus junceus scorpion venom induces G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptotic cell death in human non-small lung cancer cell lines

Background

Non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) represent the primary cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Rhopalurus junceus venom has been shown to exert cytotoxic effects against a panel of epithelial cancer cells in vitro and suggested that NSCLC was the subtype most susceptible to the treatment.

Methods

This study evaluated the effect of Rhopalurus junceus scorpion venom on cell viability, in non-cancerous (MRC-5, lung; CHO-K1, ovary) and NSCLC (A549; NCI-H460) cell lines. The effects on cell cycle, apoptosis, and cell signaling-related proteins were determined by flow cytometry and WB. Protein fractions responsible for the observed effect were identified using HPLC.

Results

Scorpion venom was more effective against NSCLC than non-cancerous cells. Emax values were 20.0 ± 5.8% and 22.47 ± 6.02% in A549 and NCI-H460 cancer cells, respectively, as compared to 50 ± 8.1% in MRC-5 and 54.99 ± 7.39% in CHO-K1 cells. It arrested NSCLC cells in the G2/M phase, while non-cancerous cells were arrested in the S (MRC-5) or G0/G1 (CHO-K1) phases. No changes were observed in the Bax/Bcl-2 or the cleaved-caspase 3/Total caspase 3 ratios in cells treated with venom. Likewise, the scorpion venom treatment did not affect p-ERK, p-AKT, or p-38MAPK protein levels. In contrast, scorpion venom treatment increased the cytosolic apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) in A549 cells, indicating caspase-independent apoptosis. Additionally, combined etoposide/venom exposure provoked G2/M arrest and apoptosis in NSCLC more strongly than either substance alone. Furthermore, upon crude venom fractioning through RP-HPLC, we found two soluble fractions with high cytotoxic effects.

Conclusion

The present study concludes that a specific fraction of Rhopalurus junceus venom reduces cell viability of NSCLC cells. The AIF protein plays a key role in mediating caspase-independent apoptotic cell death. These findings suggest that Rhopalurus junceus venom enhances the anticancer effect of etoposide in vitro by causing cell cycle arrest and caspase-independent apoptosis.

Lactoferrin-Derived Peptide Chimera Induces Caspase-Independent Cell Death in Multiple Myeloma

Lactoferrin-derived peptide chimera is a synthetic peptide that mimics the functional unit of lactoferrin with antibacterial activity. Although LF has anticancer effects, to the best of our knowledge, its effects on multiple myeloma have not yet been studied. We explored the potential of a lactoferrin-derived chimera for multiple myeloma treatment, a malignant clonal plasma cell bone marrow disease. The lactoferrin-derived chimera effectively inhibited MM1S, MM1R, and RPMI8226 multiple myeloma cell growth, and induced the early and late phases of apoptosis, but not in normal peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Furthermore, the lactoferrin-derived chimera modulates the relative expression of genes involved in survival, apoptosis, and mitochondrial dysfunction at the transcriptional level. Mitochondrial analysis revealed that lactoferrin-derived chimera triggered oxidative stress in multiple myeloma cells, leading to reactive oxygen species generation and a decline in mitochondrial membrane potential, resulting in mitochondrial dysfunction. Although lactoferrin-derived chimera did not cause caspase-dependent cell death, it induced nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor and endonuclease G, indicating the initiation of caspase-independent apoptosis. Overall, the lactoferrin-derived chimera induces caspase-independent programmed cell death in multiple myeloma cell lines by increasing the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor/endonuclease G. Therefore, it has potential for multiple myeloma cancer therapies.

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitor linagliptin improves fibrosis, apoptosis, and cardiac function in a large animal model of chronic myocardial ischemia

Interest is increasing in using novel diabetic medications, such as glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists, to manage coronary artery disease. Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors enhance GLP-1 activity through the same pathway as GLP-1 agonists; however, DPP-4 inhibitors have not been fully evaluated in the setting of ischemic heart disease. We chose to study the DPP-4 inhibitor linagliptin (LIN) in a porcine model of chronic coronary ischemia. Seventeen Yorkshire swine underwent left thoracotomy and ameroid constrictor placement over the left circumflex coronary artery at age 11 weeks. Two weeks thereafter, swine received either vehicle without drug (n = 9) or LIN 2.5 mg (n = 8). Following the elapse of 5 weeks of treatment, swine underwent terminal harvest. LIN significantly increased stroke volume, ejection fraction, cardiac output, and ischemic myocardial perfusion, while decreasing Tau (all P < .05). Trichrome staining showed a marked reduction in ischemic myocardial interstitial and perivascular fibrosis, accompanied by decreased levels of transforming growth factor-β (all P < .05). Apoptosis, measured by terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated digoxigenin-deoxyuridine nick-end labeling staining, was significantly reduced, and accompanied by decreases in apoptosis-inducing factor, BCL2-associated agonist of cell death, caspase-9, and cleaved caspase-9 (all P < .05). Additionally, there were significant increases in phosphoinositide 3-kinase, phospho-protein kinase B, 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, phospho-5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, and endothelial nitric oxide synthase, and significant reductions in collagen 18 and angiostatin (all P < .05). LIN significantly improved left ventricular function, cellular survival, and attenuated adverse remodeling, all likely secondary to augmented perfusion ischemic myocardial perfusion. Given that this increased perfusion occurred independently of changes in vascular density, treatment likely resulted in enhanced microvascular reactivity. These benefits warrant further investigation of LIN to fully understand its potential as a therapy for ischemic heart disease. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Linagliptin significantly improved cardiac cellular survival, left ventricular function, and attenuated adverse myocardial remodeling in a clinically relevant, large animal model of chronic ischemic cardiomyopathy. This warrants further investigation of linagliptin to fully understand its therapeutic potential.

An apoptosis-inducing factor controls programmed cell death and laccase expression during fungal interactions

Apoptotic-like programmed cell death (PCD) is one of the main strategies for fungi to resist environmental stresses and maintain homeostasis. The apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) has been shown in different fungi to trigger PCD through upregulating reactive oxygen species (ROS). This study identified a mitochondrial localized AIF homolog, CcAIF1, from Coprinopsis cinerea monokaryon Okayama 7. Heterologous overexpression of CcAIF1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae caused apoptotic-like PCD of the yeast cells. Ccaif1 was increased in transcription when C. cinerea interacted with Gongronella sp. w5, accompanied by typical apoptotic-like PCD in C. cinerea, including phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA fragmentation. Decreased mycelial ROS levels were observed in Ccaif1 silenced C. cinerea transformants during cocultivation, as well as reduction of the apoptotic levels, mycelial growth, and asexual sporulation. By comparison, Ccaif1 overexpression led to the opposite phenotypes. Moreover, the transcription and expression levels of laccase Lcc9 decreased by Ccaif1 silencing but increased firmly in Ccaif1 overexpression C. cinerea transformants in coculture. Thus, in conjunction with our previous report that intracellular ROS act as signal molecules to stimulate defense responses, we conclude that CcAIF1 is a regulator of ROS to promote apoptotic-like PCD and laccase expression in fungal-fungal interactions. In an axenic culture of C. cinerea, CcAIF1 overexpression and H2O2 stimulation together increased laccase secretion with multiplied production yield. The expression of two other normally silent isozymes, Lcc8 and Lcc13, was unexpectedly triggered along with Lcc9. KEY POINTS: • Mitochondrial CcAIF1 induces PCD during fungal-fungal interactions • CcAIF1 is a regulator of ROS to trigger the expression of Lcc9 for defense • CcAIF1 overexpression and H2O2 stimulation dramatically increase laccase production.

Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JM113 alleviates deoxynivalenol induced intestinal damage by microbial modulation in broiler chickens

Deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination causes the grievous injury in public and animal health, poultry suffer from the greater toxin challenge. Probiotic have been considered as a potential way to mitigate the deleterious effects of DON. In this study, a total of 144 1-day-old Arbor Acres chickens were randomly assigned into 3 groups: control group, DON group (5 mg/kg DON diet), DJ group (1×109 cfu Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JM113/kg DON diet). The results showed that Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JM113 (L. plantarum JM113) increased the growth performance of 21-day-old broilers that challenged by the DON (P < 0.05), and the DON-induced disorder of jejunal morphology was recovered in DJ group (P < 0.05). Compared with the DON group, the mRNA and protein levels of Nrf2 and NQO-1 were upregulated in jejunum of DJ group broilers (P < 0.05). Meanwhile, administration of L. plantarum JM113 effectively increased the expression level of barrier-related genes, and the protein abundance of occludin and claudin1 (P < 0.05). L. plantarum JM113 restored the mRNA and protein abundance of PCNA, and proliferation-linked gene (Lgr5 and Bmi1) expression levels in jejunum of DON-insulted broilers (P < 0.05). Furthermore, administration of L. plantarum JM113 significantly enhanced the relative abundance of s_Limosilactobacillus_reuteri in jejuna of DON-challenged broilers (P < 0.05). Spearman correlation analysis showed that s_Limosilactobacillus_reuteri was positively associated with the jejunal barrier related genes (P < 0.05). In conclusion, L. plantarum JM113 alleviated the toxic effects of DON by regulating the jejunal function through microbial adjustment. Our findings proposed a viable approach to mitigating the adverse effects of deoxynivalenol exposure in broilers.

Verbascum ponticum (Stef.) Extract Induces Lung Cancer Apoptosis via Mitochondrial-Dependent Apoptosis Pathway

Non-small-cell lung carcinoma remains a significant health concern due to its high incidence and mortality rates. Traditional medicines play a central role in cancer therapy, with plant-derived bioactive compounds being studied for their potential to offer fewer side effects than conventional treatments. In traditional Kurdish medicine, different Verbascum species are used to treat burns, inflammation, and other conditions. While some species extracts have shown cytotoxic effects against several cancer cell lines like A549, the efficacy and mechanisms of action of the other species like Verbascum ponticum (V. ponticum) remain to be elucidated. Therefore, this study aimed to explore the effect of V. ponticum (Stef.) extract, collected from the Kurdistan region of the Iraq mountains, on A549 cells. A comprehensive approach was employed, utilizing immunocytochemical and functional analyses to assess apoptotic morphology, DNA fragmentation, alongside assays for cellular and mitochondrial function, proliferation, and viability. Additionally, the study investigated AIF mitochondrial translocation and evaluated mitochondrial membrane potential using the Rhodamine 123 assay. The results showed that the V. ponticum flower extract induced mitochondrial-mediated apoptosis in A549 cells via disruption of mitochondrial membrane potential, release of AIF, and translocation to the nucleus, independently of the caspase-3-activation pathway. These findings emphasize the potential of V. ponticum in lung cancer strategic treatments, meriting further phytochemical studies to identify the bioactive compounds it contains.

Fungal Apoptosis-Related Proteins

Programmed cell death (PCD) plays a crucial role in the development and homeostasis maintenance of multicellular organisms. Apoptosis is a form of PCD that prevents pathological development by eliminating damaged or useless cells. Despite the complexity of fungal apoptosis mechanisms being similar to those of plants and metazoans, fungal apoptosis lacks the core regulatory elements of animal apoptosis. Apoptosis-like PCD in fungi can be triggered by a variety of internal and external factors, participating in biological processes such as growth, development, and stress response. Although the core regulatory elements are not fully understood, apoptosis-inducing factor and metacaspase have been found to be involved. This article summarizes various proteins closely related to fungal apoptosis, such as apoptosis-inducing factor, metacaspase, and inhibitors of apoptosis proteins, as well as their structures and functions. This research provides new strategies and ideas for the development of natural drugs targeting fungal apoptosis and the control of fungal diseases.

Apoptosis: A Comprehensive Overview of Signaling Pathways, Morphological Changes, and Physiological Significance and Therapeutic Implications

Cell survival and death are intricately governed by apoptosis, a meticulously controlled programmed cell death. Apoptosis is vital in facilitating embryonic development and maintaining tissue homeostasis and immunological functioning. It is a complex interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic signaling pathways that ultimately converges on executing the apoptotic program. The extrinsic pathway is initiated by the binding of death ligands such as TNF-α and Fas to their respective receptors on the cell surface. In contrast, the intrinsic pathway leads to increased permeability of the outer mitochondrial membrane and the release of apoptogenic factors like cytochrome c, which is regulated by the Bcl-2 family of proteins. Once activated, these pathways lead to a cascade of biochemical events, including caspase activation, DNA fragmentation, and the dismantling of cellular components. Dysregulation of apoptosis is implicated in various disorders, such as cancer, autoimmune diseases, neurodegenerative disorders, and cardiovascular diseases. This article focuses on elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying apoptosis regulation, to develop targeted therapeutic strategies. Modulating apoptotic pathways holds immense potential in cancer treatment, where promoting apoptosis in malignant cells could lead to tumor regression. This article demonstrates the therapeutic potential of targeting apoptosis, providing options for treating cancer and neurological illnesses. The safety and effectiveness of apoptosis-targeting drugs are being assessed in ongoing preclinical and clinical trials (phase I-III), opening the door for more effective therapeutic approaches and better patient outcomes.

Activation of multifunctional DNA repair APE1/Ref-1 enzyme by the dietary phytochemical Ferulic acid protects human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells against Aβ(25-35)-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder associated with the amyloid beta (Aβ) and tau hallmarks. The molecular insights into how neuroinflammation is initially triggered and how it affects neuronal cells are yet at the age of infancy. In this study, SH-SY5Y cells were used as a model for neurons by differentiating and were co-cultured with differentiated THP1 cells (microglia model) as well as treated with Aβ(25-35) and with antioxidant FA to study inflammatory, oxidative stress responses and their effects on co-cultured neurons. Neurons co-cultured with microglial cells showed pronounced increase in ROS levels, NOS expression, truncated N-terminal form (34 kDa) of APE1 expression and AIF's translocation in the nucleus. The pre-treatment of FA, on the other hand reversed these effects. It was further evaluated how FA/Aβ treatment altered microglial phenotype that in turn affected the neurons. Microglial cells showed M1 phenotype upon Aβ(25-35) stress, while FA induced M2 phenotype against Aβ stress, suggesting that FA alleviated Aβ induced phenotype and its associated effects in the co-cultured neurons by altering the phenotype of microglial cells and induced expression of full length (37 kDa) APE1 enzyme and inhibiting AIF's nuclear translocation, thus inhibiting apoptosis. This is the first study that revealed Aβ induced cleavage of APE1 enzyme in differentiated neurons, suggesting that APE1 may be the potential early target of Aβ that loses its function and exacerbates AD pathology. FA activated a fully functional form of APE1 against Aβ stress. The impaired function of APE1 could be the initial mechanism by which Aβ induces oxidative and inflammatory responses and dietary phytochemical FA can be a potential therapeutic strategy in managing the disease by activating APE1 that not only repairs oxidative DNA base damage but also maintains mitochondrial function and alleviates neuroinflammatory responses.

Parthanatos: Mechanisms, modulation, and therapeutic prospects in neurodegenerative disease and stroke

Parthanatos is a cell death signaling pathway that has emerged as a compelling target for pharmaceutical intervention. It plays a pivotal role in the neuron loss and neuroinflammation that occurs in Parkinson's Disease (PD), Alzheimer's Disease (AD), Huntington's Disease (HD), Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS), and stroke. There are currently no treatments available to humans to prevent cell death in any of these diseases. This review provides an in-depth examination of the current understanding of the Parthanatos mechanism, with a particular focus on its implications in neuroinflammation and various diseases discussed herein. Furthermore, we thoroughly review potential intervention targets within the Parthanatos pathway. We dissect recent progress in inhibitory strategies, complimented by a detailed structural analysis of key Parthanatos executioners, PARP-1, AIF, and MIF, along with an assessment of their established inhibitors. We hope to introduce a new perspective on the feasibility of targeting components within the Parthanatos pathway, emphasizing its potential to bring about transformative outcomes in therapeutic interventions. By delineating therapeutic opportunities and known targets, we seek to emphasize the imperative of blocking Parthanatos as a precursor to developing disease-modifying treatments. This comprehensive exploration aims to catalyze a paradigm shift in our understanding of potential neurodegenerative disease therapeutics, advocating for the pursuit of effective interventions centered around Parthanatos inhibition.

An acidic pH environment converts necroptosis to apoptosis

Cardiac ischemia results in anaerobic metabolism and lactic acid accumulation and with time, intracellular and extracellular acidosis. Ischemia and subsequent reperfusion injury (IRI) lead to various forms of programmed cell death. Necroptosis is a major form of programmed necrosis that worsens cardiac function directly and also promotes inflammation by the release of cellular contents. Potential effects of increasing acidosis on programmed cell death and their specific components have not been well studied. While apoptosis is caspase-dependent, in contrast, necroptosis is mediated by the receptor-interacting protein kinases 1 and 3 (RIPK1/3). In our study, we observed that at physiological pH = 7.4, caspase-8 inhibition did not prevent TNFα-induced cell death in mouse cardiac vascular endothelial cells (MVECs) but promoted necroptotic cell death. As expected, necroptosis was blocked by RIPK1 inhibition. However, at pH = 6.5, TNFα induced an apoptosis-like pattern which was inhibited by caspase-8 inhibition. Interestingly phosphorylation of necroptotic molecules RIPK1, RIPK3, and mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) was enhanced in an acidic pH environment. However, RIPK3 and MLKL phosphorylation was self-limited which may have limited their participation in necroptosis. In addition, an acidic pH promoted apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) cleavage and nuclear translocation. AIF RNA silencing inhibited cell death, supporting the role of AIF in this cell death. In summary, our study demonstrated that the pH of the micro-environment during inflammation can bias cell death pathways by altering the function of necroptosis-related molecules and promoting AIF-mediated cell death. Further insights into the mechanisms by which an acidic cellular micro-environment influences these and perhaps other forms of regulated cell death, may lead to therapeutic strategies to attenuate IRI.

Exploring the impact of flavin homeostasis on cancer cell metabolism

Flavins and their associated proteins have recently emerged as compelling players in the landscape of cancer biology. Flavins, encompassing flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), serve as coenzymes in a multitude of cellular processes, such as metabolism, apoptosis, and cell proliferation. Their involvement in oxidative phosphorylation, redox homeostasis, and enzymatic reactions has long been recognized. However, recent research has unveiled an extended role for flavins in the context of cancer. In parallel, riboflavin transporters (RFVTs), FAD synthase (FADS), and riboflavin kinase (RFK) have gained prominence in cancer research. These proteins, responsible for riboflavin uptake, FAD biosynthesis, and FMN generation, are integral components of the cellular machinery that governs flavin homeostasis. Dysregulation in the expression/function of these proteins has been associated with various cancers, underscoring their potential as diagnostic markers, therapeutic targets, and key determinants of cancer cell behavior. This review embarks on a comprehensive exploration of the multifaceted role of flavins and of the flavoproteins involved in nucleus-mitochondria crosstalk in cancer. We journey through the influence of flavins on cancer cell energetics, the modulation of RFVTs in malignant transformation, the diagnostic and prognostic significance of FADS, and the implications of RFK in drug resistance and apoptosis. This review also underscores the potential of these molecules and processes as targets for novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies, offering new avenues for the battle against this relentless disease.

PARP1 inhibition prevents oxidative stress in age-related hearing loss via PAR-Ca2+-AIF axis in cochlear strial marginal cells

Studies have highlighted oxidative damage in the inner ear as a critical pathological basis for sensorineural hearing loss, especially the presbycusis. Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) activation responds to oxidative stress-induced DNA damage with pro-repair and pro-death effects resembling two sides of the same coin. PARP1-related cell death, known as parthanatos, whose underlying mechanisms are attractive research hotspots but remain to be clarified. In this study, we observed that aged rats showed stria vascularis degeneration and oxidative damage, and PARP1-dependent cell death was prominent in age-related cochlear disorganization and dysfunction. Based on oxidative stress model of primary cultured stria marginal cells (MCs), we revealed that upregulated PARP1 and PAR (Poly(ADP-ribose)) polymers are responsible for MCs oxidative death with high mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) collapse, while inhibition of PARP1 ameliorated the adverse outcomes. Importantly, the PARylation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) is essential for its conformational change and translocation, which subsequently causes DNA break and cell death. Concretely, the interaction of PAR and truncated AIF (tAIF) is the mainstream in the parthanatos pathway. We also found that the effects of AIF cleavage and release were achieved through calpain activity and mPTP opening, both of which could be regulated by PARP1 via mediation of mitochondria Ca2+ concentration. In conclusion, the PAR-Ca2+-tAIF signaling pathway in parthanatos contributes to the oxidative stress damage observed in MCs. Targeting PAR-Ca2+-tAIF might be a potential therapeutic strategy for the early intervention of presbycusis and other oxidative stress-associated sensorineural deafness.

Advancements in unravelling the fundamental function of the ATAD3 protein in multicellular organisms

ATPase family AAA domain containing protein 3, commonly known as ATAD3 is a versatile mitochondrial protein that is involved in a large number of pathways. ATAD3 is a transmembrane protein that spans both the inner mitochondrial membrane and outer mitochondrial membrane. It, therefore, functions as a connecting link between the mitochondrial lumen and endoplasmic reticulum facilitating their cross-talk. ATAD3 contains an N-terminal domain which is amphipathic in nature and is inserted into the membranous space of the mitochondria, while the C-terminal domain is present towards the lumen of the mitochondria and contains the ATPase domain. ATAD3 is known to be involved in mitochondrial biogenesis, cholesterol transport, hormone synthesis, apoptosis and several other pathways. It has also been implicated to be involved in cancer and many neurological disorders making it an interesting target for extensive studies. This review aims to provide an updated comprehensive account of the role of ATAD3 in the mitochondria especially in lipid transport, mitochondrial-endoplasmic reticulum interactions, cancer and inhibition of mitophagy.

Targeting Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Reactive Oxygen Species for Neurodegenerative Disease Treatment

Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD) are the most common neurodegenerative diseases, and they affect millions of people worldwide, particularly older individuals. Therefore, there is a clear need to develop novel drug targets for the treatment of age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Emerging evidence suggests that mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation play central roles in the onset and progression of neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondria are key regulators of respiratory function, cellular energy adenosine triphosphate production, and the maintenance of cellular redox homeostasis, which are essential for cell survival. Mitochondrial morphology and function are tightly regulated by maintaining a balance among mitochondrial fission, fusion, biogenesis, and mitophagy. In this review, we provide an overview of the main functions of mitochondria, with a focus on recent progress highlighting the critical role of ROS-induced oxidative stress, dysregulated mitochondrial dynamics, mitochondrial apoptosis, mitochondria-associated inflammation, and impaired mitochondrial function in the pathogenesis of age-related neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD and PD. We also discuss the potential of mitochondrial fusion and biogenesis enhancers, mitochondrial fission inhibitors, and mitochondria-targeted antioxidants as novel drugs for the treatment of these diseases.

Causal relationship between mitochondrial-associated proteins and cerebral aneurysms: a Mendelian randomization study

Background

Cerebral aneurysm is a high-risk cerebrovascular disease with a poor prognosis, potentially linked to multiple factors. This study aims to explore the association between mitochondrial-associated proteins and the risk of cerebral aneurysms using Mendelian randomization (MR) methods.

Methods

We used GWAS summary statistics from the IEU Open GWAS project for mitochondrial-associated proteins and from the Finnish database for cerebral aneurysms (uIA, aSAH). The association between mitochondrial-associated exposures and cerebral aneurysms was evaluated using MR-Egger, weighted mode, IVW, simple mode and weighted median methods. Reverse MR assessed reverse causal relationship, while sensitivity analyses examined heterogeneity and pleiotropy in the instrumental variables. Significant causal relationship with cerebral aneurysms were confirmed using FDR correction.

Results

Through MR analysis, we identified six mitochondrial proteins associated with an increased risk of aSAH: AIF1 (OR: 1.394, 95% CI: 1.109-1.752, p = 0.0044), CCDC90B (OR: 1.318, 95% CI: 1.132-1.535, p = 0.0004), TIM14 (OR: 1.272, 95% CI: 1.041-1.553, p = 0.0186), NAGS (OR: 1.219, 95% CI: 1.008-1.475, p = 0.041), tRNA PusA (OR: 1.311, 95% CI: 1.096-1.569, p = 0.003), and MRM3 (OR: 1.097, 95% CI: 1.016-1.185, p = 0.0175). Among these, CCDC90B, tRNA PusA, and AIF1 demonstrated a significant causal relationship with an increased risk of aSAH (FDR q < 0.1). Three mitochondrial proteins were associated with an increased risk of uIA: CCDC90B (OR: 1.309, 95% CI: 1.05-1.632, p = 0.0165), tRNA PusA (OR: 1.306, 95% CI: 1.007-1.694, p = 0.0438), and MRM3 (OR: 1.13, 95% CI: 1.012-1.263, p = 0.0303). In the reverse MR study, only one mitochondrial protein, TIM14 (OR: 1.087, 95% CI: 1.004-1.177, p = 0.04), showed a causal relationship with aSAH. Sensitivity analysis did not reveal heterogeneity or pleiotropy. The results suggest that CCDC90B, tRNA PusA, and MRM3 may be common risk factors for cerebral aneurysms (ruptured and unruptured), while AIF1 and NAGS are specifically associated with an increased risk of aSAH, unrelated to uIA. TIM14 may interact with aSAH.

Conclusion

Our findings confirm a causal relationship between mitochondrial-associated proteins and cerebral aneurysms, offering new insights for future research into the pathogenesis and treatment of this condition.

Mitochondrial dysfunction and its association with age-related disorders

Aging is a complex process that features a functional decline in many organelles. Various factors influence the aging process, such as chromosomal abnormalities, epigenetic changes, telomere shortening, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunction significantly impacts aging because mitochondria regulate cellular energy, oxidative balance, and calcium levels. Mitochondrial integrity is maintained by mitophagy, which helps maintain cellular homeostasis, prevents ROS production, and protects against mtDNA damage. However, increased calcium uptake and oxidative stress can disrupt mitochondrial membrane potential and permeability, leading to the apoptotic cascade. This disruption causes increased production of free radicals, leading to oxidative modification and accumulation of mitochondrial DNA mutations, which contribute to cellular dysfunction and aging. Mitochondrial dysfunction, resulting from structural and functional changes, is linked to age-related degenerative diseases. This review focuses on mitochondrial dysfunction, its implications in aging and age-related disorders, and potential anti-aging strategies through targeting mitochondrial dysfunction.

Targeted Restoration of GPX3 Attenuates Renal Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury by Balancing Selenoprotein Expression and Inhibiting ROS-mediated Mitochondrial Apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Renal ischemia/reperfusion (IR) injury is the leading cause of acute kidney injury in both autologous and transplanted kidneys. Low-level glutathione peroxidase 3 (GPX3) is associated with renal IR injury. The exact mechanism of targeted GPX3 restoration in renal IR injury has yet to be determined.

METHODS

The distribution of GPX3 in different tissues and organs of the body was investigated. The level of GPX3 in renal IR injury was assessed. To confirm the action of GPX3 and its mechanisms, IR models were used to introduce adeno-associated virus 9 containing GPX3, as well as hypoxia/reoxygenation-exposed normal rat kidney cells that consistently overexpressed GPX3. Reverse molecular docking was used to confirm whether GPX3 was a target of ebselen.

RESULTS

GPX3 is abundant in the kidneys and decreases in expression during renal IR injury. GPX3 overexpression reduced renal IR injury and protected tubular epithelial cells from apoptosis. Proteomics analysis revealed a strong link between GPX3 and mitochondrial signaling, cellular redox state, and different expression patterns of selenoproteins. GPX3 inhibited reactive oxygen species-induced mitochondrial apoptosis and balanced the disordered expression of selenoproteins. GPX3 was identified as a stable selenoprotein that interacts with ebselen. Ebselen enhanced the level of GPX3 and reduced IR-induced mitochondrial damage and renal dysfunction.

CONCLUSIONS

Targeted restoration of GPX3 attenuates renal IR injury by balancing selenoprotein expression and inhibiting reactive oxygen species-mediated mitochondrial apoptosis, indicating that GPX3 could be a potential therapeutic target for renal IR injury.

CHCHD4 binding affects the active site of apoptosis inducing factor (AIF): Structural determinants for allosteric regulation

Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), which is confined to mitochondria of normal healthy cells, is the first identified caspase-independent cell death effector. Moreover, AIF is required for the optimal functioning of the respiratory chain machinery. Recent findings have revealed that AIF fulfills its pro-survival function by interacting with CHCHD4, a soluble mitochondrial protein which promotes the entrance and the oxidative folding of different proteins in the inner membrane space. Here, we report the crystal structure of the ternary complex involving the N-terminal 27-mer peptide of CHCHD4, NAD+, and AIF harboring its FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide) prosthetic group in oxidized form. Combining this information with biophysical and biochemical data on the CHCHD4/AIF complex, we provide a detailed structural description of the interaction between the two proteins, validated by both chemical cross-linking mass spectrometry analysis and site-directed mutagenesis.

Apoptosis-inducing factor 1 mediates Vibrio splendidus-induced coelomocyte apoptosis via importin β dependent nuclear translocation in Apostichopus japonicus

As is well known, apoptosis is an important form of immune response and immune regulation, particularly playing a crucial role in combating microbial infections. Apoptosis-inducing factor 1 (AIF-1) is essential for apoptosis to induce chromatin condensation and DNA fragmentation via a caspase-independent pathway. The nuclear translocation of AIF-1 is a key step in apoptosis but the molecular mechanism is still unclear. In this study, the homologous gene of AIF-1, named AjAIF-1, was cloned and identified in Apostichopus japonicus. The mRNA expression of AjAIF-1 was significantly increased by 46.63-fold after Vibrio splendidus challenge. Silencing of AjAIF-1 was found to significantly inhibit coelomocyte apoptosis because the apoptosis rate of coelomocyte decreased by 0.62-fold lower compared with the control group. AjAIF-1 was able to promote coelomocyte apoptosis through nuclear translocation under the V. splendidus challenge. Moreover, AjAIF-1 and Ajimportin β were mainly co-localized around the nucleus in vivo and silencing Ajimportin β significantly inhibited the nuclear translocation of AjAIF-1 and suppressed coelomocyte apoptosis by 0.64-fold compared with control. In summary, nuclear translocation of AjAIF-1 will likely mediate coelomocyte apoptosis through an importin β-dependent pathway in sea cucumber.

Tivozanib-induced activation of the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway and suppression of epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition in oral squamous cell carcinoma

The potential of tivozanib as a treatment for oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) was explored in this study. We investigated the effects of tivozanib on OSCC using the Ca9-22 and CAL27 cell lines. OSCC is a highly prevalent cancer type with a significant risk of lymphatic metastasis and recurrence, which necessitates the development of innovative treatment approaches. Tivozanib, a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor inhibitor, has shown efficacy in inhibiting neovascularization in various cancer types but has not been thoroughly studied in OSCC. Our comprehensive assessment revealed that tivozanib effectively inhibited OSCC cells. This was accompanied by the suppression of Bcl-2, a reduction in matrix metalloproteinase levels, and the induction of intrinsic pathway-mediated apoptosis. Furthermore, tivozanib contributed to epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) inhibition by increasing E-cadherin levels while decreasing N-cadherin levels. These findings highlight the substantial anticancer potential of tivozanib in OSCC and thus its promise as a therapeutic option. Beyond reducing cell viability and inducing apoptosis, the capacity of tivozanib to inhibit EMT and modulate key proteins presents the possibility of a paradigm shift in OSCC treatment.

Loss of WDR23 proteostasis impacts mitochondrial homeostasis in the mouse brain

Mitochondrial adaptation is important for stress resistance throughout life. Here we show that WDR23 loss results in an enrichment for genes regulated by nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF1), which coordinates mitochondrial biogenesis and respiratory functions, and an increased steady state level of several nuclear coded mitochondrial resident proteins in the brain. Wdr23KO also increases the endogenous levels of insulin degrading enzyme (IDE) and the relaxin-3 peptide (RLN3), both of which have established roles in mediating mitochondrial metabolic and oxidative stress responses. Taken together, these studies reveal an important role for WDR23 as a component of the mitochondrial homeostat in the murine brain.

Exosomal microRNAs in regulation of tumor cells resistance to apoptosis

Exosomes are a type of extracellular vesicle that contains bioactive molecules that can be secreted by most cells. Nevertheless, the content of these cells differs depending on the cell from which they originate. The exosome plays a crucial role in modulating intercellular communication by conveying molecular messages to neighboring or distant cells. Cancer-derived exosomes can transfer several types of molecules into the tumor microenvironment, including high levels of microRNA (miRNA). These miRNAs significantly affect cell proliferation, angiogenesis, apoptosis resistance, metastasis, and immune evasion. Increasing evidence indicates that exosomal miRNAs (exomiRs) are crucial to regulating cancer resistance to apoptosis. In cancer cells, exomiRs orchestrate communication channels between them and their surrounding microenvironment, modulating gene expression and controlling apoptosis signaling pathways. This review presents an outline of present-day knowledge of the mechanisms that affect target cells and drive cancer resistance to apoptosis. Also, our study looks at the regulatory role of exomiRs in mediating intercellular communication between tumor cells and surrounding microenvironmental cells, specifically stromal and immune cells, to evade therapy-induced apoptosis.

Genetically encoded caspase sensor and RFP-LC3 for temporal analysis of apoptosis-autophagy

The balance between pro-death and pro-survival signaling determines the fate of cells under a variety of pathological and physiological conditions. The pro-cell death signaling, apoptosis, and survival singling, autophagy work in an integrated manner for maintaining cell integrity. Their altered balance drives pathological conditions such as cancer, inflammatory disorders, and neurodegenerative diseases. Dissecting complex crosstalk between autophagy and apoptosis requires simultaneous detection of both events at a single cell level with good temporal resolution in real-time. Here, we have used two distinct fluorescent-based probes of caspase activation and autophagy for generating such sensor cells. Cells stably expressing RFP-LC3 as an autophagy marker were further stably expressed with a FRET-based probe for caspase activation with a nuclear localization signal. The functional validation and live-cell imaging of the sensor cells using selected treatments revealed that stress that induces rapid cell death often fails to induce autophagy signaling, and slow cell death induction triggers simultaneous autophagy signaling with caspase activation. The real-time imaging revealed the time-dependent shift of cells towards caspase activation while autophagy is inhibited confirming basal autophagy confers survival against apoptosis under stress conditions. Confocal imaging also revealed that cells under 3D culture condition maintain increased autophagy over monolayer cultures. High-throughput adaptability of the system extends its application for the screening of compounds that cause caspase activation, autophagy, or both demonstrating the potential utility of the sensor probe for diverse biological applications.

Targeting ferroptosis and ferritinophagy: new targets for cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a leading factor driving mortality worldwide. Iron, an essential trace mineral, is important in numerous biological processes, and its role in CVDs has raised broad discussion for decades. Iron-mediated cell death, namely ferroptosis, has attracted much attention due to its critical role in cardiomyocyte damage and CVDs. Furthermore, ferritinophagy is the upstream mechanism that induces ferroptosis, and is closely related to CVDs. This review aims to delineate the processes and mechanisms of ferroptosis and ferritinophagy, and the regulatory pathways and molecular targets involved in ferritinophagy, and to determine their roles in CVDs. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of targeting ferritinophagy-induced ferroptosis modulators for treating CVDs. Collectively, this review offers some new insights into the pathology of CVDs and identifies possible therapeutic targets.

Relationships of Prodiginins Mechanisms and Molecular Structures to their Antiproliferative Effects

The Prodiginins (PGs) natural pigments are secondary metabolites produced by a broad spectrum of gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, notably by species within the Serratia and Streptomyces genera. These compounds exhibit diverse and potent biological activities, including anticancer, immunosuppressive, antimicrobial, antimalarial, and antiviral effects. Structurally, PGs share a common tripyrrolic core but possess variable side chains and undergo cyclization, resulting in structural diversity. Studies have investigated their antiproliferative effects on various cancer cell lines, with some PGs advancing to clinical trials for cancer treatment. This review aims to illuminate the molecular mechanisms underlying PG-induced apoptosis in cancer cells and explore the structure-activity relationships pertinent to their anticancer properties. Such insights may serve as a foundation for further research in anticancer drug development, potentially leading to the creation of novel, targeted therapies based on PGs or their derivatives.

Drug repurposing: A novel strategy to target cancer stem cells and therapeutic resistance

Chemotherapy is an effortless and frequently used approach in cancer therapy. However, in most cases, it can only prolong life expectancy and does not guarantee a complete cure. Furthermore, chemotherapy is associated with severe adverse effects, one of the major complications of effective cancer therapy. In addition, newly published research outputs show that cancer stem cells are involved in cancer disease progression, drug resistance, metastasis, and recurrence and that they are functional in the trans-differentiation capacity of cancer stem cells to cancer cells in response to treatments. Novel strategies are therefore required for better management of cancer therapy. The prime approach would be to synthesize and develop novel drugs that need extensive resources, time, and endurance to be brought into therapeutic use. The subsequent approach would be to screen the anti-cancer activity of available non-cancerous drugs. This concept of repurposing non-cancer drugs as an alternative to current cancer therapy has become popular in recent years because using existing anticancer drugs has several adverse effects. Micronutrients have also been investigated for cancer therapy due to their significant anti-cancer effects with negligible or no side effects and availability in food sources. In this paper, we discuss an ideal hypothesis for screening available non-cancerous drugs with anticancer activity, with a focus on cancer stem cells and their clinical application for cancer treatment. Further, drug repurposing and the combination of micronutrients that can target both cancers and cancer stem cells may result in a better therapeutic approach leading to maximum tumor growth control.

B Vitamins, Glucoronolactone and the Immune System: Bioavailability, Doses and Efficiency

The present review deals with two main ingredients of energy/power drinks: B vitamins and glucuronolactone and their possible effect on the immune system. There is a strong relationship between the recommended daily dose of selected B vitamins and a functional immune system. Regarding specific B vitamins: (1) Riboflavin is necessary for the optimization of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the fight against bacterial infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes. (2) Niacin administered within normal doses to obese rats can change the phenotype of skeletal fibers, and thereby affect muscle metabolism. This metabolic phenotype induced by niacin treatment is also confirmed by stimulation of the expression of genes involved in the metabolism of free fatty acids (FFAs) and oxidative phosphorylation at this level. (3) Vitamin B5 effects depend primarily on the dose, thus large doses can cause diarrhea or functional disorders of the digestive tract whereas normal levels are effective in wound healing, liver detoxification, and joint health support. (4) High vitamin B6 concentrations (>2000 mg per day) have been shown to exert a significant negative impact on the dorsal root ganglia. Whereas, at doses of approximately 70 ng/mL, sensory symptoms were reported in 80% of cases. (5) Chronic increases in vitamin B12 have been associated with the increased incidence of solid cancers. Additionally, glucuronolactone, whose effects are not well known, represents a controversial compound. (6) Supplementing with D-glucarates, such as glucuronolactone, may help the body's natural defense system function better to inhibit different tumor promoters and carcinogens and their consequences. Cumulatively, the present review aims to evaluate the relationship between the selected B vitamins group, glucuronolactone, and the immune system and their associations to bioavailability, doses, and efficiency.

In silico and in vivo analysis of the relationship between ADHD and social isolation in pups rat model: Implication of redox mechanisms, and the neuroprotective impact of Punicalagin

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has high incidence rate among children which may be due to excessive monosodium glutamate (MSG) consumption and social isolation (SI).

AIM

We aimed to explore the relationships between MSG, SI, and ADHD development and to evaluate the neuroprotective potential of Punicalagin (PUN).

METHODS

Eighty male rat pups randomly distributed into eight groups. Group I is the control, and Group II is socially engaged rats treated with PUN. Groups III to VII were exposed to ADHD-inducing factors: Group III to SI, Group IV to MSG, and Group V to both SI and MSG. Furthermore, Groups VI to VIII were the same Groups III to V but additionally received PUN treatment.

KEY FINDINGS

Exposure to MSG and/or SI led to pronounced behavioral anomalies, histological changes and indicative of ADHD-like symptoms in rat pups which is accompanied by inhibition of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/Heme-oxygenase 1 (HO-1)/Glutathione (GSH) pathway, decline of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression and activation of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/Nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB)/NLR Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3 (NLRP3) pathway. This resulted in elevated inflammatory biomarker levels, neuronal apoptosis, and disrupted neurotransmitter equilibrium. Meanwhile, pretreatment with PUN protected against all the previous alterations.

SIGNIFICANCE

We established compelling associations between MSG consumption, SI, and ADHD progression. Moreover, we proved that PUN is a promising neuroprotective agent against all risk factors of ADHD.

Vibrio parahaemolyticus thermostable direct haemolysin induces non-classical programmed cell death despite caspase activation

Thermostable direct haemolysin (TDH) is the key virulence factor secreted by the human gastroenteric bacterial pathogen Vibrio parahaemolyticus. TDH is a membrane-damaging pore-forming toxin. It evokes potent cytotoxicity, the mechanism of which still remains under-explored. Here, we have elucidated the mechanistic details of cell death response elicited by TDH. Employing Caco-2 intestinal epithelial cells and THP-1 monocytic cells, we show that TDH induces some of the hallmark features of apoptosis-like programmed cell death. TDH triggers caspase-3 and 7 activations in the THP-1 cells, while caspase-7 activation is observed in the Caco-2 cells. Interestingly, TDH appears to induce caspase-independent cell death. Higher XIAP level and lower Smac/Diablo level upon TDH intoxication provide plausible explanation for the functional inability of caspases in the THP-1 cells, in particular. Further exploration reveals that mitochondria play a central role in the TDH-induced cell death. TDH triggers mitochondrial damage, resulting in the release of AIF and endonuclease G, responsible for the execution of caspase-independent cell death. Among the other critical mediators of cell death, ROS is found to play an important role in the THP-1 cells, while PARP-1 appears to play a critical role in the Caco-2 cells. Altogether, our work provides critical new insights into the mechanism of cell death induction by TDH, showing a common central theme of non-classical programmed cell death. Our study also unravels the interplay of crucial molecules in the underlying signalling processes. Our findings add valuable insights into the role of TDH in the context of the host-pathogen interaction processes.

The roles of intracellular proteolysis in cardiac ischemia-reperfusion injury

Ischemic heart disease remains a leading cause of human mortality worldwide. One form of ischemic heart disease is ischemia-reperfusion injury caused by the reintroduction of blood supply to ischemic cardiac muscle. The short and long-term damage that occurs due to ischemia-reperfusion injury is partly due to the proteolysis of diverse protein substrates inside and outside of cardiomyocytes. Ischemia-reperfusion activates several diverse intracellular proteases, including, but not limited to, matrix metalloproteinases, calpains, cathepsins, and caspases. This review will focus on the biological roles, intracellular localization, proteolytic targets, and inhibitors of these proteases in cardiomyocytes following ischemia-reperfusion injury. Recognition of the intracellular function of each of these proteases includes defining their activation, proteolytic targets, and their inhibitors during myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. This review is a step toward a better understanding of protease activation and involvement in ischemic heart disease and developing new therapeutic strategies for its treatment.

The Designer Drug αPHP Affected Cell Proliferation and Triggered Deathly Mechanisms in Murine Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells

Increasing reports of neurological and psychiatric outcomes due to psychostimulant synthetic cathinones (SCs) have recently raised public concern. However, the understanding of neurotoxic mechanisms is still lacking, particularly for the under-investigated αPHP, one of the major MDPV derivatives. In particular, its effects on neural stem/progenitor cell cultures (NSPCs) are still unexplored. Therefore, in the current in vitro study, the effects of increasing αPHP concentrations (25-2000 μM), on cell viability/proliferation, morphology/ultrastructure, genotoxicity and cell death pathways, have been evaluated after exposure in murine NSPCs, using a battery of complementary techniques, i.e., MTT and clonogenic assay, flow cytometry, immunocytochemistry, TEM, and patch clamp. We revealed that αPHP was able to induce a dose-dependent significant decrease of the viability, proliferation and clonal capability of the NSPCs, paralleled by the resting membrane potential depolarization and apoptotic/autophagic/necroptotic pathway activation. Moreover, ultrastructural alterations were clearly observed. Overall, our current findings demonstrate that αPHP, damaging NSPCs and the morpho-functional fundamental units of adult neurogenic niches may affect neurogenesis, possibly triggering long-lasting, irreversible CNS damage. The present investigation could pave the way for a broadened understanding of SCs toxicology, needed to establish an appropriate treatment for NPS and the potential consequences for public health.

Mitochondrial Factors in the Cell Nucleus

The origin of eukaryotic organisms involved the integration of mitochondria into the ancestor cell, with a massive gene transfer from the original proteobacterium to the host nucleus. Thus, mitochondrial performance relies on a mosaic of nuclear gene products from a variety of genomes. The concerted regulation of their synthesis is necessary for metabolic housekeeping and stress response. This governance involves crosstalk between mitochondrial, cytoplasmic, and nuclear factors. While anterograde and retrograde regulation preserve mitochondrial homeostasis, the mitochondria can modulate a wide set of nuclear genes in response to an extensive variety of conditions, whose response mechanisms often merge. In this review, we summarise how mitochondrial metabolites and proteins-encoded either in the nucleus or in the organelle-target the cell nucleus and exert different actions modulating gene expression and the chromatin state, or even causing DNA fragmentation in response to common stress conditions, such as hypoxia, oxidative stress, unfolded protein stress, and DNA damage.

Chaperone proteins: universal roles in surviving environmental stress

Chaperone proteins have crucial roles to play in all animal species and are involved in mediating both the folding of newly synthesized peptides into their mature conformation, the refolding of misfolded proteins, and the trafficking of proteins between subcellular compartments. These highly conserved proteins have particularly important roles to play in dealing with disruptions of the proteome as a result of environmental stress since abiotic factors, including temperature, pressure, oxygen, water availability, and pollutants can readily disrupt the conformation and/or function of all types of proteins, e.g., enzymes, transporters, and structural proteins. The current review provides an update on recent advances in understanding the roles and responses of chaperones in aiding animals to deal with environmental stress, offering new information on chaperone action in supporting survival strategies including torpor, hibernation, anaerobiosis, estivation, and cold/freeze tolerance among both vertebrate and invertebrate species.

The boundary of life and death: changes in mitochondrial and cytosolic proteomes associated with programmed cell death of Arabidopsis thaliana suspension culture cells

Introduction

Despite the critical role of programmed cell death (PCD) in plant development and defense responses, its regulation is not fully understood. It has been proposed that mitochondria may be important in the control of the early stages of plant PCD, but the details of this regulation are currently unknown.

Methods

We used Arabidopsis thaliana cell suspension culture, a model system that enables induction and precise monitoring of PCD rates, as well as chemical manipulation of this process to generate a quantitative profile of the alterations in mitochondrial and cytosolic proteomes associated with early stages of plant PCD induced by heat stress. The cells were subjected to PCD-inducing heat levels (10 min, 54°C), with/without the calcium channel inhibitor and PCD blocker LaCl3. The stress treatment was followed by separation of cytosolic and mitochondrial fractions and mass spectrometry-based proteome analysis.

Results

Heat stress induced rapid and extensive changes in protein abundance in both fractions, with release of mitochondrial proteins into the cytosol upon PCD induction. In our system, LaCl3 appeared to act downstream of cell death initiation signal, as it did not affect the release of mitochondrial proteins, but instead partially inhibited changes occurring in the cytosolic fraction, including upregulation of proteins with hydrolytic activity.

Discussion

We characterized changes in protein abundance and localization associated with the early stages of heat stress-induced PCD. Collectively, the generated data provide new insights into the regulation of cell death and survival decisions in plant cells.

Synergistic effect of hydralazine associated with triazoles on Candida spp. in planktonic cells

Objective: To evaluate the antifungal activity of hydralazine hydrochloride alone and in synergy with azoles against Candida spp. and the action mechanism. Methods: We used broth microdilution assays to determine the MIC, checkerboard assays to investigate synergism, and flow cytometry and molecular docking tests to ascertain action mechanism. Results: Hydralazine alone had antifungal activity in the range of 16-128 μg/ml and synergistic effect with itraconazole versus 100% of the fungal isolates, while there was synergy with fluconazole against 11.11% of the isolates. There was molecular interaction with the receptors exo-B(1,3)-glucanase and CYP51, causing reduced cell viability and DNA damage. Conclusion: Hydralazine is synergistic with itraconazole and triggers cell death of Candida spp. at low concentrations, demonstrating antifungal potential.

Pathophysiology of Cerebellar Degeneration in Mitochondrial Disorders: Insights from the Harlequin Mouse

By means of a proteomic approach, we assessed the pathways involved in cerebellar neurodegeneration in a mouse model (Harlequin, Hq) of mitochondrial disorder. A differential proteomic profile study (iTRAQ) was performed in cerebellum homogenates of male Hq and wild-type (WT) mice 8 weeks after the onset of clear symptoms of ataxia in the Hq mice (aged 5.2 ± 0.2 and 5.3 ± 0.1 months for WT and Hq, respectively), followed by a biochemical validation of the most relevant changes. Additional groups of 2-, 3- and 6-month-old WT and Hq mice were analyzed to assess the disease progression on the proteins altered in the proteomic study. The proteomic analysis showed that beyond the expected deregulation of oxidative phosphorylation, the cerebellum of Hq mice showed a marked astroglial activation together with alterations in Ca²⁺ homeostasis and neurotransmission, with an up- and downregulation of GABAergic and glutamatergic neurotransmission, respectively, and the downregulation of cerebellar "long-term depression", a synaptic plasticity phenomenon that is a major player in the error-driven learning that occurs in the cerebellar cortex. Our study provides novel insights into the mechanisms associated with cerebellar degeneration in the Hq mouse model, including a complex deregulation of neuroinflammation, oxidative phosphorylation and glutamate, GABA and amino acids' metabolism.

Elucidation of the Anticancer Mechanism of Durian Fruit (Durio zibethinus) Pulp Extract in Human Leukemia (HL-60) Cancer Cells

Durian (Durio zibethinus L.) grows widely in Southeast Asia. The pulp of the durian fruit contains carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, fibers, various vitamins, minerals, and fatty acids. This study was carried out to elucidate the anticancer mechanism of action of the methanolic extract of the fruit of Durio zibethinus (D. zibethinus) on human leukemia (HL-60) cells. The methanolic extract of D. zibethinus fruits exhibited its anticancer effect on HL-60 cells by inducing DNA damage and apoptosis. The DNA damage was confirmed by comet and DNA fragmentation assays. The methanolic extract of D. zibethinus fruits has been shown to cause cell cycle arrest in HL-60 cells during the S phase and G2/M phase. Additionally, the methanolic extract caused induction of the apoptotic pathway in the HL-60 cell line. This was confirmed by increased expression in pro-apoptotic proteins, viz., Bax protein expression, and a substantial reduction (p < 0.001) in anti-apoptotic proteins, viz., Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL expressions. Therefore, this study confirms that the methanolic extract of D. zibethinus exerts its anticancer effects on the HL-60 cell line, causing cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis by an intrinsic mechanism.

Longitudinal effects of ketamine on cell proliferation and death in the CNS of zebrafish

Zebrafish is known for its widespread neurogenesis and regenerative capacity, as well as several biological advantages, which turned it into a relevant animal model in several areas of research, namely in toxicological studies. Ketamine is a well-known anesthetic used both in human as well as veterinary medicine, due to its safety, short duration and unique mode of action. However, ketamine administration is associated with neurotoxic effects and neuronal death, which renders its use on pediatric medicine problematic. Thus, the evaluation of ketamine effects administration at early stages of neurogenesis is of pivotal importance. The 1-4 somites stage of zebrafish embryo development corresponds to the beginning of segmentation and formation of neural tube. In this species, as well as in other vertebrates, longitudinal studies are scarce, and the evaluation of ketamine long-term effects in adults is poorly understood. This study aimed to assess the effects of ketamine administration at the 1-4 somites stage, both in subanesthetic and anesthetic concentrations, in brain cellular proliferation, pluripotency and death mechanisms in place during early and adult neurogenesis. For that purpose, embryos at the 1-4 somites stage (10,5hours post fertilization - hpf) were distributed into study groups and exposed for 20minutes to ketamine concentrations at 0.2/0.8mg/mL. Animals were grown until defined check points, namely 50 hpf, 144 hpf and 7 months adults. The assessment of the expression and distribution patterns of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), of sex-determining region Y-box 2 (Sox 2), apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 (LC3) was performed by Western-blot and immunohistochemistry. The results evidenced the main alterations in 144 hpf larvae, namely in autophagy and in cellular proliferation at the highest concentration of ketamine (0.8mg/mL). Nonetheless, in adults no significant alterations were seen, pointing to a return to a homeostatic stage. This study allowed clarifying some of the aspects pertaining the longitudinal effects of ketamine administration regarding the CNS capacity to proliferate and activate the appropriate cell death and repair mechanisms leading to homeostasis in zebrafish. Moreover, the results indicate that ketamine administration at 1-4 somites stage in the subanesthetic and anesthetic concentrations despite some transitory detrimental effects at 144 hpf, is long-term safe for CNS, which are newly and promising results in this research field.

Apoptosis-inducing factor-like protein-mediated stress and metronidazole-responsive programmed cell death pathway in Entamoeba histolytica

Apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) is the major component of the caspase-independent cell death pathway that is considered to be evolutionarily ancient. Apoptosis is generally evolved with multicellularity as a prerequisite for the elimination of aged, stressed, or infected cells promoting the survival of the organism. Our study reports the presence of a putative AIF-like protein in Entamoeba histolytica, a caspase-deficient primitive protozoan, strengthening the concept of occurrence of apoptosis in unicellular organisms as well. The putative cytoplasmic EhAIF migrates to the nucleus on receiving stresses that precede its binding with DNA, following chromatin degradation and chromatin condensation as evident from both in vitro and in vivo experiments. Down-regulating the EhAIF expression attenuates the apoptotic features of insulted cells and increases the survival potency in terms of cell viability and vitality of the trophozoites, whereas over-expression of the EhAIF effectively enhances the phenomena. Interestingly, metronidazole, the most widely used drug for amoebiasis treatment, is also potent to elicit similar AIF-mediated cell death responses like other stresses indicating the AIF-mediated cell death could be the probable mechanism of trophozoite-death by metronidazole treatment. The occurrence of apoptosis in a unicellular organism is an interesting phenomenon that might signify the altruistic death that overall improves the population health.

Young Shoots of Red Beet and the Root at Full Maturity Inhibit Proliferation and Induce Apoptosis in Breast Cancer Cell Lines

Modern medicine is struggling with the problem of fully effective treatment of neoplastic diseases despite deploying innovative chemotherapeutic agents. Therefore, undertaking cancer-prevention measures, such as proper eating habits, should be strongly recommended. The present research aimed to compare the effects of juice from young shoots of beetroot compared to juice from root at full maturity on human breast cancer and normal cells. The juice from young shoots, both in the native and digested form, was most often a significantly stronger inhibitor of the proliferation of both analyzed breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231), compared to the native and digested juice from red beetroot. Regardless of juice type, a significantly greater reduction was most often shown in the proliferation of estrogen-dependent cells (MCF-7 line) than of estrogen-independent cells (MDA-MB-231 line). All analyzed types of beetroot juice and, in particular, the ones from young shoots and the root subjected to digestion and absorption, exerted an antiproliferative and apoptotic effect (pinpointing the internal apoptosis pathway) on the cells of both cancer lines studied. There is a need to continue the research to comprehensively investigate the factors responsible for both these effects.

A novel tumour enhancer function of Insulin-like growth factor II mRNA-binding protein 3 in colorectal cancer

CRC cells evolve a variety of strategies to limit or circumvent apoptosis cell death. RNA binding proteins (RBPs) regulate many of the molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of cancer. The insulin-like growth factor II mRNA-binding proteins (IMP) family are oncofoetal RBPs, consisting of IMP1, IMP2 and IMP3, which have an important role in RNA metabolism. IMP3 is highly expressed in colorectal cancer (CRC) tissue, where its expression often correlates with poor prognosis. However, the role of IMP3 in CRC is not fully understood. IMP3 expression was analysed using a public database and by Western blotting and immunohistochemistry in human colon samples derived from patients with sporadic CRC and healthy subjects. To address whether IMP3 controls cancer cell survival, we analysed cell death pathways in in vitro and in vivo experiments after IMP3 downregulation by siRNA or an antisense oligonucleotide. IMP3 was highly expressed in CRC samples compared to normal control tissues. The knockdown of IMP3 enhanced a caspase-independent cell death in CRC cell lines. Furthermore, the treatment of CRC cells with IMP3 siRNA did not alter the expression of GSDMD, GPX-4 and the activated form of RIP3, three key molecules that govern pyroptosis, ferroptosis and necroptosis, respectively. Abrogation of IMP3 in CRC significantly reduced Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL mRNA and was associated with an altered mitochondrial membrane potential that allowed the nuclear migration of the apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Moreover, specific immunoprecipitation experiments on CRC human cell lines indicated that IMP3 binds Bcl-2 and Bcl-xL mRNA, suggesting that IMP3 acts as a regulator of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway through the surveillance of anti-apoptotic Bcl mRNA metabolism. Finally, we showed that IMP3 block inhibited the growth of CRC cell lines in vivo after transplantation into immunodeficient mice. Altogether, these data support a novel role for IMP3 in controlling the intrinsic caspase-independent apoptotic pathway in CRC.

Apoptotic proteins with non-apoptotic activity: expression and function in cancer

Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death in which a cell commits suicide while maintaining the integrity and architecture of the tissue as a whole. Apoptosis involves activation of one of two major pathways: the extrinsic pathway, where extracellular pro-apoptotic signals, transduced through plasma membrane death receptors, activate a caspase cascade leading to apoptosis. The second, the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, where damaged DNA, oxidative stress, or chemicals, induce the release of pro-apoptotic proteins from the mitochondria, leading to the activation of caspase-dependent and independent apoptosis. However, it has recently become apparent that proteins involved in apoptosis also exhibit non-cell death-related physiological functions that are related to the cell cycle, differentiation, metabolism, inflammation or immunity. Such non-conventional activities were predominantly reported in non-cancer cells although, recently, such a dual function for pro-apoptotic proteins has also been reported in cancers where they are overexpressed. Interestingly, some apoptotic proteins translocate to the nucleus in order to perform a non-apoptotic function. In this review, we summarize the unconventional roles of the apoptotic proteins from a functional perspective, while focusing on two mitochondrial proteins: VDAC1 and SMAC/Diablo. Despite having pro-apoptotic functions, these proteins are overexpressed in cancers and this apparent paradox and the associated pathophysiological implications will be discussed. We will also present possible mechanisms underlying the switch from apoptotic to non-apoptotic activities although a deeper investigation into the process awaits further study.

A literature review of microRNA and gene signaling pathways involved in the apoptosis pathway of lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer is one of the leading causes of death in the world and the deadliest of all cancers. Apoptosis is a key pathway in regulating the cell growth rate, proliferation, and occurrence of lung cancer. This process is controlled by many molecules, such as microRNAs and their target genes. Therefore, finding new medical approaches such as exploring diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers involved in apoptosis is needed for this disease. In the present study, we aimed to identify key microRNAs and their target genes that could be used in the prognosis and diagnosis of lung cancer.

METHODS

Signaling pathways, genes, and microRNAs involved in the apoptotic pathway were identified by bioinformatics analysis and recent clinical studies. Bioinformatics analysis was performed on databases including NCBI, TargetScan, UALCAN, UCSC, KEGG, miRPathDB, and Enrichr, and clinical studies were extracted from PubMed, web of science, and SCOPUS databases.

RESULTS

NF-κB, PI3K/AKT, and MAPK pathways play critical roles in the regulation of apoptosis. MiR-146b, 146a, 21, 23a, 135a, 30a, 202, and 181 were identified as the involved microRNAs in the apoptosis signaling pathway, and IRAK1, TRAF6, Bcl-2, PTEN, Akt, PIK3, KRAS, and MAPK1 were classified as the target genes of the mentioned microRNAs respectively. The essential roles of these signaling pathways and miRNAs/target genes were approved through both databases and clinical studies. Moreover, surviving, living, BRUCE, and XIAP was the main inhibitor of apoptosis which act by regulating the apoptosis-involved genes and miRNAs.

CONCLUSION

Identifying the abnormal expression and regulation of miRNAs and signaling pathways in apoptosis of lung cancer can represent a novel class of biomarkers that can facilitate the early diagnosis, personalized treatment, and prediction of drug response for lung cancer patients. Therefore, studying the mechanisms of apoptosis including signaling pathways, miRNAs/target genes, and the inhibitors of apoptosis are advantageous for finding the most practical approach and reducing the pathological demonstrations of lung cancer.