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Chen R, Rey JA, Tuna IS, Tran DD, Sarntinoranont M. A Spatial Interpolation Approach to Assign Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Derived Material Properties for Finite Element Models of Adeno-Associated Virus Infusion Into a Recurrent Brain Tumor. J Biomech Eng 2024; 146:101001. [PMID: 38581376 PMCID: PMC11110824 DOI: 10.1115/1.4064966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024]
Abstract
Adeno-associated virus (AAV) is a clinically useful gene delivery vehicle for treating neurological diseases. To deliver AAV to focal targets, direct infusion into brain tissue by convection-enhanced delivery (CED) is often needed due to AAV's limited penetration across the blood-brain-barrier and its low diffusivity in tissue. In this study, computational models that predict the spatial distribution of AAV in brain tissue during CED were developed to guide future placement of infusion catheters in recurrent brain tumors following primary tumor resection. The brain was modeled as a porous medium, and material property fields that account for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-derived anatomical regions were interpolated and directly assigned to an unstructured finite element mesh. By eliminating the need to mesh complex surfaces between fluid regions and tissue, mesh preparation was expedited, increasing the model's clinical feasibility. The infusion model predicted preferential fluid diversion into open fluid regions such as the ventricles and subarachnoid space (SAS). Additionally, a sensitivity analysis of AAV delivery demonstrated that improved AAV distribution in the tumor was achieved at higher tumor hydraulic conductivity or lower tumor porosity. Depending on the tumor infusion site, the AAV distribution covered 3.67-70.25% of the tumor volume (using a 10% AAV concentration threshold), demonstrating the model's potential to inform the selection of infusion sites for maximal tumor coverage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reed Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 407 Towerview Rd, Box 97756, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Julian A. Rey
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, 142 New Engineering Building, P.O. Box 116250, Gainesville, FL 32611
- University of Florida
| | - Ibrahim S. Tuna
- Department of Radiology, University of Florida College of Medicine, P.O. Box 100374, Gainesville, FL 32610-0374
- University of Florida
| | - David D. Tran
- Division of Neuro-Oncology, Department of Neurological Surgery and Neurology USC Brain Tumor Center, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA 90033
- University of Southern California
| | - Malisa Sarntinoranont
- Department of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, University of Florida, 497 Wertheim, P.O. Box 116250, Gainesville, FL 32611
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Issa S, Fayoud H, Shaimardanova A, Sufianov A, Sufianova G, Solovyeva V, Rizvanov A. Growth Factors and Their Application in the Therapy of Hereditary Neurodegenerative Diseases. Biomedicines 2024; 12:1906. [PMID: 39200370 PMCID: PMC11351319 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12081906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2024] [Revised: 08/11/2024] [Accepted: 08/14/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Hereditary neurodegenerative diseases (hNDDs) such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Huntington's disease, and others are primarily characterized by their progressive nature, severely compromising both the cognitive and motor abilities of patients. The underlying genetic component in hNDDs contributes to disease risk, creating a complex genetic landscape. Considering the fact that growth factors play crucial roles in regulating cellular processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, and survival, they could have therapeutic potential for hNDDs, provided appropriate dosing and safe delivery approaches are ensured. This article presents a detailed overview of growth factors, and explores their therapeutic potential in treating hNDDs, emphasizing their roles in neuronal survival, growth, and synaptic plasticity. However, challenges such as proper dosing, delivery methods, and patient variability can hinder their clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaza Issa
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, St. Petersburg State University, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia; (S.I.); (H.F.)
| | - Haidar Fayoud
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, St. Petersburg State University, 199034 St. Petersburg, Russia; (S.I.); (H.F.)
| | - Alisa Shaimardanova
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (A.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Albert Sufianov
- Department of Neurosurgery, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation (Sechenov University), 119991 Moscow, Russia;
- The Research and Educational Institute of Neurosurgery, Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia (RUDN), 117198 Moscow, Russia
| | - Galina Sufianova
- Department of Pharmacology, Tyumen State Medical University, 625023 Tyumen, Russia;
| | - Valeriya Solovyeva
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (A.S.); (V.S.)
| | - Albert Rizvanov
- Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, 420008 Kazan, Russia; (A.S.); (V.S.)
- Division of Medical and Biological Sciences, Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, 420111 Kazan, Russia
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3
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Ge G, Sivasubramanian BP, Geng BD, Zhao S, Zhou Q, Huang G, O'Connor JC, Clark RA, Li S. Long-term benefits of hematopoietic stem cell-based macrophage/microglia delivery of GDNF to the CNS in a mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Gene Ther 2024; 31:324-334. [PMID: 38627469 PMCID: PMC11245959 DOI: 10.1038/s41434-024-00451-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) protects dopaminergic neurons in various models of Parkinson's disease (PD). Cell-based GDNF gene delivery mitigates neurodegeneration and improves both motor and non-motor functions in PD mice. As PD is a chronic condition, this study aims to investigate the long-lasting benefits of hematopoietic stem cell (HSC)-based macrophage/microglia-mediated CNS GDNF (MMC-GDNF) delivery in an MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) mouse model. The results indicate that GDNF treatment effectively ameliorated MPTP-induced motor deficits for up to 12 months, which coincided with the protection of nigral dopaminergic neurons and their striatal terminals. Also, the HSC-derived macrophages/microglia were recruited selectively to the neurodegenerative areas of the substantia nigra. The therapeutic benefits appear to involve two mechanisms: (1) macrophage/microglia release of GDNF-containing exosomes, which are transferred to target neurons, and (2) direct release of GDNF by macrophage/microglia, which diffuses to target neurons. Furthermore, the study found that plasma GDNF levels were significantly increased from baseline and remained stable over time, potentially serving as a convenient biomarker for future clinical trials. Notably, no weight loss, altered food intake, cerebellar pathology, or other adverse effects were observed. Overall, this study provides compelling evidence for the long-term therapeutic efficacy and safety of HSC-based MMC-GDNF delivery in the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Ge
- Audie L. Murphy VA Medical Center, 7400 Merton Minter Boulevard, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Human Anatomy, School of Basic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guian New Area, Guizhou, 550025, China
| | | | - Bill D Geng
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Shujie Zhao
- Audie L. Murphy VA Medical Center, 7400 Merton Minter Boulevard, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Qing Zhou
- Audie L. Murphy VA Medical Center, 7400 Merton Minter Boulevard, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Gang Huang
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Jason C O'Connor
- Audie L. Murphy VA Medical Center, 7400 Merton Minter Boulevard, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Robert A Clark
- Audie L. Murphy VA Medical Center, 7400 Merton Minter Boulevard, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA
| | - Senlin Li
- Audie L. Murphy VA Medical Center, 7400 Merton Minter Boulevard, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA.
- Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, 78229, USA.
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Lee MH, Um KH, Lee SW, Sun YJ, Gu DH, Jo YO, Kim SH, Seol W, Hwang H, Baek K, Choi JW. Bi-directional regulation of AIMP2 and its splice variant on PARP-1-dependent neuronal cell death; Therapeutic implication for Parkinson's disease. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2024; 12:5. [PMID: 38172953 PMCID: PMC10765824 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-023-01697-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parthanatos represents a critical molecular aspect of Parkinson's disease, wherein AIMP2 aberrantly activates PARP-1 through direct physical interaction. Although AIMP2 ought to be a therapeutic target for the disease, regrettably, it is deemed undruggable due to its non-enzymatic nature and predominant localization within the tRNA synthetase multi-complex. Instead, AIMP2 possesses an antagonistic splice variant, designated DX2, which counteracts AIMP2-induced apoptosis in the p53 or inflammatory pathway. Consequently, we examined whether DX2 competes with AIMP2 for PARP-1 activation and is therapeutically effective in Parkinson's disease. METHODS The binding affinity of AIMP2 and DX2 to PARP-1 was contrasted through immunoprecipitation. The efficacy of DX2 in neuronal cell death was assessed under 6-OHDA and H2O2 in vitro conditions. Additionally, endosomal and exosomal activity of synaptic vesicles was gauged in AIMP2 or DX2 overexpressed hippocampal primary neurons utilizing optical live imaging with VAMP-vGlut1 probes. To ascertain the role of DX2 in vivo, rotenone-induced behavioral alterations were compared between wild-type and DX2 transgenic animals. A DX2-encoding self-complementary adeno-associated virus (scAAV) was intracranially injected into 6-OHDA induced in vivo animal models, and their mobility was examined. Subsequently, the isolated brain tissues were analyzed. RESULTS DX2 translocates into the nucleus upon ROS stress more rapidly than AIMP2. The binding affinity of DX2 to PARP-1 appeared to be more robust compared to that of AIMP2, resulting in the inhibition of PARP-1 induced neuronal cell death. DX2 transgenic animals exhibited neuroprotective behavior in rotenone-induced neuronal damage conditions. Following a single intracranial injection of AAV-DX2, both behavior and mobility were consistently ameliorated in neurodegenerative animal models induced by 6-OHDA. CONCLUSION AIMP2 and DX2 are proposed to engage in bidirectional regulation of parthanatos. They physically interact with PARP-1. Notably, DX2's cell survival properties manifest exclusively in the context of abnormal AIMP2 accumulation, devoid of any tumorigenic effects. This suggests that DX2 could represent a distinctive therapeutic target for addressing Parkinson's disease in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Hak Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Regulatory Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Ki-Hwan Um
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Regulatory Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Seok Won Lee
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Ye Ji Sun
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Regulatory Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Da-Hye Gu
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Young Ok Jo
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Kim
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea
| | - Wongi Seol
- InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Sanbonro 321, Gunposi, Gyeonggido, 15865, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyorin Hwang
- Generoath Ltd., Seoul, 04168, Republic of Korea
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Dentistry and Research Institute of Oral Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon-Do, 25457, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyunghwa Baek
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Dentistry and Research Institute of Oral Science, Gangneung-Wonju National University, Gangneung, Gangwon-Do, 25457, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin Woo Choi
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Science, Graduate School, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
- Department of Regulatory Science, College of Pharmacy, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, 02447, Republic of Korea.
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5
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Ford MM, George BE, Van Laar VS, Holleran KM, Naidoo J, Hadaczek P, Vanderhooft LE, Peck EG, Dawes MH, Ohno K, Bringas J, McBride JL, Samaranch L, Forsayeth JR, Jones SR, Grant KA, Bankiewicz KS. GDNF gene therapy for alcohol use disorder in male non-human primates. Nat Med 2023; 29:2030-2040. [PMID: 37580533 PMCID: PMC10602124 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-023-02463-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023]
Abstract
Alcohol use disorder (AUD) exacts enormous personal, social and economic costs globally. Return to alcohol use in treatment-seeking patients with AUD is common, engendered by a cycle of repeated abstinence-relapse episodes even with use of currently available pharmacotherapies. Repeated ethanol use induces dopaminergic signaling neuroadaptations in ventral tegmental area (VTA) neurons of the mesolimbic reward pathway, and sustained dysfunction of reward circuitry is associated with return to drinking behavior. We tested this hypothesis by infusing adeno-associated virus serotype 2 vector encoding human glial-derived neurotrophic factor (AAV2-hGDNF), a growth factor that enhances dopaminergic neuron function, into the VTA of four male rhesus monkeys, with another four receiving vehicle, following induction of chronic alcohol drinking. GDNF expression ablated the return to alcohol drinking behavior over a 12-month period of repeated abstinence-alcohol reintroduction challenges. This behavioral change was accompanied by neurophysiological modulations to dopamine signaling in the nucleus accumbens that countered the hypodopaminergic signaling state associated with chronic alcohol use, indicative of a therapeutic modulation of limbic circuits countering the effects of alcohol. These preclinical findings suggest gene therapy targeting relapse prevention may be a potential therapeutic strategy for AUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew M Ford
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Psychology, Lewis & Clark College, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Brianna E George
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, USA
| | - Victor S Van Laar
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Katherine M Holleran
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, USA
| | - Jerusha Naidoo
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Piotr Hadaczek
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Lauren E Vanderhooft
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Emily G Peck
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, USA
| | - Monica H Dawes
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, USA
| | - Kousaku Ohno
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - John Bringas
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jodi L McBride
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Lluis Samaranch
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - John R Forsayeth
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sara R Jones
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, USA
| | - Kathleen A Grant
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA.
| | - Krystof S Bankiewicz
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Pandey SK, Singh RK. Recent developments in nucleic acid-based therapies for Parkinson's disease: Current status, clinical potential, and future strategies. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:986668. [PMID: 36339626 PMCID: PMC9632735 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.986668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is the second most common progressive neurodegenerative disease diagnosed mainly based on clinical symptoms caused by loss of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Although currently available pharmacological therapies provide symptomatic relief, however, the disease continues to progress eventually leading to severe motor and cognitive decline and reduced quality of life. The hallmark pathology of Parkinson's disease includes intraneuronal inclusions known as Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites, including fibrillar α-synuclein aggregates. These aggregates can progressively spread across synaptically connected brain regions leading to emergence of disease symptoms with time. The α-synuclein level is considered important in its fibrillization and aggregation. Nucleic acid therapeutics have recently been shown to be effective in treating various neurological diseases, raising the possibility of developing innovative molecular therapies for Parkinson's disease. In this review, we have described the advancements in genetic dysregulations in Parkinson's disease along with the disease-modifying strategies involved in genetic regulation with particular focus on downregulation of α-synuclein gene using various novel technologies, notably antisense oligonucleotides, microRNA, short interfering RNA, short hairpin RNAs, DNA aptamers, and gene therapy of vector-assisted delivery system-based therapeutics. In addition, the current status of preclinical and clinical development for nucleic acid-based therapies for Parkinson's disease have also been discussed along with their limitations and opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rakesh Kumar Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Raebareli, Uttar Pradesh, India
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Gene-Based Therapeutics for Parkinson’s Disease. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10081790. [PMID: 35892690 PMCID: PMC9331241 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10081790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a complex multifactorial disorder that is not yet fully surmised, and it is only when such a disease is tackled on multiple levels simultaneously that we should expect to see fruitful results. Gene therapy is a modern medical practice that theoretically and, so far, practically, has demonstrated its capability in joining the battle against PD and other complex disorders on most if not all fronts. This review discusses how gene therapy can efficiently replace current forms of therapy such as drugs, personalized medicine or invasive surgery. Furthermore, we discuss the importance of enhancing delivery techniques to increase the level of transduction and control of gene expression or tissue specificity. Importantly, the results of current trials establish the safety, efficacy and applicability of gene therapy for PD. Gene therapy’s variety of potential in interfering with PD’s pathology by improving basal ganglial circuitry, enhancing dopamine synthesis, delivering neuroprotection or preventing neurodegeneration may one day achieve symptomatic benefit, disease modification and eradication.
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8
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Aldhshan MS, Jhanji G, Poritsanos NJ, Mizuno TM. Glucose Stimulates Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene Expression in Microglia through a GLUT5-Independent Mechanism. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23137073. [PMID: 35806073 PMCID: PMC9266953 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23137073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 06/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Feeding-regulating neurotrophic factors are expressed in both neurons and glial cells. However, nutritional regulation of anorexigenic glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and orexigenic mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF) expression in specific cell types remains poorly understood. Hypothalamic glucose sensing plays a critical role in the regulation of food intake. It has been theorized that local glucose concentration modulates microglial activity partially via glucose transporter 5 (GLUT5). We hypothesized that an increased local glucose concentration stimulates GDNF expression while inhibiting MANF expression in the hypothalamus and microglia via GLUT5. The present study investigated the effect of glucose on Gdnf and Manf mRNA expression in the mouse hypothalamus and murine microglial cell line SIM-A9. Intracerebroventricular glucose treatment significantly increased Gdnf mRNA levels in the hypothalamus without altering Manf mRNA levels. Exposure to high glucose caused a significant increase in Gdnf mRNA expression and a time-dependent change in Manf mRNA expression in SIM-A9 cells. GLUT5 inhibitor treatment did not block glucose-induced Gdnf mRNA expression in these cells. These findings suggest that microglia are responsive to changes in the local glucose concentration and increased local glucose availability stimulates the expression of microglial GNDF through a GLUT5-independent mechanism, contributing to glucose-induced feeding suppression.
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9
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Paul A, Collins MG, Lee HY. Gene Therapy: The Next-Generation Therapeutics and Their Delivery Approaches for Neurological Disorders. Front Genome Ed 2022; 4:899209. [PMID: 35832929 PMCID: PMC9272754 DOI: 10.3389/fgeed.2022.899209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurological conditions like neurodevelopmental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases are quite complex and often exceedingly difficult for patients. Most of these conditions are due to a mutation in a critical gene. There is no cure for the majority of these neurological conditions and the availability of disease-modifying therapeutics is quite rare. The lion's share of the treatments that are available only provide symptomatic relief, as such, we are in desperate need of an effective therapeutic strategy for these conditions. Considering the current drug development landscape, gene therapy is giving us hope as one such effective therapeutic strategy. Consistent efforts have been made to develop gene therapy strategies using viral and non-viral vectors of gene delivery. Here, we have discussed both of these delivery methods and their properties. We have summarized the relative advantages and drawbacks of viral and non-viral vectors from the perspectives of safety, efficiency, and productivity. Recent developments such as clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9-mediated gene editing and its use in vivo have been described here as well. Given recent advancements, gene therapy shows great promise to emerge as a next-generation therapeutic for many of the neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative conditions.
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10
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Cintron-Colon AF, Almeida-Alves G, VanGyseghem JM, Spitsbergen JM. GDNF to the rescue: GDNF delivery effects on motor neurons and nerves, and muscle re-innervation after peripheral nerve injuries. Neural Regen Res 2021; 17:748-753. [PMID: 34472460 PMCID: PMC8530131 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.322446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries commonly occur due to trauma, like a traffic accident. Peripheral nerves get severed, causing motor neuron death and potential muscle atrophy. The current golden standard to treat peripheral nerve lesions, especially lesions with large (≥ 3 cm) nerve gaps, is the use of a nerve autograft or reimplantation in cases where nerve root avulsions occur. If not tended early, degeneration of motor neurons and loss of axon regeneration can occur, leading to loss of function. Although surgical procedures exist, patients often do not fully recover, and quality of life deteriorates. Peripheral nerves have limited regeneration, and it is usually mediated by Schwann cells and neurotrophic factors, like glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, as seen in Wallerian degeneration. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor is a neurotrophic factor known to promote motor neuron survival and neurite outgrowth. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor is upregulated in different forms of nerve injuries like axotomy, sciatic nerve crush, and compression, thus creating great interest to explore this protein as a potential treatment for peripheral nerve injuries. Exogenous glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor has shown positive effects in regeneration and functional recovery when applied in experimental models of peripheral nerve injuries. In this review, we discuss the mechanism of repair provided by Schwann cells and upregulation of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, the latest findings on the effects of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor in different types of peripheral nerve injuries, delivery systems, and complementary treatments (electrical muscle stimulation and exercise). Understanding and overcoming the challenges of proper timing and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor delivery is paramount to creating novel treatments to tend to peripheral nerve injuries to improve patients’ quality of life.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - John M Spitsbergen
- Biological Sciences Department, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI, USA
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11
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Goulding SR, Lévesque M, Sullivan AM, Collins LM, O'Keeffe GW. Quinacrine and Niclosamide Promote Neurite Growth in Midbrain Dopaminergic Neurons Through the Canonical BMP-Smad Pathway and Protect Against Neurotoxin and α-Synuclein-Induced Neurodegeneration. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:3405-3416. [PMID: 33713017 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02351-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by nigrostriatal dopaminergic degeneration, and intracellular α-synuclein aggregation. Current pharmacological treatments are solely symptomatic so there is a need to identify agents that can slow or stop dopaminergic degeneration. One proposed class of therapeutics are neurotrophic factors which promote the survival of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. However, neurotrophic factors need to be delivered directly to the brain. An alternative approach may be to identify pharmacological agents which can reach the brain to stimulate neurotrophic factor expression and/or their signalling pathways in dopaminergic neurons. BMP2 is a neurotrophic factor that is expressed in the human substantia nigra; exogenous BMP2 administration protects against dopaminergic degeneration in in vitro models of PD. In this study, we investigated the neurotrophic potential of two FDA-approved drugs, quinacrine and niclosamide, that are modulators of BMP2 signalling. We report that quinacrine and niclosamide, like BMP2, significantly increased neurite length, as a readout of neurotrophic action, in SH-SY5Y cells and dopaminergic neurons in primary cultures of rat ventral mesencephalon. We also show that these effects of quinacrine and niclosamide require the activation of BMP-Smad signalling. Finally, we demonstrate that quinacrine and niclosamide are neuroprotective against degeneration induced by the neurotoxins, MPP+ and 6-OHDA, and by viral-mediated overexpression of α-synuclein in vitro. Collectively, this study identifies two drugs, that are safe for use in patients' to 'are approved for human use, that exert neurotrophic effects on dopaminergic neurons through modulation of BMP-Smad signalling. This rationalises the further study of drugs that target the BMP-Smad pathway as potential neuroprotective pharmacotherapy for Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan R Goulding
- Department of Biological Sciences, Munster Technological University, Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience and Cork Neuroscience Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Martin Lévesque
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosciences, Cervo Brain Research Centre, Université Laval, Quebec, QC, Canada
| | - Aideen M Sullivan
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience and Cork Neuroscience Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
| | - Louise M Collins
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience and Cork Neuroscience Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
- Department of Physiology, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
| | - Gerard W O'Keeffe
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience and Cork Neuroscience Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
- APC Microbiome Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
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12
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Adeno-Associated Viral Vectors as Versatile Tools for Parkinson's Research, Both for Disease Modeling Purposes and for Therapeutic Uses. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22126389. [PMID: 34203739 PMCID: PMC8232322 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is without any doubt that precision medicine therapeutic strategies targeting neurodegenerative disorders are currently witnessing the spectacular rise of newly designed approaches based on the use of viral vectors as Trojan horses for the controlled release of a given genetic payload. Among the different types of viral vectors, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) rank as the ones most commonly used for the purposes of either disease modeling or for therapeutic strategies. Here, we reviewed the current literature dealing with the use of AAVs within the field of Parkinson’s disease with the aim to provide neuroscientists with the advice and background required when facing a choice on which AAV might be best suited for addressing a given experimental challenge. Accordingly, here we will be summarizing some insights on different AAV serotypes, and which would be the most appropriate AAV delivery route. Next, the use of AAVs for modeling synucleinopathies is highlighted, providing potential readers with a landscape view of ongoing pre-clinical and clinical initiatives pushing forward AAV-based therapeutic approaches for Parkinson’s disease and related synucleinopathies.
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13
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Kim KI, Baek JY, Chung YC, Nam JH, Shin WH, Jin BK. p70S6K on astrocytes protects dopamine neurons from 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium neurotoxicity. Glia 2021; 69:2133-2145. [PMID: 33956370 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Our recent finding has demonstrated that astrocytes confer neuroprotection by endogenously producing ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) via transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) in Parkinson's disease (PD). In this study, the possible molecular target for TRPV1-mediated CNTF production and its neuroprotective effects on dopamine neurons were further investigated. For comparison, glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) was also examined. The results show that TRPV1-ribosomal protein 70 S6 kinase (p70S6K) signaling on astrocytes produces endogenous CNTF in the SN of MPP+ -lesioned rat. By marked contrast, the expression of GDNF on astrocytes is independent of TRPV1-p70S6K signaling. Administration of a TRPV1 agonist, capsaicin, increases levels of phosphorylated p70S6K (p-p70S6K; activation of p70S6K) on astrocytes, resulting in the survival of dopamine neurons and behavioral recovery through endogenous production of CNTF in the MPP+ -lesioned rat model of PD. Immunohistochemical analysis reveals expression of p-p70S6K on astrocytes in the SN of PD patients, indicating relevance to human PD. The present in vivo data is the first to demonstrate that astrocytic TRPV1-p70S6K signaling plays a pivotal role as endogenous neuroprotective, and it may constitute a novel therapeutic target for treating PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyoung In Kim
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Jeong Yeob Baek
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Young Cheul Chung
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Jin Han Nam
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Won-Ho Shin
- Department of Predictive Toxicology, Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, South Korea
| | - Byung Kwan Jin
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
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14
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Alsharif I, Boukhzar L, Lefranc B, Godefroy D, Aury-Landas J, Rego JLD, Rego JCD, Naudet F, Arabo A, Chagraoui A, Maltête D, Benazzouz A, Baugé C, Leprince J, Elkahloun AG, Eiden LE, Anouar Y. Cell-penetrating, antioxidant SELENOT mimetic protects dopaminergic neurons and ameliorates motor dysfunction in Parkinson's disease animal models. Redox Biol 2021; 40:101839. [PMID: 33486153 PMCID: PMC7823055 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2020.101839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by motor dysfunction for which there is an unmet need for better treatment options. Although oxidative stress is a common feature of neurodegenerative diseases, notably PD, there is currently no efficient therapeutic strategy able to tackle this multi-target pathophysiological process. Based on our previous observations of the potent antioxidant and neuroprotective activity of SELENOT, a vital thioredoxin-like selenoprotein, we designed the small peptide PSELT from its redox active site to evaluate its antioxidant properties in vivo, and its potential polyfunctional activity in PD models. PSELT protects neurotoxin-treated dopaminergic neurons against oxidative stress and cell death, and their fibers against neurotoxic degeneration. PSELT is cell-permeable and acts in multiple subcellular compartments of dopaminergic neurons that are vulnerable to oxidative stress. In rodent models of PD, this protective activity prevented neurodegeneration, restored phosphorylated tyrosine hydroxylase levels, and led to improved motor skills. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that gene regulation by PSELT after MPP+ treatment negatively correlates with that occurring in PD, and positively correlates with that occurring after resveratrol treatment. Mechanistically, a major impact of PSELT is via nuclear stimulation of the transcription factor EZH2, leading to neuroprotection. Overall, these findings demonstrate the potential of PSELT as a therapeutic candidate for treatment of PD, targeting oxidative stress at multiple intracellular levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ifat Alsharif
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France; Biology department, Jamoum University College, Umm Alqura University, Saudi Arabia
| | - Loubna Boukhzar
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Benjamin Lefranc
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France; PRIMACEN, Cell Imaging Platform of Normandie, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - David Godefroy
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France
| | | | - Jean-Luc do Rego
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France; Behavioral Analysis Platform SCAC, Rouen Medical School, Rouen Normandie University, 76183, Rouen, France
| | - Jean-Claude do Rego
- Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France; Behavioral Analysis Platform SCAC, Rouen Medical School, Rouen Normandie University, 76183, Rouen, France
| | - Frédéric Naudet
- Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, CNRS, UMR 5293, Bordeaux University, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Arnaud Arabo
- Biological Resource Service (SRB), Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | - Abdeslam Chagraoui
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - David Maltête
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Abdelhamid Benazzouz
- Institut des Maladies Neurodégénératives, CNRS, UMR 5293, Bordeaux University, F-33000, Bordeaux, France
| | | | - Jérôme Leprince
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France; PRIMACEN, Cell Imaging Platform of Normandie, UNIROUEN, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Abdel G Elkahloun
- Comparative Genomics and Cancer, Genetics Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Lee E Eiden
- Section on Molecular Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health Intramural Research Program, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Youssef Anouar
- UNIROUEN, Inserm U1239, Neuronal and Neuroendocrine Differentiation and Communication Laboratory, Rouen Normandie University, 76821, Mont-Saint-Aignan, France; Institute for Research and Innovation in Biomedicine, 76000, Rouen, France.
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15
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Sun J, Roy S. Gene-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:297-311. [PMID: 33526943 PMCID: PMC8394447 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-00778-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Gene therapy is making a comeback. With its twin promise of targeting disease etiology and 'long-term correction', gene-based therapies (defined here as all forms of genome manipulation) are particularly appealing for neurodegenerative diseases, for which conventional pharmacologic approaches have been largely disappointing. The recent success of a viral-vector-based gene therapy in spinal muscular atrophy-promoting survival and motor function with a single intravenous injection-offers a paradigm for such therapeutic intervention and a platform to build on. Although challenges remain, the newfound optimism largely stems from advances in the development of viral vectors that can diffusely deliver genes throughout the CNS, as well as genome-engineering tools that can manipulate disease pathways in ways that were previously impossible. Surely spinal muscular atrophy cannot be the only neurodegenerative disease amenable to gene therapy, and one can imagine a future in which the toolkit of a clinician will include gene-based therapeutics. The goal of this Review is to highlight advances in the development and application of gene-based therapies for neurodegenerative diseases and offer a prospective look into this emerging arena.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jichao Sun
- Department of Geriatrics, Shenzhen People’s Hospital (The Second Clinical Medical College, Jinan University; The First Affiliated Hospital, Southern University of Science and Technology), Shenzhen 518020, Guangdong, China
| | - Subhojit Roy
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA,Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA,Correspondence:
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16
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Kambey PA, Kanwore K, Ayanlaja AA, Nadeem I, Du Y, Buberwa W, Liu W, Gao D. Failure of Glial Cell-Line Derived Neurotrophic Factor (GDNF) in Clinical Trials Orchestrated By Reduced NR4A2 (NURR1) Transcription Factor in Parkinson's Disease. A Systematic Review. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:645583. [PMID: 33716718 PMCID: PMC7943926 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.645583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative maladies with unforeseen complex pathologies. While this neurodegenerative disorder’s neuropathology is reasonably well known, its etiology remains a mystery, making it challenging to aim therapy. Glial cell-line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) remains an auspicious therapeutic molecule for treating PD. Neurotrophic factor derived from glial cell lines is effective in rodents and nonhuman primates, but clinical findings have been equivocal. Laborious exertions have been made over the past few decades to improve and assess GDNF in treating PD (clinical studies). Definitive clinical trials have, however, failed to demonstrate a survival advantage. Consequently, there seemed to be a doubt as to whether GDNF has merit in the potential treatment of PD. The purpose of this cutting edge review is to speculate as to why the clinical trials have failed to meet the primary endpoint. We introduce a hypothesis, “Failure of GDNF in clinical trials succumbed by nuclear receptor-related factor 1 (Nurr1) shortfall.” We demonstrate how Nurr1 binds to GDNF to induce dopaminergic neuron synthesis. Due to its undisputable neuro-protection aptitude, we display Nurr1 (also called Nr4a2) as a promising therapeutic target for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piniel Alphayo Kambey
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Kouminin Kanwore
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Abiola Abdulrahman Ayanlaja
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Iqra Nadeem
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - YinZhen Du
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | | | - WenYa Liu
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
| | - Dianshuai Gao
- Xuzhou Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, China
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17
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Moradi SZ, Jalili F, Farhadian N, Joshi T, Wang M, Zou L, Cao H, Farzaei MH, Xiao J. Polyphenols and neurodegenerative diseases: focus on neuronal regeneration. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:3421-3436. [PMID: 33393375 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2020.1865870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are questions that modern therapeutics can still not answer. Great milestones have been achieved regarding liver, heart, skin, kidney and other types of organ transplantations but the greatest drawback is the adequate supply of these organs. Furthermore, there are still a few options available in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. With great advances in medical science, many health problems faced by humans have been solved, and their quality of life is improving. Moreover, diseases that were incurable in the past have now been fully cured. Still, the area of regenerative medicine, especially concerning neuronal regeneration, is in its infancy. Presently allopathic drugs, surgical procedures, organ transplantation, stem cell therapy forms the core of regenerative therapy. However, many times, the currently used therapies cannot completely cure damaged organs and neurodegenerative diseases. The current review focuses on the concepts of regeneration, hurdles faced in the path of regenerative therapy, neurodegenerative diseases and the idea of using peptides, cytokines, tissue engineering, genetic engineering, advanced stem cell therapy, and polyphenolic phytochemicals to cure damaged tissues and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Zachariah Moradi
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Faramarz Jalili
- Students Research Committee, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Negin Farhadian
- Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Tanuj Joshi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kumaun University (Nainital), Nainital, India
| | - Mingfu Wang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Liang Zou
- Key Laboratory of Coarse Cereal Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Chengdu University, Chengdu, China
| | - Hui Cao
- College of Food Science and Technology, Guangdong Ocean University, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Mohammad Hosein Farzaei
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah, Iran
| | - Jianbo Xiao
- Institute of Food Safety and Nutrition, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China.,International Research Center for Food Nutrition and Safety, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
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18
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Terse PS, Kells AP, Noker P, Wright JF, Bankiewicz KS. Safety Assessment of AAV2-hGDNF Administered Via Intracerebral Injection in Rats for Treatment of Parkinson's Disease. Int J Toxicol 2021; 40:4-14. [PMID: 33131343 PMCID: PMC8171122 DOI: 10.1177/1091581820966315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is a potent neuroprotective biologic in Parkinson's disease models. Adeno-associated viral vector serotype 2 (AAV2)-human GDNF safety was assessed in rats treated with a single intracerebral dose of vehicle, 6.8 × 108, 6.8 × 109, or 5.2 × 1010 vector genomes (vg)/dose followed by interim sacrifices on day 7, 31, 90, and 376. There were no treatment-related effects observed on food consumption, body weight, hematology, clinical chemistry, coagulation parameters, neurobehavioral parameters, organ weights, or serum GDNF and anti-GDNF antibody levels. Increased serum anti-AAV2 neutralizing antibody titers were observed in the 5.2 × 1010 vg/dose group. Histopathological lesions were observed at the injection site in the 6.8 × 109 vg/dose (day 7) and 5.2 × 1010 vg/dose groups (days 7 and 31) and consisted of gliosis, mononuclear perivascular cuffing, intranuclear inclusion bodies, and/or apoptosis on day 7 and mononuclear perivascular cuffing on day 31. GDNF immunostaining was observed in the injection site in all dose groups through day 376 indicating no detectable impacts of anti-AAV2 neutralizing antibody. There was no evidence of increased expression of calcitonin gene-related peptide or Swann cell hyperplasia in the cervical and lumbar spinal cord or medulla oblongata at the 5.2 × 1010 vg/dose level indicating lack of hyperplastic effects. In conclusion, no systemic toxicity was observed, and the local toxicity observed at the injection site appeared to be reversible demonstrating a promising safety profile of intracerebral AAV2-GDNF delivery. Furthermore, an intracerebral dose of 6.8 × 108 AAV2-GDNF vg/dose was considered to be a no observed adverse effect level in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pramod S. Terse
- National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences, NIH, Rockville, MD, USA
| | | | | | - J Fraser Wright
- Center for Definitive and Curative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA, USA
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19
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Buttery PC, Barker RA. Gene and Cell-Based Therapies for Parkinson's Disease: Where Are We? Neurotherapeutics 2020; 17:1539-1562. [PMID: 33128174 PMCID: PMC7598241 DOI: 10.1007/s13311-020-00940-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that carries large health and socioeconomic burdens. Current therapies for PD are ultimately inadequate, both in terms of symptom control and in modification of disease progression. Deep brain stimulation and infusion therapies are the current mainstay for treatment of motor complications of advanced disease, but these have very significant drawbacks and offer no element of disease modification. In fact, there are currently no agents that are established to modify the course of the disease in clinical use for PD. Gene and cell therapies for PD are now being trialled in the clinic. These treatments are diverse and may have a range of niches in the management of PD. They hold great promise for improved treatment of symptoms as well as possibly slowing progression of the disease in the right patient group. Here, we review the current state of the art for these therapies and look to future strategies in this fast-moving field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip C Buttery
- Cambridge Institute for Medical Research, The Keith Peters Building, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, CB2 0XY, Cambridge, UK.
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, CB2 0QQ, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Roger A Barker
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Hills Road, CB2 0QQ, Cambridge, UK.
- John van Geest Centre for Brain Repair, E.D. Adrian Building, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, CB2 0PY, Cambridge, UK.
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20
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Conway JA, Ince S, Black S, Kramer ER. GDNF/RET signaling in dopamine neurons in vivo. Cell Tissue Res 2020; 382:135-146. [PMID: 32870383 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-020-03268-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and its canonical receptor Ret can signal both in tandem and separately to exert many vital functions in the midbrain dopamine system. It is known that Ret has effects on maintenance, physiology, protection and regeneration in the midbrain dopamine system, with the physiological functions of GDNF still somewhat unclear. Notwithstanding, Ret ligands, such as GDNF, are considered as promising candidates for neuroprotection and/or regeneration in Parkinson's disease, although data from clinical trials are so far inconclusive. In this review, we discuss the current knowledge of GDNF/Ret signaling in the dopamine system in vivo as well as crosstalk with pathology-associated proteins and their signaling in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Conway
- Peninsula Medical School, Institute of Translational and Stratified Medicine, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | - Selvi Ince
- Peninsula Medical School, Institute of Translational and Stratified Medicine, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK
| | | | - Edgar R Kramer
- Peninsula Medical School, Institute of Translational and Stratified Medicine, Faculty of Health, University of Plymouth, Plymouth, UK.
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21
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Zhang L, Zhang L, Li L, Hölscher C. Semaglutide is Neuroprotective and Reduces α-Synuclein Levels in the Chronic MPTP Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease. JOURNAL OF PARKINSONS DISEASE 2020; 9:157-171. [PMID: 30741689 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-181503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurological motor control disorder. A key feature is the loss of midbrain dopaminergic neurons and the accumulation of aggregated alpha-synuclein (α-syn). No current treatment is on the market that slows or halts disease progression. Previous studies have shown that glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists have neuroprotective effects in animal models of PD. In addition, in a phase II clinical trial, the GLP-1 receptor agonist exendin-4 has shown good protective effects in PD patients. In the present study, we have investigated the neuroprotective effects of the GLP-1 analogues semaglutide (25 nmol/kg ip. once every two days for 30 days) and liraglutide (25 nmol/kg ip. once daily for 30 days) in the chronic MPTP mouse model of PD. Both drugs are currently on the market as a treatment for Type II diabetes. Our results show that both semaglutide and liraglutide improved MPTP-induced motor impairments. In addition, both drugs rescued the decrease of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels, reduced the accumulation of α-syn, alleviated the chronic inflammation response in the brain, reduced lipid peroxidation, and inhibited the mitochondrial mitophagy signaling pathway, and furthermore increased expression of the key growth factor GDNF that protects dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and striatum. Moreover, the long- acting GLP-1 analogue semaglutide was more potent compared with once daily liraglutide in most parameters measured in this study. Our results demonstrate that semaglutide may be a promising treatment for PD. A clinical trial testing semaglutide in PD patients will start shortly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - LingYu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - Lin Li
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China
| | - Christian Hölscher
- Department of Second Hospital Neurology, Shanxi medical University, Taiyuan, Shanxi, PR China.,Research and Experimental Center, Henan University of Chinese Medicine, Zhengzhou, Henan province, China
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22
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Duarte Azevedo M, Sander S, Tenenbaum L. GDNF, A Neuron-Derived Factor Upregulated in Glial Cells during Disease. J Clin Med 2020; 9:E456. [PMID: 32046031 PMCID: PMC7073520 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9020456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In a healthy adult brain, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is exclusively expressed by neurons, and, in some instances, it has also been shown to derive from a single neuronal subpopulation. Secreted GDNF acts in a paracrine fashion by forming a complex with the GDNF family receptor α1 (GFRα1), which is mainly expressed by neurons and can act in cis as a membrane-bound factor or in trans as a soluble factor. The GDNF/GFRα1 complex signals through interactions with the "rearranged during transfection" (RET) receptor or via the neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM) with a lower affinity. GDNF can also signal independently from GFRα1 by interacting with syndecan-3. RET, which is expressed by neurons involved in several pathways (nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons, motor neurons, enteric neurons, sensory neurons, etc.), could be the main determinant of the specificity of GDNF's pro-survival effect. In an injured brain, de novo expression of GDNF occurs in glial cells. Neuroinflammation has been reported to induce GDNF expression in activated astrocytes and microglia, infiltrating macrophages, nestin-positive reactive astrocytes, and neuron/glia (NG2) positive microglia-like cells. This disease-related GDNF overexpression can be either beneficial or detrimental depending on the localization in the brain and the level and duration of glial cell activation. Some reports also describe the upregulation of RET and GFRα1 in glial cells, suggesting that GDNF could modulate neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Liliane Tenenbaum
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurotherapies and NeuroModulation, Center for Neuroscience Research, Lausanne University Hospital, CHUV-Pavillon 3, av de Beaumont, CH-1010 Lausanne, Switzerland; (M.D.A.); (S.S.)
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Iarkov A, Barreto GE, Grizzell JA, Echeverria V. Strategies for the Treatment of Parkinson's Disease: Beyond Dopamine. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:4. [PMID: 32076403 PMCID: PMC7006457 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second-leading cause of dementia and is characterized by a progressive loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra alongside the presence of intraneuronal α-synuclein-positive inclusions. Therapies to date have been directed to the restoration of the dopaminergic system, and the prevention of dopaminergic neuronal cell death in the midbrain. This review discusses the physiological mechanisms involved in PD as well as new and prospective therapies for the disease. The current data suggest that prevention or early treatment of PD may be the most effective therapeutic strategy. New advances in the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of PD predict the development of more personalized and integral therapies in the years to come. Thus, the development of more reliable biomarkers at asymptomatic stages of the disease, and the use of genetic profiling of patients will surely permit a more effective treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Iarkov
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Sebastián, Concepción, Chile
| | - George E Barreto
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland.,Health Research Institute, University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
| | - J Alex Grizzell
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, United States
| | - Valentina Echeverria
- Laboratorio de Neurobiología, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad San Sebastián, Concepción, Chile.,Research & Development Service, Bay Pines VA Healthcare System, Bay Pines, FL, United States
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24
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Burnside ER, De Winter F, Didangelos A, James ND, Andreica EC, Layard-Horsfall H, Muir EM, Verhaagen J, Bradbury EJ. Immune-evasive gene switch enables regulated delivery of chondroitinase after spinal cord injury. Brain 2019; 141:2362-2381. [PMID: 29912283 PMCID: PMC6061881 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awy158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Chondroitinase ABC is a promising preclinical therapy that promotes functional neuroplasticity after CNS injury by degrading extracellular matrix inhibitors. Efficient delivery of chondroitinase ABC to the injured mammalian spinal cord can be achieved by viral vector transgene delivery. This approach dramatically modulates injury pathology and restores sensorimotor functions. However, clinical development of this therapy is limited by a lack of ability to exert control over chondroitinase gene expression. Prior experimental gene regulation platforms are likely to be incompatible with the non-resolving adaptive immune response known to occur following spinal cord injury. Therefore, here we apply a novel immune-evasive dual vector system, in which the chondroitinase gene is under a doxycycline inducible regulatory switch, utilizing a chimeric transactivator designed to evade T cell recognition. Using this novel vector system, we demonstrate tight temporal control of chondroitinase ABC gene expression, effectively removing treatment upon removal of doxycycline. This enables a comparison of short and long-term gene therapy paradigms in the treatment of clinically-relevant cervical level contusion injuries in adult rats. We reveal that transient treatment (2.5 weeks) is sufficient to promote improvement in sensory axon conduction and ladder walking performance. However, in tasks requiring skilled reaching and grasping, only long term treatment (8 weeks) leads to significantly improved function, with rats able to accurately grasp and retrieve sugar pellets. The late emergence of skilled hand function indicates enhanced neuroplasticity and connectivity and correlates with increased density of vGlut1+ innervation in spinal cord grey matter, particularly in lamina III–IV above and below the injury. Thus, our novel gene therapy system provides an experimental tool to study temporal effects of extracellular matrix digestion as well as an encouraging step towards generating a safer chondroitinase gene therapy strategy, longer term administration of which increases neuroplasticity and recovery of descending motor control. This preclinical study could have a significant impact for tetraplegic individuals, for whom recovery of hand function is an important determinant of independence, and supports the ongoing development of chondroitinase gene therapy towards clinical application for the treatment of spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily R Burnside
- King's College London, Regeneration Group, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Fred De Winter
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Laboratory for Neuroregeneration, 1105 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Athanasios Didangelos
- King's College London, Regeneration Group, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Nicholas D James
- King's College London, Regeneration Group, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Elena-Cristina Andreica
- King's College London, Regeneration Group, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Hugo Layard-Horsfall
- King's College London, Regeneration Group, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London, SE1 1UL, UK
| | - Elizabeth M Muir
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EG, UK
| | - Joost Verhaagen
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Laboratory for Neuroregeneration, 1105 BA Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Elizabeth J Bradbury
- King's College London, Regeneration Group, The Wolfson Centre for Age-Related Diseases, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience (IoPPN), Guy's Campus, London Bridge, London, SE1 1UL, UK
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25
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Heiss JD, Lungu C, Hammoud DA, Herscovitch P, Ehrlich DJ, Argersinger DP, Sinharay S, Scott G, Wu T, Federoff HJ, Zaghloul KA, Hallett M, Lonser RR, Bankiewicz KS. Trial of magnetic resonance-guided putaminal gene therapy for advanced Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2019; 34:1073-1078. [PMID: 31145831 DOI: 10.1002/mds.27724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the safety and tolerability of convection-enhanced delivery of an adeno-associated virus, serotype-2 vector carrying glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor into the bilateral putamina of PD patients. METHODS Thirteen adult patients with advanced PD underwent adeno-associated virus, serotype-2 vector carrying glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor and gadoteridol (surrogate MRI tracer) coinfusion (450 μL/hemisphere) at escalating doses: 9 × 1010 vg (n = 6); 3 × 1011 vg (n = 6); and 9 × 1011 vg (n = 1). Intraoperative MRI monitored infusion distribution. Patients underwent UPDRS assessment and [18 F]FDOPA-PET scanning preoperatively and 6 and 18 months postoperatively. RESULTS Adeno-associated virus, serotype-2 vector carrying glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor was tolerated without clinical or radiographic toxicity. Average putaminal coverage was 26%. UPDRS scores remained stable. Ten of thirteen and 12 of 13 patients had increased [18 F]FDOPA Kis at 6 and 18 months postinfusion (increase range: 5-274% and 8-130%; median, 36% and 54%), respectively. Ki differences between baseline and 6- and 18-month follow-up were statistically significant (P < 0.0002). CONCLUSION Adeno-associated virus, serotype-2 vector carrying glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor infusion was safe and well tolerated. Increased [18 F]FDOPA uptake suggests a neurotrophic effect on dopaminergic neurons. © 2019 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Heiss
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Codrin Lungu
- Division of Clinical Research, and Office of the Clinical Director, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Dima A Hammoud
- Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Peter Herscovitch
- Positron Emission Tomography Department, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Debra J Ehrlich
- Parkinson's Disease Clinic, Office of the Clinical Director, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Davis P Argersinger
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Sanhita Sinharay
- Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Gretchen Scott
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Tianxia Wu
- Clinical Trials Unit, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Howard J Federoff
- Department of Neurology, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Kareem A Zaghloul
- Surgical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Mark Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, Medical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Russell R Lonser
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA
| | - Krystof S Bankiewicz
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, Ohio, USA.,Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, California, USA
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26
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Hudry E, Vandenberghe LH. Therapeutic AAV Gene Transfer to the Nervous System: A Clinical Reality. Neuron 2019; 101:839-862. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2019.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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27
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Lasbleiz C, Mestre-Francés N, Devau G, Luquin MR, Tenenbaum L, Kremer EJ, Verdier JM. Combining Gene Transfer and Nonhuman Primates to Better Understand and Treat Parkinson's Disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2019; 12:10. [PMID: 30804750 PMCID: PMC6378268 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2019.00010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a progressive CNS disorder that is primarily associated with impaired movement. PD develops over decades and is linked to the gradual loss of dopamine delivery to the striatum, via the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). While the administration of L-dopa and deep brain stimulation are potent therapies, their costs, side effects and gradual loss of efficacy underlines the need to develop other approaches. Unfortunately, the lack of pertinent animal models that reproduce DA neuron loss and behavior deficits—in a timeline that mimics PD progression—has hindered the identification of alternative therapies. A complementary approach to transgenic animals is the use of nonhuman primates (NHPs) combined with the overexpression of disease-related genes using viral vectors. This approach may induce phenotypes that are not influenced by developmental compensation mechanisms, and that take into account the personality of animals. In this review article, we discuss the combination of gene transfer and NHPs to develop “genetic” models of PD that are suitable for testing therapeutic approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Lasbleiz
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Nadine Mestre-Francés
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | - Gina Devau
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Liliane Tenenbaum
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurotherapies and NeuroModulation, Clinical Neuroscience Department, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eric J Kremer
- Institut de Génétique Moléculaire de Montpellier, University of Montpellier, CNRS, Montpellier, France
| | - Jean-Michel Verdier
- MMDN, University of Montpellier, EPHE, INSERM, U1198, PSL University, Montpellier, France
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28
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Paul G, Sullivan AM. Trophic factors for Parkinson's disease: Where are we and where do we go from here? Eur J Neurosci 2019; 49:440-452. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Revised: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 07/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gesine Paul
- Translational Neurology GroupDepartment of Clinical ScienceLund University Lund Sweden
- Wallenberg Center for Molecular MedicineLund University Lund Sweden
- Department of NeurologyScania University Hospital Lund Sweden
| | - Aideen M. Sullivan
- Department of Anatomy and NeuroscienceUniversity College Cork Cork Ireland
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29
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Gessler DJ, Tai PWL, Li J, Gao G. Intravenous Infusion of AAV for Widespread Gene Delivery to the Nervous System. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1950:143-163. [PMID: 30783972 PMCID: PMC7339923 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9139-6_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) is a fascinating and intricate set of biological structures that we have yet to fully understand. Studying the in vivo function of the CNS and finding novel methods for treating neurological disorders have been particularly challenging. One difficulty is correcting genetic disorders afflicting the CNS in a targeted manner. Recombinant adeno-associated viruses (rAAVs) have emerged as promising therapeutic tools for treating genetic defects of the CNS, due to their excellent safety profile and ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). While stereotactic injection of AAV is promising for localized gene delivery, it is less desirable for some applications because of the technique's invasiveness and limited intraparenchymal spread. Alternatively, intravascular administration can achieve widespread delivery of rAAV to the CNS. In this chapter, we will discuss the prevalent routes of administration to deliver rAAV to the CNS via intravenous (IV) injection in mice. We will highlight key considerations for using rAAV, and the advantages and disadvantages of each administration method. We will also briefly discuss intravenous delivery in larger animal models, factors that may impact experimental interpretations, and outlooks for clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic J Gessler
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Phillip W L Tai
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Jia Li
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
| | - Guangping Gao
- Horae Gene Therapy Center, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Li Weibo Institute for Rare Diseases Research, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
- Department of Microbiology and Physiological Systems, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA.
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Abstract
Gene therapy has the potential to provide therapeutic benefit to millions of people with neurodegenerative diseases through several means, including direct correction of pathogenic mechanisms, neuroprotection, neurorestoration, and symptom control. Therapeutic efficacy is therefore dependent on knowledge of the disease pathogenesis and the required temporal and spatial specificity of gene expression. An additional critical challenge is achieving the most complete transduction of the target structure while avoiding leakage into neighboring regions or perivascular spaces. The gene therapy field has recently entered a new technological era, in which interventional MRI-guided convection-enhanced delivery (iMRI-CED) is the gold standard for verifying accurate vector delivery in real time. The availability of this advanced neurosurgical technique may accelerate the translation of the promising preclinical therapeutics under development for neurodegenerative disorders, including Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Alzheimer's diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Sudhakar
- Brain Modulation Laboratory, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15213, USA
| | - R Mark Richardson
- Brain Modulation Laboratory, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 15213, USA.
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31
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Cheng S, Tereshchenko J, Zimmer V, Vachey G, Pythoud C, Rey M, Liefhebber J, Raina A, Streit F, Mazur A, Bähr M, Konstantinova P, Déglon N, Kügler S. Therapeutic efficacy of regulable GDNF expression for Huntington's and Parkinson's disease by a high-induction, background-free “GeneSwitch” vector. Exp Neurol 2018; 309:79-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2018.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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32
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Penttinen AM, Parkkinen I, Voutilainen MH, Koskela M, Bäck S, Their A, Richie CT, Domanskyi A, Harvey BK, Tuominen RK, Nevalaita L, Saarma M, Airavaara M. Pre-α-pro-GDNF and Pre-β-pro-GDNF Isoforms Are Neuroprotective in the 6-hydroxydopamine Rat Model of Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2018; 9:457. [PMID: 29973907 PMCID: PMC6019446 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is one of the most studied neurotrophic factors. GDNF has two splice isoforms, full-length pre-α-pro-GDNF (α-GDNF) and pre-β-pro-GDNF (β-GDNF), which has a 26 amino acid deletion in the pro-region. Thus far, studies have focused solely on the α-GDNF isoform, and nothing is known about the in vivo effects of the shorter β-GDNF variant. Here we compare for the first time the effects of overexpressed α-GDNF and β-GDNF in non-lesioned rat striatum and the partial 6-hydroxydopamine lesion model of Parkinson's disease. GDNF isoforms were overexpressed with their native pre-pro-sequences in the striatum using an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector, and the effects on motor performance and dopaminergic phenotype of the nigrostriatal pathway were assessed. In the non-lesioned striatum, both isoforms increased the density of dopamine transporter-positive fibers at 3 weeks after viral vector delivery. Although both isoforms increased the activity of the animals in cylinder assay, only α-GDNF enhanced the use of contralateral paw. Four weeks later, the striatal tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-immunoreactivity was decreased in both α-GDNF and β-GDNF treated animals. In the neuroprotection assay, both GDNF splice isoforms increased the number of TH-immunoreactive cells in the substantia nigra but did not promote behavioral recovery based on amphetamine-induced rotation or cylinder assays. Thus, the shorter GDNF isoform, β-GDNF, and the full-length α-isoform have comparable neuroprotective efficacy on dopamine neurons of the nigrostriatal circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Maija Penttinen
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ilmari Parkkinen
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Merja H Voutilainen
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maryna Koskela
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Susanne Bäck
- Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anna Their
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Christopher T Richie
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Andrii Domanskyi
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Brandon K Harvey
- National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Raimo K Tuominen
- Division of Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Liina Nevalaita
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mart Saarma
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mikko Airavaara
- HiLIFE Unit, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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33
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Ge G, Chen C, Guderyon MJ, Liu J, He Z, Yu Y, Clark RA, Li S. Regulatable Lentiviral Hematopoietic Stem Cell Gene Therapy in a Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease. Stem Cells Dev 2018; 27:995-1005. [PMID: 29562865 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2018.0030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) exhibits potent neuroprotective properties in preclinical models of Parkinson's disease (PD), but challenges in GDNF delivery have been reported from clinical trials. To address this barrier, we developed a hematopoietic stem cell transplantation-based macrophage-mediated GDNF therapy platform. Here, we introduced a regulatable lentiviral vector (LV-MSP-Tet-Off-hGDNF) to allow the expression of human GDNF (hGDNF) to be adjusted or stopped by oral administration of doxycycline (Dox). C57BL/6J mice were lethally irradiated with head protection and then transplanted with syngeneic bone marrow cells transduced with either the hGDNF-expressing vector or a corresponding GFP-expressing vector, LV-MSP-Tet-Off-GFP. Suppression of vector gene expression was achieved through administration of Dox in drinking water. To create a toxin-induced Parkinsonian model, mice were injected in two cycles with MPTP (1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine) to yield nigral cell/striatal dopamine loss and behavioral deficits. During the presence of Dox in the drinking water, plasma GDNF was at a basal level, whereas during the absence of Dox, plasma GDNF was significantly elevated, indicating reliable regulation of therapeutic gene expression. Midbrain GDNF levels were altered in parallel, although these did not return completely to basal levels during the periods of Dox withdrawal. Motor activities of the MPTP-Tet-off-hGDNF group were comparable to those of the Tet-off-GFP (subject to no MPTP treatment) group, but substantially better than those of the MPTP-Tet-off-GFP group. Interestingly, the improvement in motor activities was sustained during the Dox-withdrawn periods in MPTP-Tet-off-hGDNF animals. Neuroprotection by therapeutic GDNF expression was further evidenced by significant amelioration of nigral tyrosine hydroxylase loss after both the first and second MPTP treatment cycles. These data suggest that neurotrophic factor expression can be upregulated to achieve efficacy or downregulated in case of off-target effects or adverse events, a feature that may eventually increase the acceptance of this potentially neuroprotective/disease-modifying PD therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guo Ge
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,2 Stem Cells Research Center and Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University , Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Cang Chen
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Michael J Guderyon
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Jingwei Liu
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Zhixu He
- 2 Stem Cells Research Center and Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University , Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Yanni Yu
- 2 Stem Cells Research Center and Department of Pathology, Guizhou Medical University , Guiyang, Guizhou, China
| | - Robert A Clark
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,3 Research & Development Service, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital , San Antonio, Texas
| | - Senlin Li
- 1 Department of Medicine, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas.,3 Research & Development Service, Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital , San Antonio, Texas.,4 Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health San Antonio , San Antonio, Texas
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34
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Axelsen TM, Woldbye DP. Gene Therapy for Parkinson's Disease, An Update. JOURNAL OF PARKINSON'S DISEASE 2018; 8:195-215. [PMID: 29710735 PMCID: PMC6027861 DOI: 10.3233/jpd-181331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The current mainstay treatment of Parkinson's disease (PD) consists of dopamine replacement therapy which, in addition to causing several side effects, does not delay disease progression. The field of gene therapy offers a potential means to improve current therapy. The present review gives an update of the present status of gene therapy for PD. Both non-disease and disease modifying transgenes have been tested for PD gene therapy in animal and human studies. Non-disease modifying treatments targeting dopamine or GABA synthesis have been successful and promising at improving PD symptomatology in randomized clinical studies, but substantial testing remains before these can be implemented in the standard clinical treatment repertoire. As for disease modifying targets that theoretically offer the possibility of slowing the progression of disease, several neurotrophic factors show encouraging results in preclinical models (e.g., neurturin, GDNF, BDNF, CDNF, VEGF-A). However, so far, clinical trials have only tested neurturin, and, unfortunately, no trial has been able to meet its primary endpoint. Future clinical trials with neurotrophic factors clearly deserve to be conducted, considering the still enticing goal of actually slowing the disease process of PD. As alternative types of gene therapy, opto- and chemogenetics might also find future use in PD treatment and novel genome-editing technology could also potentially be applied as individualized gene therapy for genetic types of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias M. Axelsen
- Department of Neurology, Herlev University Hospital, Herlev, Denmark
| | - David P.D. Woldbye
- Department of Neuroscience, Panum Institute, Mærsk Tower, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen N, Denmark
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Das AT, Tenenbaum L, Berkhout B. Tet-On Systems For Doxycycline-inducible Gene Expression. Curr Gene Ther 2017; 16:156-67. [PMID: 27216914 PMCID: PMC5070417 DOI: 10.2174/1566523216666160524144041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The tetracycline-controlled Tet-Off and Tet-On gene expression systems are used to regulate the activity of genes in eukaryotic cells in diverse settings, varying from basic biological research to biotechnology and gene therapy applications. These systems are based on regulatory elements that control the activity of the tetracycline-resistance operon in bacteria. The Tet-Off system allows silencing of gene expression by administration of tetracycline (Tc) or tetracycline-derivatives like doxycycline (dox), whereas the Tet-On system allows activation of gene expression by dox. Since the initial design and construction of the original Tet-system, these bacterium-derived systems have been significantly improved for their function in eukaryotic cells. We here review how a dox-controlled HIV-1 variant was designed and used to greatly improve the activity and dox-sensitivity of the rtTA transcriptional activator component of the Tet-On system. These optimized rtTA variants require less dox for activation, which will reduce side effects and allow gene control in tissues where a relatively low dox level can be reached, such as the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atze T Das
- Laboratory of Experimental Virology, Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 15, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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Tenenbaum L, Humbert-Claude M. Glial Cell Line-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Gene Delivery in Parkinson's Disease: A Delicate Balance between Neuroprotection, Trophic Effects, and Unwanted Compensatory Mechanisms. Front Neuroanat 2017; 11:29. [PMID: 28442998 PMCID: PMC5385337 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2017.00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2016] [Accepted: 03/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and Neurturin (NRTN) bind to a receptor complex consisting of a member of the GDNF family receptor (GFR)-α and the Ret tyrosine kinase. Both factors were shown to protect nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons and reduce motor symptoms when applied terminally in toxin-induced Parkinson's disease (PD) models. However, clinical trials based on intraputaminal GDNF protein administration or recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAV)-mediated NRTN gene delivery have been disappointing. In this review, several factors that could have limited the clinical benefits are discussed. Retrograde transport of GDNF/NRTN to the dopaminergic neurons soma is thought to be necessary for NRTN/GFR-α/Ret signaling mediating the pro-survival effect. Therefore, the feasibility of treating advanced patients with neurotrophic factors is questioned by recent data showing that: (i) tyrosine hydroxylase-positive putaminal innervation has almost completely disappeared at 5 years post-diagnosis and (ii) in patients enrolled in the rAAV-NRTN trial more than 5 years post-diagnosis, NRTN was almost not transported to the substantia nigra pars compacta. In addition to its anti-apoptotic and neurotrophic properties, GDNF also interferes with dopamine homeostasis via time and dose-dependent effects such as: stimulation of dopamine neuron excitability, inhibition of dopamine transporter activity, tyrosine hydroxylase phosphorylation, and inhibition of tyrosine hydroxylase transcription. Depending on the delivery parameters, the net result of this intricate network of regulations could be either beneficial or deleterious. In conclusion, further unraveling of the mechanism of action of GDNF gene delivery in relevant animal models is still needed to optimize the clinical benefits of this new therapeutic approach. Recent developments in the design of regulated viral vectors will allow to finely adjust the GDNF dose and period of administration. Finally, new clinical studies in less advanced patients are warranted to evaluate the potential of AAV-mediated neurotrophic factors gene delivery in PD. These will be facilitated by the demonstration of the safety of rAAV administration into the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliane Tenenbaum
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neurotherapies, Clinical Neuroscience Department, Center for Neuroscience Research, Lausanne University HospitalLausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marie Humbert-Claude
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neurotherapies, Clinical Neuroscience Department, Center for Neuroscience Research, Lausanne University HospitalLausanne, Switzerland
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Non-human primate models of PD to test novel therapies. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2017; 125:291-324. [PMID: 28391443 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-017-1722-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Non-human primate (NHP) models of Parkinson disease show many similarities with the human disease. They are very useful to test novel pharmacotherapies as reviewed here. The various NHP models of this disease are described with their characteristics including the macaque, the marmoset, and the squirrel monkey models. Lesion-induced and genetic models are described. There is no drug to slow, delay, stop, or cure Parkinson disease; available treatments are symptomatic. The dopamine precursor, L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-Dopa) still remains the gold standard symptomatic treatment of Parkinson. However, involuntary movements termed L-Dopa-induced dyskinesias appear in most patients after chronic treatment and may become disabling. Dyskinesias are very difficult to manage and there is only amantadine approved providing only a modest benefit. In this respect, NHP models have been useful to seek new drug targets, since they reproduce motor complications observed in parkinsonian patients. Therapies to treat motor symptoms in NHP models are reviewed with a discussion of their translational value to humans. Disease-modifying treatments tested in NHP are reviewed as well as surgical treatments. Many biochemical changes in the brain of post-mortem Parkinson disease patients with dyskinesias are reviewed and compare well with those observed in NHP models. Non-motor symptoms can be categorized into psychiatric, autonomic, and sensory symptoms. These symptoms are present in most parkinsonian patients and are already installed many years before the pre-motor phase of the disease. The translational usefulness of NHP models of Parkinson is discussed for non-motor symptoms.
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Thomsen GM, Alkaslasi M, Vit JP, Lawless G, Godoy M, Gowing G, Shelest O, Svendsen CN. Systemic injection of AAV9-GDNF provides modest functional improvements in the SOD1 G93A ALS rat but has adverse side effects. Gene Ther 2017; 24:245-252. [PMID: 28276446 PMCID: PMC5404206 DOI: 10.1038/gt.2017.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2016] [Revised: 01/06/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Injecting proteins into the central nervous system that stimulate neuronal growth can lead to beneficial effects in animal models of disease. In particular, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) has shown promise in animal and cell models of Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Here, systemic AAV9-GDNF was delivered via tail vein injections to young rats to determine whether this could be a safe and functional strategy to treat the SOD1G93A rat model of ALS and, therefore, translated to a therapy for ALS patients. We found that GDNF administration in this manner resulted in modest functional improvement, whereby grip strength was maintained for longer and the onset of forelimb paralysis was delayed compared to non-treated rats. This did not, however, translate into an extension in survival. In addition, ALS rats receiving GDNF exhibited slower weight gain, reduced activity levels and decreased working memory. Collectively, these results confirm that caution should be applied when applying growth factors such as GDNF systemically to multiple tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- G M Thomsen
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - M Alkaslasi
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - J-P Vit
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Biobehavioral Research Core, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - G Lawless
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - M Godoy
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - G Gowing
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - O Shelest
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - C N Svendsen
- The Board of Governor's Regenerative Medicine Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Destination Brain: the Past, Present, and Future of Therapeutic Gene Delivery. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2017; 12:51-83. [PMID: 28160121 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-016-9724-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Neurological diseases and disorders (NDDs) present a significant societal burden and currently available drug- and biological-based therapeutic strategies have proven inadequate to alleviate it. Gene therapy is a suitable alternative to treat NDDs compared to conventional systems since it can be tailored to specifically alter select gene expression, reverse disease phenotype and restore normal function. The scope of gene therapy has broadened over the years with the advent of RNA interference and genome editing technologies. Consequently, encouraging results from central nervous system (CNS)-targeted gene delivery studies have led to their transition from preclinical to clinical trials. As we shift to an exciting gene therapy era, a retrospective of available literature on CNS-associated gene delivery is in order. This review is timely in this regard, since it analyzes key challenges and major findings from the last two decades and evaluates future prospects of brain gene delivery. We emphasize major areas consisting of physiological and pharmacological challenges in gene therapy, function-based selection of a ideal cellular target(s), available therapy modalities, and diversity of viral vectors and nanoparticles as vehicle systems. Further, we present plausible answers to key questions such as strategies to circumvent low blood-brain barrier permeability and most suitable CNS cell types for targeting. We compare and contrast pros and cons of the tested viral vectors in the context of delivery systems used in past and current clinical trials. Gene vector design challenges are also evaluated in the context of cell-specific promoters. Key challenges and findings reported for recent gene therapy clinical trials, assessing viral vectors and nanoparticles are discussed from the perspective of bench to bedside gene therapy translation. We conclude this review by tying together gene delivery challenges, available vehicle systems and comprehensive analyses of neuropathogenesis to outline future prospects of CNS-targeted gene therapies.
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Kirik D, Cederfjäll E, Halliday G, Petersén Å. Gene therapy for Parkinson's disease: Disease modification by GDNF family of ligands. Neurobiol Dis 2017; 97:179-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2016] [Revised: 08/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/06/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
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Marks WJ, Baumann TL, Bartus RT. Long-Term Safety of Patients with Parkinson's Disease Receiving rAAV2-Neurturin (CERE-120) Gene Transfer. Hum Gene Ther 2016; 27:522-7. [DOI: 10.1089/hum.2015.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- William J. Marks
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California
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Shen T, Pu J, Si X, Ye R, Zhang B. An update on potential therapeutic strategies for Parkinson's disease based on pathogenic mechanisms. Expert Rev Neurother 2016; 16:711-22. [PMID: 27138872 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2016.1179112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Parkinson's disease is a common neurodegenerative disorder mainly caused by the loss of nigral dopaminergic neurons, of which the pathogenesis remains essentially unknown. Current therapeutic strategies help manage signs and symptoms but have no effect in disease modification. Over the past several decades, scientists have devoted a lot of effort to clarifying the pathological mechanism and searching for new targets for Parkinson's disease treatment. AREAS COVERED Treatment of Parkinson's disease. Expert Commentary: Illustrated in this review are newly found discoveries and evidence that contribute to the understanding of Parkinson's disease pathogenic mechanism. Also discussed are potential therapeutic strategies that are being studied, including disease-modifying and genetically mediated small molecule compounds, cell- and gene-based therapeutic strategies, immunization strategies and anti-diabetic therapy, which may be very promising therapeutic methods in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Shen
- a Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , China
| | - Jiali Pu
- a Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , China
| | - Xiaoli Si
- a Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , China
| | - Rong Ye
- a Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , China
| | - Baorong Zhang
- a Department of Neurology, Second Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , China
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A regulatable AAV vector mediating GDNF biological effects at clinically-approved sub-antimicrobial doxycycline doses. MOLECULAR THERAPY-METHODS & CLINICAL DEVELOPMENT 2016; 5:16027. [PMID: 27069954 PMCID: PMC4813607 DOI: 10.1038/mtm.2016.27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2016] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Preclinical and clinical data stress the importance of pharmacologically-controlling glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) intracerebral administration to treat PD. The main challenge is finding a combination of a genetic switch and a drug which, when administered at a clinically-approved dose, reaches the brain in sufficient amounts to induce a therapeutic effect. We describe a highly-sensitive doxycycline-inducible adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector. This vector allowed for the first time a longitudinal analysis of inducible transgene expression in the brain using bioluminescence imaging. To evaluate the dose range of GDNF biological activity, the inducible AAV vector (8.0 × 10(9) viral genomes) was injected in the rat striatum at four delivery sites and increasing doxycycline doses administered orally. ERK/Akt signaling activation as well as tyrosine hydroxylase downregulation, a consequence of long-term GDNF treatment, were induced at plasmatic doxycycline concentrations of 140 and 320 ng/ml respectively, which are known not to increase antibiotic-resistant microorganisms in patients. In these conditions, GDNF covered the majority of the striatum. No behavioral abnormalities or weight loss were observed. Motor asymmetry resulting from unilateral GDNF treatment only appeared with a 2.5-fold higher vector and a 13-fold higher inducer doses. Our data suggest that using the herein-described inducible AAV vector, biological effects of GDNF can be obtained in response to sub-antimicrobial doxycycline doses.
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GDNF and AADC Gene Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease. Transl Neurosci 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4899-7654-3_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Aron Badin R, Vadori M, Cozzi E, Hantraye P. Translational research for Parkinson׳s disease: The value of pre-clinical primate models. Eur J Pharmacol 2015; 759:118-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Warren Olanow C, Bartus RT, Baumann TL, Factor S, Boulis N, Stacy M, Turner DA, Marks W, Larson P, Starr PA, Jankovic J, Simpson R, Watts R, Guthrie B, Poston K, Henderson JM, Stern M, Baltuch G, Goetz CG, Herzog C, Kordower JH, Alterman R, Lozano AM, Lang AE. Gene delivery of neurturin to putamen and substantia nigra in Parkinson disease: A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial. Ann Neurol 2015; 78:248-57. [PMID: 26061140 DOI: 10.1002/ana.24436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2015] [Revised: 04/27/2015] [Accepted: 05/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A 12-month double-blind sham-surgery-controlled trial assessing adeno-associated virus type 2 (AAV2)-neurturin injected into the putamen bilaterally failed to meet its primary endpoint, but showed positive results for the primary endpoint in the subgroup of subjects followed for 18 months and for several secondary endpoints. Analysis of postmortem tissue suggested impaired axonal transport of neurturin from putamen to substantia nigra. In the present study, we tested the safety and efficacy of AAV2-neurturin delivered to putamen and substantia nigra. METHODS We performed a 15- to 24-month, multicenter, double-blind trial in patients with advanced Parkinson disease (PD) who were randomly assigned to receive bilateral AAV2-neurturin injected bilaterally into the substantia nigra (2.0 × 10(11) vector genomes) and putamen (1.0 × 10(12) vector genomes) or sham surgery. The primary endpoint was change from baseline to final visit performed at the time the last enrolled subject completed the 15-month evaluation in the motor subscore of the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale in the practically defined off state. RESULTS Fifty-one patients were enrolled in the trial. There was no significant difference between groups in the primary endpoint (change from baseline: AAV2-neurturin, -7.0 ± 9.92; sham, -5.2 ± 10.01; p = 0.515) or in most secondary endpoints. Two subjects had cerebral hemorrhages with transient symptoms. No clinically meaningful adverse events were attributed to AAV2-neurturin. INTERPRETATION AAV2-neurturin delivery to the putamen and substantia nigra bilaterally in PD was not superior to sham surgery. The procedure was well tolerated, and there were no clinically significant adverse events related to AAV2-neurturin.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Warren Olanow
- Departments of Neurology and Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, NY
| | | | | | - Stewart Factor
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Nicholas Boulis
- Department of Neurosurgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - Mark Stacy
- Department of Neurology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Dennis A Turner
- Department of Neurosurgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - William Marks
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Paul Larson
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Phillip A Starr
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Joseph Jankovic
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
| | - Richard Simpson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX
| | - Ray Watts
- Department of Neurology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Barton Guthrie
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Kathleen Poston
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA
| | - Jaimie M Henderson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, CA
| | - Matthew Stern
- Department of Neurology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Gordon Baltuch
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
| | - Christopher G Goetz
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL
| | | | - Jeffrey H Kordower
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL
| | - Ron Alterman
- Beth Israel-Deaconess Medical Center, Department of Neurosurgery, Boston, MA
| | - Andres M Lozano
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anthony E Lang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Viral vector delivery of neurotrophic factors for Parkinson's disease therapy. Expert Rev Mol Med 2015; 17:e8. [DOI: 10.1017/erm.2015.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the progressive loss of midbrain dopaminergic neurons, which causes motor impairments. Current treatments involve dopamine replacement to address the disease symptoms rather than its cause. Factors that promote the survival of dopaminergic neurons have been proposed as novel therapies for PD. Several dopaminergic neurotrophic factors (NTFs) have been examined for their ability to protect and/or restore degenerating dopaminergic neurons, both in animal models and in clinical trials. These include glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, neurturin, cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor and growth/differentiation factor 5. Delivery of these NTFs via injection or infusion to the brain raises several practical problems. A new delivery approach for NTFs involves the use of recombinant viral vectors to enable long-term expression of these factors in brain cells. Vectors used include those based on adenoviruses, adeno-associated viruses and lentiviruses. Here we review progress to date on the potential of each of these four NTFs as novel therapeutic strategies for PD, as well as the challenges that have arisen, from pre-clinical analysis to clinical trials. We conclude by discussing recently-developed approaches to optimise the delivery of NTF-carrying viral vectors to the brain.
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Ahn M, Bajsarowicz K, Oehler A, Lemus A, Bankiewicz K, DeArmond SJ. Convection-enhanced delivery of AAV2-PrPshRNA in prion-infected mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e98496. [PMID: 24866748 PMCID: PMC4035323 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0098496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Prion disease is caused by a single pathogenic protein (PrPSc), an abnormal conformer of the normal cellular prion protein PrPC. Depletion of PrPC in prion knockout mice makes them resistant to prion disease. Thus, gene silencing of the Prnp gene is a promising effective therapeutic approach. Here, we examined adeno-associated virus vector type 2 encoding a short hairpin RNA targeting Prnp mRNA (AAV2-PrP-shRNA) to suppress PrPC expression both in vitro and in vivo. AAV2-PrP-shRNA treatment suppressed PrP levels and prevented dendritic degeneration in RML-infected brain aggregate cultures. Infusion of AAV2-PrP-shRNA-eGFP into the thalamus of CD-1 mice showed that eGFP was transported to the cerebral cortex via anterograde transport and the overall PrPC levels were reduced by ∼70% within 4 weeks. For therapeutic purposes, we treated RML-infected CD-1 mice with AAV2-PrP-shRNA beginning at 50 days post inoculation. Although AAV2-PrP-shRNA focally suppressed PrPSc formation in the thalamic infusion site by ∼75%, it did not suppress PrPSc formation efficiently in other regions of the brain. Survival of mice was not extended compared to the untreated controls. Global suppression of PrPC in the brain is required for successful therapy of prion diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misol Ahn
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Krystyna Bajsarowicz
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Abby Oehler
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Azucena Lemus
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Krystof Bankiewicz
- Department of Neurosurgery and Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Stephen J. DeArmond
- Department of Pathology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Tereshchenko J, Maddalena A, Bähr M, Kügler S. Pharmacologically controlled, discontinuous GDNF gene therapy restores motor function in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2014; 65:35-42. [PMID: 24440408 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2014.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurotrophic factors have raised hopes to be able to cure symptoms and to prevent progressive neurodegeneration in devastating neurological diseases. Gene therapy by means of viral vectors can overcome the hurdle of targeted delivery, but its current configuration is irreversible and thus much less controllable than that of classical pharmacotherapies. We thus aimed at developing a strategy allowing for both curative and controllable neurotrophic factor expression. Therefore, the short-term, intermittent and reversible expression of a neutrophic factor was evaluated for therapeutic efficacy in a slowly progressive animal model of Parkinson's disease (PD). We demonstrate that short-term induced expression of glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is sufficient to provide i) substantial protection of nigral dopaminergic neurons from degeneration and ii) restoration of dopamine supply and motor behaviour in the partial striatal 6-OHDA model PD. These neurorestorative effects of GDNF lasted several weeks beyond the time of its expression. Later on, therapeutic efficacy ceased, but was restored by a second short induction of GDNF expression, demonstrating that monthly application of the inducing drug mifepristone was sufficient to maintain neuroprotective and neurorestorative GDNF levels. These findings suggest that forthcoming gene therapies for PD or other neurodegenerative disorders can be designed in a way that low frequency application of an approved drug can provide controllable and therapeutically efficient levels of GDNF or other neurotrophic factors. Neurotrophic factor expression can be withdrawn in case of off-target effects or sufficient clinical benefit, a feature that may eventually increase the acceptance of gene therapy for less advanced patients, which may profit better from such approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Tereshchenko
- University Medicine Göttingen, Dept. of Neurology, Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Waldweg 33, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Andrea Maddalena
- University Medicine Göttingen, Dept. of Neurology, Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Waldweg 33, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Mathias Bähr
- University Medicine Göttingen, Dept. of Neurology, Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Waldweg 33, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kügler
- University Medicine Göttingen, Dept. of Neurology, Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain, Waldweg 33, 37073 Göttingen, Germany.
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Douglas MR. Gene therapy for Parkinson's disease: state-of-the-art treatments for neurodegenerative disease. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 13:695-705. [PMID: 23739006 DOI: 10.1586/ern.13.58] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Pharmacological and surgical treatments offer symptomatic benefits to patients with Parkinson's disease; however, as the condition progresses, patients experience gradual worsening in symptom control, with the development of a range of disabling complications. In addition, none of the currently available therapies have convincingly shown disease-modifying effects - either in slowing or reversing the disease. These problems have led to extensive research into the possible use of gene therapy as a treatment for Parkinson's disease. Several treatments have reached human clinical trial stages, providing important information on the risks and benefits of this novel therapeutic approach, and the tantalizing promise of improved control of this currently incurable neurodegenerative disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael R Douglas
- School of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK.
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