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Mohammad ZB, Yudin SCY, Goldberg BJ, Serra KL, Klegeris A. Exploring neuroglial signaling: diversity of molecules implicated in microglia-to-astrocyte neuroimmune communication. Rev Neurosci 2024:revneuro-2024-0081. [PMID: 39240134 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2024-0081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/07/2024]
Abstract
Effective communication between different cell types is essential for brain health, and dysregulation of this process leads to neuropathologies. Brain glial cells, including microglia and astrocytes, orchestrate immune defense and neuroimmune responses under pathological conditions during which interglial communication is indispensable. Our appreciation of the complexity of these processes is rapidly increasing due to recent advances in molecular biology techniques, which have identified numerous phenotypic states of both microglia and astrocytes. This review focuses on microglia-to-astrocyte communication facilitated by secreted neuroimmune modulators. The combinations of interleukin (IL)-1α, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), plus complement component C1q as well as IL-1β plus TNF are already well-established microglia-derived stimuli that induce reactive phenotypes in astrocytes. However, given the large number of inflammatory mediators secreted by microglia and the rapidly increasing number of distinct functional states recognized in astrocytes, it can be hypothesized that many more intercellular signaling molecules exist. This review identifies the following group of cytokines and gliotransmitters that, while not established as interglial mediators yet, are known to be released by microglia and elicit functional responses in astrocytes: IL-10, IL-12, IL-18, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β, interferon (IFN)-γ, C-C motif chemokine ligand (CCL)5, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), l-glutamate, and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). The review of molecular mechanisms engaged by these mediators reveals complex, partially overlapping signaling pathways implicated in numerous neuropathologies. Additionally, lack of human-specific studies is identified as a significant knowledge gap. Further research on microglia-to-astrocyte communication is warranted, as it could discover novel interglial signaling-targeted therapies for diverse neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zainab B Mohammad
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Samantha C Y Yudin
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Benjamin J Goldberg
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Kursti L Serra
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Andis Klegeris
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Department of Biology, University of British Columbia Okanagan Campus, Kelowna, BC, V1V 1V7, Canada
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2
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Stasiak A, Honkisz-Orzechowska E, Gajda Z, Wagner W, Popiołek-Barczyk K, Kuder KJ, Latacz G, Juszczak M, Woźniak K, Karcz T, Szczepańska K, Jóźwiak-Bębenista M, Kieć-Kononowicz K, Łażewska D. AR71, Histamine H 3 Receptor Ligand-In Vitro and In Vivo Evaluation (Anti-Inflammatory Activity, Metabolic Stability, Toxicity, and Analgesic Action). Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8035. [PMID: 39125607 PMCID: PMC11311998 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The future of therapy for neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) relies on new strategies targeting multiple pharmacological pathways. Our research led to obtaining the compound AR71 [(E)-3-(3,4,5-trimethoxyphenyl)-1-(4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)phenyl)prop-2-en-1-one], which has high affinity for human H3R (Ki = 24 nM) and selectivity towards histamine H1 and H4 receptors (Ki > 2500 nM), and showed anti-inflammatory activity in a model of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in BV-2 cells. The presented tests confirmed its antagonist/inverse agonist activity profile and good metabolic stability while docking studies showed the binding mode to histamine H1, H3, and H4 receptors. In in vitro tests, cytotoxicity was evaluated at three cell lines (neuroblastoma, astrocytes, and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells), and a neuroprotective effect was observed in rotenone-induced toxicity. In vivo experiments in a mouse neuropathic pain model demonstrated the highest analgesic effects of AR71 at the dose of 20 mg/kg body weight. Additionally, AR71 showed antiproliferative activity in higher concentrations. These findings suggest the need for further evaluation of AR71's therapeutic potential in treating ND and CNS cancer using animal experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Stasiak
- Department of Hormone Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Żeligowskiego 7/9 Str., 90-752 Łódź, Poland
| | - Ewelina Honkisz-Orzechowska
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Zbigniew Gajda
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Waldemar Wagner
- Department of Hormone Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Żeligowskiego 7/9 Str., 90-752 Łódź, Poland
- Laboratory of Cellular Immunology, Institute of Medical Biology of Polish Academy of Sciences, 106 Lodowa Str., 93-232 Łódź, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Popiołek-Barczyk
- Department of Neurochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12 Str., 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Kamil J. Kuder
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Gniewomir Latacz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Michał Juszczak
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143 Str., 90-236 Łódź, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Woźniak
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, Pomorska 141/143 Str., 90-236 Łódź, Poland
| | - Tadeusz Karcz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Szczepańska
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Smętna 12 Str., 31-343 Kraków, Poland
| | - Marta Jóźwiak-Bębenista
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Lodz, Żeligowskiego 7/9 Str., 90-752 Łódź, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Kieć-Kononowicz
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
| | - Dorota Łażewska
- Department of Technology and Biotechnology of Drugs, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College in Kraków, Medyczna 9 Str., 30-688 Kraków, Poland
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3
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Yang S, Yuan Z, Zhu Y, Liang C, Chen Z, Zhang J, Leng L. Multi-omics analysis reveals GAPDH posttranscriptional regulation of IFN-γ and PHGDH as a metabolic checkpoint of microglia polarization. Brain Behav Immun 2024; 117:155-166. [PMID: 38215888 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2024.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/14/2024] Open
Abstract
A "switch" in the metabolic pattern of microglia is considered to be required to meet the metabolic demands of cell survival and functions. However, how metabolic switches regulate microglial function remains controversial. We found here that exposure to amyloid-β triggers microglial inflammation accompanied by increasing GAPDH levels. The increase of GAPDH, a glycolysis enzyme, leads to the reduced release of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) from inflammatory microglia. Such alternation is translational and is regulated by the binding of glycolysis enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) to IFN-γ mRNA. GAPDH, by engaging/disengaging glycolysis and through influencing IFN-γ expression, regulates microglia functions, including phagocytosis and cytokine production. Phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH), screened from different state microglia by metabolomics combined with METARECON analysis, is a metabolic enzyme adjacent downstream of GAPDH and synthesizes serine on the collateral pathway derived from glycolysis. Polarization of microglial with PHGDH as a metabolic checkpoint can be bidirectionally regulated by adding IL-4 or giving PHGDH inhibitors. Therefore, regulation of metabolic enzymes not only reprograms metabolic patterns, but also manipulates microglia functions. Further study should be performed to explore the mechanism of metabolic checkpoints in human microglia or more in vivo animal experiments, and may expand to the effects of various metabolic substrates or enzyme, such as lipids and amino acids, on the functions of microglia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangchen Yang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Ziqi Yuan
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Yufei Zhu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Chensi Liang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Zhenlei Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
| | - Lige Leng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Disease and Aging Research, Institute of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian, China.
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4
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Hu J, Wang Z, Gong B, Feng L, Song Y, Zhang S, Wang L, Qu Y, Li G, Zhang L, Zheng C, Du F, Li P, Wang Y. IFN-γ promotes radioresistant Nestin-expressing progenitor regeneration in the developing cerebellum by augmenting Shh ligand production. CNS Neurosci Ther 2024; 30:e14485. [PMID: 37789668 PMCID: PMC10805445 DOI: 10.1111/cns.14485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Patients with brain tumors, especially pediatric brain tumors such as cerebellar medulloblastoma, always suffer from the severe side effects of radiotherapy. Regeneration of neural cells in irradiation-induced cerebellar injury has been reported, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive. METHODS We established an irradiation-induced developing cerebellum injury model in neonatal mice. Microarray, KEGG analysis and semi in vivo slice culture were performed for mechanistic study. RESULTS Nestin-expressing progenitors (NEPs) but not granule neuron precursors (GNPs) were resistant to irradiation and able to regenerate after irradiation. NEPs underwent less apoptosis but similar DNA damage following irradiation compared with GNPs. Subsequently, they started to proliferate and contributed to granule neurons regeneration dependent on the sonic hedgehog (Shh) pathway. In addition, irradiation increased Shh ligand provided by Purkinje cells. And microglia accumulated in the irradiated cerebellum producing more IFN-γ, which augmented Shh ligand production to promote NEP proliferation. CONCLUSIONS NEP was radioresistant and regenerative. IFN-γ was increased post irradiation to upregulate Shh ligand, contributing to NEP regeneration. Our study provides insight into the mechanisms of neural cell regeneration in irradiation injury of the developing cerebellum and will help to develop new therapeutic targets for minimizing the side effects of radiotherapy for brain tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Hu
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Zixuan Wang
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Biao Gong
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Liyuan Feng
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Traditional Chinese Pharmacology, College of PharmacyArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Yan Song
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Shuo Zhang
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Lin Wang
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Yanghui Qu
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Gen Li
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Li Zhang
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Chaonan Zheng
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Fang Du
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
| | - Peng Li
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Traditional Chinese Pharmacology, College of PharmacyArmy Medical UniversityChongqingChina
| | - Yuan Wang
- Pediatric Cancer Center, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Department of Pharmacology, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouChina
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Deng S, Graham ML, Chen XM. The Complexity of Interferon Signaling in Host Defense against Protozoan Parasite Infection. Pathogens 2023; 12:319. [PMID: 36839591 PMCID: PMC9962834 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12020319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium, Leishmania, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, and Trypanosoma, are causative agents of health-threatening diseases in both humans and animals, leading to significant health risks and socioeconomic losses globally. The development of effective therapeutic and prevention strategies for protozoan-caused diseases requires a full understanding of the pathogenesis and protective events occurring in infected hosts. Interferons (IFNs) are a family of cytokines with diverse biological effects in host antimicrobial defense and disease pathogenesis, including protozoan parasite infection. Type II IFN (IFN-γ) has been widely recognized as the essential defense cytokine in intracellular protozoan parasite infection, whereas recent studies also revealed the production and distinct function of type I and III IFNs in host defense against these parasites. Decoding the complex network of the IFN family in host-parasite interaction is critical for exploring potential new therapeutic strategies against intracellular protozoan parasite infection. Here, we review the complex effects of IFNs on the host defense against intracellular protozoan parasites and the crosstalk between distinct types of IFN signaling during infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silu Deng
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Creighton University School of Medicine, Omaha, NE 68178, USA
| | - Marion L. Graham
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Xian-Ming Chen
- Department of Microbial Pathogens and Immunity, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
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6
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Suzuki Y, Lutshumba J, Chen KC, Abdelaziz MH, Sa Q, Ochiai E. IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells activates cerebral mRNA expression of a wide spectrum of molecules critical for both innate and T cell-mediated protective immunity to control reactivation of chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023; 13:1110508. [PMID: 36875520 PMCID: PMC9975934 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1110508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that brain-resident cells produce IFN-γ in response to reactivation of cerebral infection with Toxoplasma gondii. To obtain an overall landscape view of the effects of IFN-γ from brain-resident cells on the cerebral protective immunity, in the present study we employed NanoString nCounter assay and quantified mRNA levels for 734 genes in myeloid immunity in the brains of T and B cell-deficient, bone marrow chimeric mice with and without IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells in response to reactivation of cerebral T. gondii infection. Our study revealed that IFN-γ produced by brain-resident cells amplified mRNA expression for the molecules to activate the protective innate immunity including 1) chemokines for recruitment of microglia and macrophages (CCL8 and CXCL12) and 2) the molecules for activating those phagocytes (IL-18, TLRs, NOD1, and CD40) for killing tachyzoites. Importantly, IFN-γ produced by brain-resident cells also upregulated cerebral expression of molecules for facilitating the protective T cell immunity, which include the molecules for 1) recruiting effector T cells (CXCL9, CXCL10, and CXCL11), 2) antigen processing (PA28αβ, LMP2, and LMP7), transporting the processed peptides (TAP1 and TAP2), assembling the transported peptides to the MHC class I molecules (Tapasin), and the MHC class I (H2-K1 and H2-D1) and Ib molecules (H2-Q1, H-2Q2, and H2-M3) for presenting antigens to activate the recruited CD8+ T cells, 3) MHC class II molecules (H2-Aa, H2-Ab1, H2-Eb1, H2-Ea-ps, H2-DMa, H2-Ob, and CD74) to present antigens for CD4+ T cell activation, 4) co-stimulatory molecules (ICOSL) for T cell activation, and 5) cytokines (IL-12, IL-15, and IL-18) facilitating IFN-γ production by NK and T cells. Notably, the present study also revealed that IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells also upregulates cerebral expressions of mRNA for the downregulatory molecules (IL-10, STAT3, SOCS1, CD274 [PD-L1], IL-27, and CD36), which can prevent overly stimulated IFN-γ-mediated pro-inflammatory responses and tissue damages. Thus, the present study uncovered the previously unrecognized the capability of IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells to upregulate expressions of a wide spectrum of molecules for coordinating both innate and T cell-mediated protective immunity with a fine-tuning regulation system to effectively control cerebral infection with T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Suzuki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
- *Correspondence: Yasuhiro Suzuki,
| | - Jenny Lutshumba
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Kuey Chu Chen
- Department of Pharmacology and Nutritional Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
- Genomics Core Laboratory, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Mohamed H. Abdelaziz
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Qila Sa
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
| | - Eri Ochiai
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, United States
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7
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Majerczyk D, Ayad E, Brewton K, Saing P, Hart P. Systemic maternal inflammation promotes ASD via IL-6 and IFN-γ. Biosci Rep 2022; 42:BSR20220713. [PMID: 36300375 PMCID: PMC9670245 DOI: 10.1042/bsr20220713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurological disorder that manifests during early development, impacting individuals through their ways of communicating, social behaviors, and their ability to perform day-to-day activities. There have been different proposed mechanisms on how ASD precipitates within a patient, one of which being the impact cytokines have on fetal development once a mother's immune system has been activated (referred to as maternal immune activation, MIA). The occurrence of ASD has long been associated with elevated levels of several cytokines, including interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interferon gamma (IFN-γ). These proinflammatory cytokines can achieve high systemic levels in response to immune activating pathogens from various extrinsic sources. Transfer of cytokines such as IL-6 across the placental barrier allows accumulation in the fetus, potentially inducing neuroinflammation and consequently altering neurodevelopmental processes. Individuals who have been later diagnosed with ASD have been observed to have elevated levels of IL-6 and other proinflammatory cytokines during gestation. Moreover, the outcome of MIA has been associated with neurological effects such as impaired social interaction and an increase in repetitive behavior in animal models, supporting a mechanistic link between gestational inflammation and development of ASD-like characteristics. The present review attempts to provide a concise overview of the available preclinical and clinical data that suggest cross-talk between IL-6 and IFN-γ through both extrinsic and intrinsic factors as a central mechanism of MIA that may promote the development of ASD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Majerczyk
- College of Science, Health and Pharmacy, Roosevelt University, Illinois 60173, U.S.A
- Loyola Medicine, Berwyn, Illinois 60402, U.S.A
| | - Elizabeth G. Ayad
- College of Science, Health and Pharmacy, Roosevelt University, Illinois 60173, U.S.A
| | - Kari L. Brewton
- College of Science, Health and Pharmacy, Roosevelt University, Illinois 60173, U.S.A
| | - Pichrasmei Saing
- College of Science, Health and Pharmacy, Roosevelt University, Illinois 60173, U.S.A
| | - Peter C. Hart
- College of Science, Health and Pharmacy, Roosevelt University, Illinois 60173, U.S.A
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Generoso JS, Thorsdottir S, Collodel A, Dominguini D, Santo RRE, Petronilho F, Barichello T, Iovino F. Dysfunctional Glymphatic System with Disrupted Aquaporin 4 Expression Pattern on Astrocytes Causes Bacterial Product Accumulation in the CSF during Pneumococcal Meningitis. mBio 2022; 13:e0188622. [PMID: 36036510 PMCID: PMC9600563 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01886-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pneumococcal meningitis, inflammation of the meninges due to an infection of the Central Nervous System caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae (the pneumococcus), is the most common form of community-acquired bacterial meningitis globally. Aquaporin 4 (AQP4) water channels on astrocytic end feet regulate the solute transport of the glymphatic system, facilitating the exchange of compounds between the brain parenchyma and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which is important for the clearance of waste away from the brain. Wistar rats, subjected to either pneumococcal meningitis or artificial CSF (sham control), received Evans blue-albumin (EBA) intracisternally. Overall, the meningitis group presented a significant impairment of the glymphatic system by retaining the EBA in the CSF compartments compared to the uninfected sham group. Our results clearly showed that during pneumococcal meningitis, the glymphatic system does not function because of a detachment of the astrocytic end feet from the blood-brain barrier (BBB) vascular endothelium, which leads to misplacement of AQP4 with the consequent loss of the AQP4 water channel's functionality. IMPORTANCE The lack of solute drainage due to a dysfunctional glymphatic system leads to an increase of the neurotoxic bacterial material in the CSF compartments of the brain, ultimately leading to brain-wide neuroinflammation and neuronal damage with consequent impairment of neurological functions. The loss of function of the glymphatic system can therefore be a leading cause of the neurological sequelae developing post-bacterial meningitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaqueline S. Generoso
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Sigrun Thorsdottir
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Allan Collodel
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Diogo Dominguini
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Roberta R. E. Santo
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Fabricia Petronilho
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Barichello
- Laboratory of Experimental Pathophysiology, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil
- Translational Psychiatry Program, Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Federico Iovino
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Biomedicum, Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Soares GLDS, Leão ERLPD, Freitas SF, Alves RMC, Tavares NDP, Costa MVN, Menezes GCD, Oliveira JHPD, Guerreiro LCF, Assis ACLD, Araújo SC, Franco FTDC, Anaissi AKM, Carmo ELD, Morais RDAPB, Demachki S, Diniz JAP, Nunes HM, Anthony DC, Diniz DG, Diniz CWP. Behavioral and Neuropathological Changes After Toxoplasma gondii Ocular Conjunctival Infection in BALB/c Mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:812152. [PMID: 35372100 PMCID: PMC8965508 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.812152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ocular infection with Toxoplasma gondii causes toxoplasmosis in mice. However, following ocular infection with tachyzoites, the cause of the accompanying progressive changes in hippocampal-dependent tasks, and their relationship with the morphology and number of microglia, is less well understood. Here, in 6-month-old, female BALB/c mice, 5 μl of a suspension containing 48.5 × 106 tachyzoites/ml was introduced into the conjunctival sac; control received an equal volume of saline. Before and after instillation, all mice were subject to an olfactory discrimination (OD) test, using predator (cat) feces, and to an open-field (OF) task. After the behavioral tests, the animals were culled at either 22 or 44 days post-instillation (dpi), and the brains and retinas were dissected and processed for immunohistochemistry. The total number of Iba-1-immunolabeled microglia in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus was estimated, and three-dimensional reconstructions of the cells were evaluated. Immobility was increased in the infected group at 12, 22, and 43 dpi, but the greatest immobility was observed at 22 dpi and was associated with reduced line crossing in the OF and distance traveled. In the OD test, infected animals spent more time in the compartment with feline fecal material at 14 and at 43 dpi. No OD changes were observed in the control group. The number of microglia was increased at 22 dpi but returned to control levels by 44 dpi. These changes were associated with the differentiation of T. gondii tachyzoites into bradyzoite-enclosed cysts within the brain and retina. Thus, infection of mice with T. gondii alters exploratory behavior, gives rise to a loss in predator’s odor avoidance from 2 weeks after infection, increased microglia number, and altered their morphology in the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus.
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10
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Lan HW, Lu YN, Zhao XD, Jin GN, Lu JM, Jin CH, Ma J, Jin X, Xu X, Piao LX. New role of sertraline against Toxoplasma gondii-induced depression-like behaviours in mice. Parasite Immunol 2021; 43:e12893. [PMID: 34637545 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a neurotropic protozoan parasite, which can cause mental and behavioural disorders. The present study aimed to elucidate the effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of sertraline (SERT) on T. gondii-induced depression-like behaviours. In the present study, a mouse model and a microglial cell line (BV2 cells) model were established by infecting with the T. gondii RH strain. In in vivo and in vitro experiments, the underlying molecular mechanisms of SERT in inhibiting depression-like behaviours and cellular perturbations caused by T. gondii infection were investigated in the mouse brain and BV2 cells. The administration of SERT significantly ameliorated depression-like behaviours in T. gondii-infected mice. Furthermore, SERT inhibited T. gondii proliferation. Treatment with SERT significantly inhibited the activation of microglia and decreased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha, and interferon-gamma, by down-regulating tumour necrosis factor receptor 1/nuclear factor-kappa B signalling pathway, thereby ameliorating the depression-like behaviours induced by T. gondii infection. Our study provides insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms of the newly discovered role of SERT against T. gondii-induced depression-like behaviours.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui-Wen Lan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Yu-Nan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Xu-Dong Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Guang-Nan Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Jing-Mei Lu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Cheng-Hua Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Juan Ma
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Xuejun Jin
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Xiang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
| | - Lian-Xun Piao
- Key Laboratory of Natural Resources of Changbai Mountain & Functional Molecules, Ministry of Education, Molecular Medicine Research Center, College of Pharmacy, Yanbian University, Yanji, Jilin, China
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11
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Kveštak D, Juranić Lisnić V, Lisnić B, Tomac J, Golemac M, Brizić I, Indenbirken D, Cokarić Brdovčak M, Bernardini G, Krstanović F, Rožmanić C, Grundhoff A, Krmpotić A, Britt WJ, Jonjić S. NK/ILC1 cells mediate neuroinflammation and brain pathology following congenital CMV infection. J Exp Med 2021; 218:e20201503. [PMID: 33630019 PMCID: PMC7918636 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20201503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 01/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Congenital human cytomegalovirus (cHCMV) infection of the brain is associated with a wide range of neurocognitive sequelae. Using infection of newborn mice with mouse cytomegalovirus (MCMV) as a reliable model that recapitulates many aspects of cHCMV infection, including disseminated infection, CNS infection, altered neurodevelopment, and sensorineural hearing loss, we have previously shown that mitigation of inflammation prevented alterations in cerebellar development, suggesting that host inflammatory factors are key drivers of neurodevelopmental defects. Here, we show that MCMV infection causes a dramatic increase in the expression of the microglia-derived chemokines CXCL9/CXCL10, which recruit NK and ILC1 cells into the brain in a CXCR3-dependent manner. Surprisingly, brain-infiltrating innate immune cells not only were unable to control virus infection in the brain but also orchestrated pathological inflammatory responses, which lead to delays in cerebellar morphogenesis. Our results identify NK and ILC1 cells as the major mediators of immunopathology in response to virus infection in the developing CNS, which can be prevented by anti-IFN-γ antibodies.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Brain/immunology
- Brain/pathology
- Brain/virology
- Chemokine CXCL10/genetics
- Chemokine CXCL10/immunology
- Chemokine CXCL10/metabolism
- Chemokine CXCL9/genetics
- Chemokine CXCL9/immunology
- Chemokine CXCL9/metabolism
- Cytomegalovirus/immunology
- Cytomegalovirus/physiology
- Cytomegalovirus Infections/immunology
- Cytomegalovirus Infections/virology
- Gene Expression Regulation/immunology
- Humans
- Immunity, Innate/immunology
- Inflammation/genetics
- Inflammation/immunology
- Inflammation/virology
- Killer Cells, Natural/immunology
- Killer Cells, Natural/metabolism
- Lymphocytes/immunology
- Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Mice, 129 Strain
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Knockout
- Microglia/immunology
- Microglia/metabolism
- Microglia/virology
- Receptors, CXCR3/genetics
- Receptors, CXCR3/immunology
- Receptors, CXCR3/metabolism
- Mice
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Kveštak
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Vanda Juranić Lisnić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Berislav Lisnić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Jelena Tomac
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Mijo Golemac
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Ilija Brizić
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Daniela Indenbirken
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Giovanni Bernardini
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy and Medicine, University of Rome “Sapienza”, Rome, Italy
| | - Fran Krstanović
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Carmen Rožmanić
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Adam Grundhoff
- Heinrich Pette Institute, Leibniz Institute for Experimental Virology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Astrid Krmpotić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - William J. Britt
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL
| | - Stipan Jonjić
- Department of Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
- Center for Proteomics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rijeka, Rijeka, Croatia
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12
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Yegla B, Boles J, Kumar A, Foster TC. Partial microglial depletion is associated with impaired hippocampal synaptic and cognitive function in young and aged rats. Glia 2021; 69:1494-1514. [PMID: 33586813 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The role of microglia in mediating age-related changes in cognition and hippocampal synaptic function was examined by microglial depletion and replenishment using PLX3397. We observed age-related differences in microglial number and morphology, as well as increased Iba-1 expression, indicating microglial activation. PLX3397 treatment decreased microglial number, with aged rats exhibiting the lowest density. Young rats exhibited increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines during depletion and repopulation and maintenance of Iba-1 levels despite reduced microglial number. For aged rats, several cytokines increased with depletion and recovered during repopulation; however, aged rats did not fully recover microglial cell number or Iba-1 expression during repopulation, with a recovery comparable to young control levels rather than aged controls. Hippocampal CA3-CA1 synaptic transmission was impaired with age, and microglial depletion was associated with decreased total synaptic transmission in young and aged rats. A robust decline in N-methyl-d-aspartate-receptor-mediated synaptic transmission arose in young depleted rats specifically. Microglial replenishment normalized depletion-induced synaptic function to control levels; however, recovery of aged animals did not mirror young. Microglial depletion was associated with decreased context-object discrimination memory in both age groups, which recovered with microglial repopulation. Aged rats displayed impaired contextual and cued fear memory, and microglial replenishment did not recover their memory to the level of young. The current study indicates that cognitive function and synaptic transmission benefit from the support of aged microglia and are hindered by removal of these cells. Replenishment of microglia in aging did not ameliorate age-related cognitive impairments or senescent synaptic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittney Yegla
- Department of Neuroscience, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Jake Boles
- Department of Neuroscience, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Ashok Kumar
- Department of Neuroscience, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Thomas C Foster
- Department of Neuroscience, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA.,Genetics and Genomics Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
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13
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Batista SJ, Still KM, Johanson D, Thompson JA, OʼBrien CA, Lukens JR, Harris TH. Gasdermin-D-dependent IL-1α release from microglia promotes protective immunity during chronic Toxoplasma gondii infection. Nat Commun 2020; 11:3687. [PMID: 32703941 PMCID: PMC7378823 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17491-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Microglia, resident immune cells of the CNS, are thought to defend against infections. Toxoplasma gondii is an opportunistic infection that can cause severe neurological disease. Here we report that during T. gondii infection a strong NF-κB and inflammatory cytokine transcriptional signature is overrepresented in blood-derived macrophages versus microglia. Interestingly, IL-1α is enriched in microglia and IL-1β in macrophages. We find that mice lacking IL-1R1 or IL-1α, but not IL-1β, have impaired parasite control and immune cell infiltration within the brain. Further, we show that microglia, not peripheral myeloid cells, release IL-1α ex vivo. Finally, we show that ex vivo IL-1α release is gasdermin-D dependent, and that gasdermin-D and caspase-1/11 deficient mice show deficits in brain inflammation and parasite control. These results demonstrate that microglia and macrophages are differently equipped to propagate inflammation, and that in chronic T. gondii infection, microglia can release the alarmin IL-1α, promoting neuroinflammation and parasite control. Control over T. gondii infection in the brain involves microglial cells, but how these cells execute this control is not clear. Here the authors show that unlike IL-1β dominant macrophages, microglia are primed for gasdermin-D-dependent IL-1α production that is critical for protection against T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Batista
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - Katherine M Still
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - David Johanson
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - Jeremy A Thompson
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - Carleigh A OʼBrien
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - John R Lukens
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA
| | - Tajie H Harris
- Center for Brain Immunology and Glia, Department of Neuroscience, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22908, USA.
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14
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Sa Q, Mercier C, Cesbron-Delauw MF, Suzuki Y. The amino-terminal region of dense granule protein 6 of Toxoplasma gondii stimulates IFN-γ production by microglia. Microbes Infect 2020; 22:375-378. [PMID: 31972245 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2019.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We examined activities of dense granule proteins (GRAs), which Toxoplasma gondii secretes within infected cells, to stimulate microglial IFN-γ production in vitro. We identified that the N-terminal region (amino acids 41-152) of GRA6 (GRA6Nt) stimulates IFN-γ production by both a microglia cell line and primary microglia purified from the brains of uninfected adult mice. In contrast, neither of GRA1, GRA2, GRA5Nt, nor the carboxyl-terminal (amino acids 174-224) of GRA6 stimulated microglial IFN-γ production. GRA6Nt appears to be a target molecule of the sentinel function of microglia to detect cerebral proliferation of T. gondii and activate their IFN-γ production for facilitating the protective immunity to control the pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qila Sa
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY40536, USA
| | - Corinne Mercier
- TIMC-IMAG, CNRS-UMR5525, Universite Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble, France
| | | | - Yasuhiro Suzuki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY40536, USA.
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15
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Suzuki Y. The immune system utilizes two distinct effector mechanisms of T cells depending on two different life cycle stages of a single pathogen, Toxoplasma gondii, to control its cerebral infection. Parasitol Int 2019; 76:102030. [PMID: 31778800 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2019.102030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii takes two different life cycle stages within intermediate hosts including humans. Tachyzoites proliferate during the acute stage, and they transform into cysts to establish a chronic infection preferentially in the brain. IFN-γ production by infiltrated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells is required for the prevention of cerebral tachyzoite growth. IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells, most likely microglia, plays a key first line defense role to facilitate both innate and T cell-mediated protective immunity to control the tachyzoite growth. IFN-γ produced by brain-resident cells activates cerebral expression of IFN-dependent effector molecules to suppress tachyzoite growth during the early stage of infection. Their IFN-γ production also induces an expression of CXCL9 and CXCL10 chemokines to recruit immune T cells into the brain, and upregulates cerebral expression of MHC class I and II molecules for antigen presentation to the recruited T cells to activate their IFN-γ production. CD8+ T cells also have the activity to remove T. gondii cysts from the brains of infected hosts. Of interest, the anti-cyst activity of CD8+ T cells does not require their IFN-γ but does require perforin. Notably, we discovered that CD8+ cytotoxic T cells penetrate in the cysts in a perforin-mediated manner, which induces morphological deterioration and destruction of the cysts and an accumulation of microglia and macrophages for their elimination. Thus, the immune system employs two distinct effector mechanisms mediated by IFN-γ or perforin depending on two different life cycle stages of a single pathogen, T. gondii, to control its cerebral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Suzuki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY, USA.
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16
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Figarella K, Wolburg H, Garaschuk O, Duszenko M. Microglia in neuropathology caused by protozoan parasites. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 95:333-349. [PMID: 31682077 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Involvement of the central nervous system (CNS) is the most severe consequence of some parasitic infections. Protozoal infections comprise a group of diseases that together affect billions of people worldwide and, according to the World Health Organization, are responsible for more than 500000 deaths annually. They include African and American trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, toxoplasmosis, and amoebiasis. Mechanisms underlying invasion of the brain parenchyma by protozoa are not well understood and may depend on parasite nature: a vascular invasion route is most common. Immunosuppression favors parasite invasion into the CNS and therefore the host immune response plays a pivotal role in the development of a neuropathology in these infectious diseases. In the brain, microglia are the resident immune cells active in defense against pathogens that target the CNS. Beside their direct role in innate immunity, they also play a principal role in coordinating the trafficking and recruitment of other immune cells from the periphery to the CNS. Despite their evident involvement in the neuropathology of protozoan infections, little attention has given to microglia-parasite interactions. This review describes the most prominent features of microglial cells and protozoan parasites and summarizes the most recent information regarding the reaction of microglial cells to parasitic infections. We highlight the involvement of the periphery-brain axis and emphasize possible scenarios for microglia-parasite interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Figarella
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Hartwig Wolburg
- Institute of Pathology and Neuropathology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Olga Garaschuk
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael Duszenko
- Institute of Physiology, Department of Neurophysiology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
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17
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Impaired Cognitive Performance in Endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase Knockout Mice After Ischemic Stroke: A Pilot Study. Am J Phys Med Rehabil 2019; 97:492-499. [PMID: 29406402 DOI: 10.1097/phm.0000000000000904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Cognitive dysfunction and dementia are common following ischemic stroke. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) has been found to play an important role in neurologic function and cognition. The purpose of the present study was to assess the specific role of eNOS in cognitive performance after stroke. DESIGN Male wild-type and mice lacking eNOS (eNOS) underwent middle cerebral artery occlusion or sham-surgery. Primary outcomes were repeated measures of neurologic score, limb asymmetry, sensory/motor function, and spatial memory/learning assessed at intervals up to 28 days postsurgery. Group differences in brain microglia activation and infiltration and levels of interferon-gamma were examined. RESULTS There was no genotype × surgery interaction effect on the pattern of change in neurologic score, limb asymmetry, or sensory motor function across the 28 days postsurgery. In the Morris water maze, eNOS-/- middle cerebral artery occlusion mice displayed learning and memory deficits not evident in wild-type middle cerebral artery occlusion mice. Poorer spatial memory and learning in eNOS-/- middle cerebral artery occlusion mice was associated with a reduction in the number of activated microglia in the striatum on the lesion side and decreased brain tissue levels of interferon-gamma. CONCLUSIONS This study's data support a role for eNOS in cognitive performance after stroke. This finding may lead to the development of novel interventions to treat poststroke cognitive deficits.
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18
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Denver P, McClean PL. Distinguishing normal brain aging from the development of Alzheimer's disease: inflammation, insulin signaling and cognition. Neural Regen Res 2018; 13:1719-1730. [PMID: 30136683 PMCID: PMC6128051 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.238608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
As populations age, prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is rising. Over 100 years of research has provided valuable insights into the pathophysiology of the disease, for which age is the principal risk factor. However, in recent years, a multitude of clinical trial failures has led to pharmaceutical corporations becoming more and more unwilling to support drug development in AD. It is possible that dependence on the amyloid cascade hypothesis as a guide for preclinical research and drug discovery is part of the problem. Accumulating evidence suggests that amyloid plaques and tau tangles are evident in non-demented individuals and that reducing or clearing these lesions does not always result in clinical improvement. Normal aging is associated with pathologies and cognitive decline that are similar to those observed in AD, making differentiation of AD-related cognitive decline and neuropathology challenging. In this mini-review, we discuss the difficulties with discerning normal, age-related cognitive decline with that related to AD. We also discuss some neuropathological features of AD and aging, including amyloid and tau pathology, synapse loss, inflammation and insulin signaling in the brain, with a view to highlighting cognitive or neuropathological markers that distinguish AD from normal aging. It is hoped that this review will help to bolster future preclinical research and support the development of clinical tools and therapeutics for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Denver
- Greater Los Angeles Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, West Los Angeles Medical Center and Department of Neurology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Centre for Molecular Biosciences, University of Ulster, Coleraine, Northern Ireland, UK
| | - Paula L. McClean
- Northern Ireland Centre for Stratified Medicine, Clinical, Translational and Research Innovation Centre (C-TRIC), University of Ulster, Derry/Londonderry, Northern Ireland, UK
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19
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Jeffers V, Tampaki Z, Kim K, Sullivan WJ. A latent ability to persist: differentiation in Toxoplasma gondii. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:2355-2373. [PMID: 29602951 PMCID: PMC5988958 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2808-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 03/01/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
A critical factor in the transmission and pathogenesis of Toxoplasma gondii is the ability to convert from an acute disease-causing, proliferative stage (tachyzoite), to a chronic, dormant stage (bradyzoite). The conversion of the tachyzoite-containing parasitophorous vacuole membrane into the less permeable bradyzoite cyst wall allows the parasite to persist for years within the host to maximize transmissibility to both primary (felids) and secondary (virtually all other warm-blooded vertebrates) hosts. This review presents our current understanding of the latent stage, including the factors that are important in bradyzoite induction and maintenance. Also discussed are the recent studies that have begun to unravel the mechanisms behind stage switching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Jeffers
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
| | - Zoi Tampaki
- Departments of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
| | - Kami Kim
- Departments of Medicine, Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, 10461, USA
- Department of Internal Medicine, Morsani College of Medicine, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33612, USA
| | - William J Sullivan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
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20
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Martin NM, Griffin DE. Interleukin-10 Modulation of Virus Clearance and Disease in Mice with Alphaviral Encephalomyelitis. J Virol 2018; 92:e01517-17. [PMID: 29263262 PMCID: PMC5827374 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01517-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Alphaviruses are an important cause of mosquito-borne outbreaks of arthritis, rash, and encephalomyelitis. Previous studies in mice with a virulent strain (neuroadapted SINV [NSV]) of the alphavirus Sindbis virus (SINV) identified a role for Th17 cells and regulation by interleukin-10 (IL-10) in the pathogenesis of fatal encephalomyelitis (K. A. Kulcsar, V. K. Baxter, I. P. Greene, and D. E. Griffin, Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:16053-16058, 2014, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1418966111). To determine the role of virus virulence in generation of immune responses, we analyzed the modulatory effects of IL-10 on disease severity, virus clearance, and the CD4+ T cell response to infection with a recombinant strain of SINV of intermediate virulence (TE12). The absence of IL-10 during TE12 infection led to longer morbidity, more weight loss, higher mortality, and slower viral clearance than in wild-type mice. More severe disease and impaired virus clearance in IL-10-/- mice were associated with more Th1 cells, fewer Th2 cells, innate lymphoid type 2 cells, regulatory cells, and B cells, and delayed production of antiviral antibody in the central nervous system (CNS) without an effect on Th17 cells. Therefore, IL-10 deficiency led to more severe disease in TE12-infected mice by increasing Th1 cells and by hampering development of the local B cell responses necessary for rapid production of antiviral antibody and virus clearance from the CNS. In addition, the shift from Th17 to Th1 responses with decreased virus virulence indicates that the effects of IL-10 deficiency on immunopathologic responses in the CNS during alphavirus infection are influenced by virus strain.IMPORTANCE Alphaviruses cause mosquito-borne outbreaks of encephalomyelitis, but determinants of outcome are incompletely understood. We analyzed the effects of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 on disease severity and virus clearance after infection with an alphavirus strain of intermediate virulence. The absence of IL-10 led to longer illness, more weight loss, more death, and slower viral clearance than in mice that produced IL-10. IL-10 influenced development of disease-causing T cells and entry into the brain of B cells producing antiviral antibody. The Th1 pathogenic cell subtype that developed in IL-10-deficient mice infected with a less virulent virus was distinct from the Th17 subtype that developed in response to a more virulent virus, indicating a role for virus strain in determining the immune response. Slow production of antibody in the nervous system led to delayed virus clearance. Therefore, both the virus strain and the host response to infection are important determinants of outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina M Martin
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Diane E Griffin
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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Sun M, McDonald SJ, Brady RD, O'Brien TJ, Shultz SR. The influence of immunological stressors on traumatic brain injury. Brain Behav Immun 2018; 69:618-628. [PMID: 29355823 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2018.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 01/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide, and typically involves a robust immune response. Although a great deal of preclinical research has been conducted to identify an effective treatment, all phase III clinical trials have been unsuccessful to date. These translational shortcomings are in part due to a failure to recognize and account for the heterogeneity of TBI, including how extracranial factors can influence the aftermath of TBI. For example, most preclinical studies have utilized isolated TBI models in young adult males, while clinical trials typically involve highly heterogeneous patient populations (e.g., different mechanisms of injury, a range of ages, presence of polytrauma or infection). This paper will review the current, albeit limited literature related to how TBI is affected by common concomitant immunological stressors. In particular, discussion will focus on whether extracranial trauma (i.e., polytrauma), infection, and age/immunosenescence can influence TBI pathophysiology, and thereby may result in a different brain injury than what would have occurred in an isolated TBI. It is concluded that these immunological stressors are all likely to be TBI modifiers that should be further studied and could impact translational treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mujun Sun
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Stuart J McDonald
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Microbiology, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC 3086, Australia
| | - Rhys D Brady
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Terence J O'Brien
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia
| | - Sandy R Shultz
- Department of Medicine, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3052, Australia; Departments of Neuroscience and Medicine, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC 3004, Australia.
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22
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Brain interference: Revisiting the role of IFNγ in the central nervous system. Prog Neurobiol 2017; 156:149-163. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2017.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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23
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Yahya RS, Awad SI, El-Baz HA, Saudy N, Abdelsalam OA, Al-Din MSS. Impact of ApoE genotypes variations on Toxoplasma patients with dementia. J Clin Neurosci 2017; 39:184-188. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2017.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Sa Q, Ochiai E, Tiwari A, Perkins S, Mullins J, Gehman M, Huckle W, Eyestone WH, Saunders TL, Shelton BJ, Suzuki Y. Cutting Edge: IFN-γ Produced by Brain-Resident Cells Is Crucial To Control Cerebral Infection with Toxoplasma gondii. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2015; 195:796-800. [PMID: 26091720 PMCID: PMC4520543 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1500814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 08/07/2023]
Abstract
In vitro studies demonstrated that microglia and astrocytes produce IFN-γ in response to various stimulations, including LPS. However, the physiological role of IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells, including glial cells, in resistance against cerebral infections remains unknown. We analyzed the role of IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells in resistance to reactivation of cerebral infection with Toxoplasma gondii using a murine model. Our study using bone marrow chimeric mice revealed that IFN-γ production by brain-resident cells is essential for upregulating IFN-γ-mediated protective innate immune responses to restrict cerebral T. gondii growth. Studies using a transgenic strain that expresses IFN-γ only in CD11b(+) cells suggested that IFN-γ production by microglia, which is the only CD11b(+) cell population among brain-resident cells, is able to suppress the parasite growth. Furthermore, IFN-γ produced by brain-resident cells is pivotal for recruiting T cells into the brain to control the infection. These results indicate that IFN-γ produced by brain-resident cells is crucial for facilitating both the protective innate and T cell-mediated immune responses to control cerebral infection with T. gondii.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qila Sa
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Eri Ochiai
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Ashish Tiwari
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Sara Perkins
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Jeremi Mullins
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - Marie Gehman
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536
| | - William Huckle
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Willard H Eyestone
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061
| | - Thomas L Saunders
- Transgenic Animal Model Core, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan School of Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI 48109; and
| | - Brent J Shelton
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Kentucky College of Public Health, Lexington, KY 40504
| | - Yasuhiro Suzuki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061;
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25
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Evolution of cytokine profile during the treatment of cerebral toxoplasmosis in HIV-infected patients. J Immunol Methods 2015; 426:14-8. [PMID: 26177476 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2015] [Revised: 06/12/2015] [Accepted: 07/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
This study was to follow IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-10 modulation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from HIV/cerebral toxoplasmosis patients (CT) during specific treatment. The results were compared with two other groups: HIV patients that had CT at least one year before (P/CT) and individuals with chronic toxoplasmosis (CHR). Blood samples (63) collected from three groups were analyzed. CT, 15 patients (3 blood samples collected one day before Toxoplasma gondii treatment; 7 and 15days during the treatment). P/CT, 5 patients (one blood sample collected at least, one year after the treatment). CHR, 13 individuals with chronic toxoplasmosis (one blood sample). Cytokine levels were assessed by ELISA after PBMC stimulation with T. gondii antigen. CT patients had low IFN-γ; discrete increase at 7th and 15th days; and the levels were recovered in cured patients (P/CT). CT patients had high TNF-α in the beginning of the treatment. TNF-α levels decrease during the treatment (7th and 15th) and in those patients who were treated (P/CT). IL-10 levels were almost similar in CT and P/CT groups but low when compared with CHR individuals. The evolution of the infection was correlated to restoration of IFN-γ response and a decrease of the inflammation. The evaluation of the immune response can provide valuable information and better monitoring of patients during specific treatment.
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Franco R, Fernández-Suárez D. Alternatively activated microglia and macrophages in the central nervous system. Prog Neurobiol 2015; 131:65-86. [PMID: 26067058 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2015.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 495] [Impact Index Per Article: 55.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2015] [Accepted: 05/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Macrophages are important players in the fight against viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections. From a resting state they may undertake two activation pathways, the classical known as M1, or the alternative known as M2. M1 markers are mostly mediators of pro-inflammatory responses whereas M2 markers emerge for resolution and cleanup. Microglia exerts in the central nervous system (CNS) a function similar to that of macrophages in the periphery. Microglia activation and proliferation occurs in almost any single pathology affecting the CNS. Often microglia activation has been considered detrimental and drugs able to stop microglia activation were considered for the treatment of a variety of diseases. Cumulative evidence shows that microglia may undergo the alternative activation pathway, express M2-type markers and contribute to neuroprotection. This review focuses on details about the role of M2 microglia and in the approaches available for its identification. Approaches to drive the M2 phenotype and data on its potential in CNS diseases are also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Franco
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain; Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red: Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Spain.
| | - Diana Fernández-Suárez
- Division of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17177 Stockholm, Sweden.
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27
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Parlog A, Schlüter D, Dunay IR. Toxoplasma gondii-induced neuronal alterations. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:159-70. [PMID: 25376390 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The zoonotic pathogen Toxoplasma gondii infects over 30% of the human population. The intracellular parasite can persist lifelong in the CNS within neurons modifying their function and structure, thus leading to specific behavioural changes of the host. In recent years, several in vitro studies and murine models have focused on the elucidation of these modifications. Furthermore, investigations of the human population have correlated Toxoplasma seropositivity with changes in neurological functions; however, the complex underlying mechanisms of the subtle behavioural alteration are still not fully understood. The parasites are able to induce direct modifications in the infected cells, for example by altering dopamine metabolism, by functionally silencing neurons as well as by hindering apoptosis. Moreover, indirect effects of the peripheral immune system and alterations of the immune status of the CNS, observed during chronic infection, might also contribute to changes in neuronal connectivity and synaptic plasticity. In this review, we will provide an overview and highlight recent advances, which describe changes in the neuronal function and morphology upon T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Parlog
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hospital Hygiene, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
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28
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Horiuchi H, Parajuli B, Wang Y, Azuma YT, Mizuno T, Takeuchi H, Suzumura A. Interleukin-19 acts as a negative autocrine regulator of activated microglia. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118640. [PMID: 25794104 PMCID: PMC4368203 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Activated microglia can exert either neurotoxic or neuroprotective effects, and they play pivotal roles in the pathogenesis and progression of various neurological diseases. In this study, we used cDNA microarrays to show that interleukin-19 (IL-19), an IL-10 family cytokine, is markedly upregulated in activated microglia. Furthermore, we found that microglia are the only cells in the nervous system that express the IL-19 receptor, a heterodimer of the IL-20Rα and IL-20Rβ subunits. IL-19 deficiency increased the production of such pro-inflammatory cytokines as IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α in activated microglia, and IL-19 treatment suppressed this effect. Moreover, in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease, we observed upregulation of IL-19 in affected areas in association with disease progression. Our findings demonstrate that IL-19 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine, produced by activated microglia, that acts negatively on microglia in an autocrine manner. Thus, microglia may self-limit their inflammatory response by producing the negative regulator IL-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Horiuchi
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464–8601, Japan
| | - Bijay Parajuli
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464–8601, Japan
| | - Yue Wang
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464–8601, Japan
| | - Yasu-Taka Azuma
- Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmacology, Division of Veterinary Science, Osaka Prefecture University Graduate School of Life and Environmental Science, Izumisano, Osaka, 598–8531, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Mizuno
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464–8601, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Takeuchi
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464–8601, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Akio Suzumura
- Department of Neuroimmunology, Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464–8601, Japan
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29
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Silva RR, Mariante RM, Silva AA, dos Santos ALB, Roffê E, Santiago H, Gazzinelli RT, Lannes-Vieira J. Interferon-gamma promotes infection of astrocytes by Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118600. [PMID: 25695249 PMCID: PMC4335051 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The inflammatory cytokine interferon-gamma (IFNγ) is crucial for immunity against intracellular pathogens such as the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease (CD). IFNγ is a pleiotropic cytokine which regulates activation of immune and non-immune cells; however, the effect of IFNγ in the central nervous system (CNS) and astrocytes during CD is unknown. Here we show that parasite persists in the CNS of C3H/He mice chronically infected with the Colombian T. cruzi strain despite the increased expression of IFNγ mRNA. Furthermore, most of the T. cruzi-bearing cells were astrocytes located near IFNγ+ cells. Surprisingly, in vitro experiments revealed that pretreatment with IFNγ promoted the infection of astrocytes by T. cruzi increasing uptake and proliferation of intracellular forms, despite inducing increased production of nitric oxide (NO). Importantly, the effect of IFNγ on T. cruzi uptake and growth is completely blocked by the anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF) antibody Infliximab and partially blocked by the inhibitor of nitric oxide synthesis L-NAME. These data support that IFNγ fuels astrocyte infection by T. cruzi and critically implicate IFNγ-stimulated T. cruzi-infected astrocytes as sources of TNF and NO, which may contribute to parasite persistence and CNS pathology in CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Rodrigues Silva
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz—Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | - Rafael M. Mariante
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz—Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | - Andrea Alice Silva
- Laboratório Multidisciplinar de Apoio à Pesquisa, Departamento de Medicina Clínica, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
- Departamento de Patologia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
| | | | - Ester Roffê
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz—Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
- Laboratório de Imunologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou—Fiocruz, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Helton Santiago
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Ricardo Tostes Gazzinelli
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Minas Gerais, Brasil
| | - Joseli Lannes-Vieira
- Laboratório de Biologia das Interações, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz—Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
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30
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Klein A, Schwartz H, Sagi-Assif O, Meshel T, Izraely S, Ben Menachem S, Bengaiev R, Ben-Shmuel A, Nahmias C, Couraud PO, Witz IP, Erez N. Astrocytes facilitate melanoma brain metastasis via secretion of IL-23. J Pathol 2015; 236:116-27. [DOI: 10.1002/path.4509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anat Klein
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Hila Schwartz
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Orit Sagi-Assif
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Tsipi Meshel
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Sivan Izraely
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Shlomit Ben Menachem
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Roman Bengaiev
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Amir Ben-Shmuel
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Clara Nahmias
- Department of Cell Biology; Institut Cochin; Paris France
| | | | - Isaac P Witz
- Department of Cell Research and Immunology, George S. Wise Faculty of Life Sciences; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
| | - Neta Erez
- Department of Pathology, Sackler School of Medicine; Tel Aviv University; Tel Aviv Israel
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Ochiai E, Sa Q, Brogli M, Kudo T, Wang X, Dubey JP, Suzuki Y. CXCL9 is important for recruiting immune T cells into the brain and inducing an accumulation of the T cells to the areas of tachyzoite proliferation to prevent reactivation of chronic cerebral infection with Toxoplasma gondii. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2014; 185:314-24. [PMID: 25432064 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
T cells are required to maintain the latency of chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii in the brain. Here, we examined the role of non-glutamic acid-leucine-arginine CXC chemokine CXCL9 for T-cell recruitment to prevent reactivation of infection with T. gondii. Severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice were infected and treated with sulfadiazine to establish a chronic infection. Immune T cells from infected wild-type mice were transferred into the SCID mice in combination with treatment with anti-CXCL9 or control sera. Three days later, sulfadiazine was discontinued to initiate reactivation of infection. Numbers of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells isolated from the brains were markedly less in mice treated with anti-CXCL9 serum than in mice treated with control serum at 3 days after sulfadiazine discontinuation. Amounts of tachyzoite (acute stage form of T. gondii)-specific SAG1 mRNA and numbers of foci associated with tachyzoites were significantly greater in the former than the latter at 5 days after sulfadiazine discontinuation. An accumulation of CD3(+) T cells into the areas of tachyzoite growth was significantly less frequent in the SCID mice treated with anti-CXCL9 serum than in mice treated with control serum. These results indicate that CXCL9 is crucial for recruiting immune T cells into the brain and inducing an accumulation of the T cells into the areas where tachyzoites proliferate to prevent reactivation of chronic T. gondii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eri Ochiai
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Qila Sa
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Morgan Brogli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Tomoya Kudo
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky
| | - Xisheng Wang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia
| | - Jitender P Dubey
- Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Maryland
| | - Yasuhiro Suzuki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, Kentucky; Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia.
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Parlog A, Harsan LA, Zagrebelsky M, Weller M, von Elverfeldt D, Mawrin C, Korte M, Dunay IR. Chronic murine toxoplasmosis is defined by subtle changes in neuronal connectivity. Dis Model Mech 2014; 7:459-69. [PMID: 24524910 PMCID: PMC3974456 DOI: 10.1242/dmm.014183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent studies correlate chronic Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) infection with behavioral changes in rodents; additionally, seropositivity in humans is reported to be associated with behavioral and neuropsychiatric diseases. In this study we investigated whether the described behavioral changes in a murine model of chronic toxoplasmosis are associated with changes in synaptic plasticity and brain neuronal circuitry. In mice chronically infected with T. gondii, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data analysis displayed the presence of heterogeneous lesions scattered throughout all brain areas. However, a higher density of lesions was observed within specific regions such as the somatosensory cortex (SSC). Further histopathological examination of these brain areas indicated the presence of activated resident glia and recruited immune cells accompanied by limited alterations of neuronal viability. In vivo diffusion-tensor MRI analysis of neuronal fiber density within the infected regions revealed connectivity abnormalities in the SSC. Altered fiber density was confirmed by morphological analysis of individual, pyramidal and granule neurons, showing a reduction in dendritic arbor and spine density within the SSC, as well as in the hippocampus. Evaluation of synapse efficacy revealed diminished levels of two key synaptic proteins, PSD95 and synaptophysin, within the same brain areas, indicating deficits in functionality of the synaptic neurotransmission in infected mice. Our results demonstrate that persistent T. gondii infection in a murine model results in synaptic deficits within brain structures leading to disturbances in the morphology of noninfected neurons and modified brain connectivity, suggesting a potential explanation for the behavioral and neuropsychiatric alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandru Parlog
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120-Magdeburg, Germany
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Wang D, Zhong X, Huang D, Chen R, Bai G, Li Q, Yu B, Fan Y, Sun X. Functional polymorphisms of interferon-gamma affect pneumonia-induced sepsis. PLoS One 2014; 9:e87049. [PMID: 24475220 PMCID: PMC3901723 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0087049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sepsis is an inflammatory syndrome caused by infection, and both its incidence and mortality are high. Because interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) plays an important role in inflammation, this work assessed IFN-γ single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) that may be associated with sepsis. METHODS A total of 196 patients with pneumonia-induced sepsis and 213 age- and sex-matched healthy volunteers participated in our study from July 2012 to July 2013 in Guangzhou, China. Patient clinical information was collected. Clinical pathology was assessed in subgroups defined based on clinical criteria, APACHE II (acute physiology and chronic health evaluation) and SOFA (sepsis-related organ failure assessment) scores and discharge rate. Four functional SNPs, -1616T/C (rs2069705), -764G/C (rs2069707), +874A/T (rs2430561) and +3234C/T (rs2069718), were genotyped by Snapshot in both sepsis patients and healthy controls. Pearson's chi-square test or Fisher's exact test were used to analyze the distribution of the SNPs, and the probability values (P values), odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. RESULTS No mutations in the IFN-γ -764G/C SNP were detected among the participants in our study. The +874A/T and +3234C/T SNPs were in strong linkage disequilibrium (LD) (r(2) = 0.894). The -1616 TC+TT, +874 AT+AA genotype and the TAC haplotype were significantly associated with sepsis susceptibility, while the CTT haplotype was associated with protection against sepsis incidence. Genotype of -1616 TT wasn't only protective against severity of sepsis, but also against higher APACHE II and SOFA scores as +874 AA and +3234 CC. The TAC haplotype was was protective against progression to severe sepsis either. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that functional IFN-γ SNPs and their haplotypes are associated with pneumonia-induced sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ding Wang
- Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Experimental Department of Institute of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xuan Zhong
- The department of intensive care unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Dongjian Huang
- The department of intensive care unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Rui Chen
- Reproductive Department, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Guibin Bai
- The department of intensive care unit, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qing Li
- Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Experimental Department of Institute of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bolan Yu
- Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Experimental Department of Institute of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yong Fan
- Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Experimental Department of Institute of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaofang Sun
- Key Laboratory for Major Obstetric Diseases of Guangdong Province, Key Laboratory of Reproduction and Genetics of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Experimental Department of Institute of Gynecology and Obstetrics, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
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Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, an Apicomplexan, is a pathogic protozoan that can infect the central nervous system. Infection during pregnancy can result in a congenial infection with severe neurological sequelae. In immunocompromised individuals reactivation of latent neurological foci can result in encephalitis. Immunocompetent individuals infected with T. gondii are typically asymptomatic and maintain this infection for life. However, recent studies suggest that these asymptomatic infections may have effects on behavior and other physiological processes. Toxoplasma gondii infects approximately one-third of the world population, making it one of the most successful parasitic organisms. Cats and other felidae serve as the definite host producing oocysts, an environmentally resistant life cycle stage found in cat feces, which can transmit the infection when ingested orally. A wide variety of warm-blooded animals, including humans, can serve as the intermediate host in which tissue cysts (containing bradyzoites) develop. Transmission also occurs due to ingestion of the tissue cysts. There are three predominant clonal lineages, termed Types I, II and III, and an association with higher pathogenicity with the Type I strains in humans has emerged. This chapter presents a review of the biology of this infection including the life cycle, transmission, epidemiology, parasite strains, and the host immune response. The major clinical outcomes of congenital infection, chorioretinitis and encephalitis, and the possible association of infection of toxoplasmosis with neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K Halonen
- Department of Microbiology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
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Ni M, Li X, Rocha JBT, Farina M, Aschner M. Glia and methylmercury neurotoxicity. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2012; 75:1091-1101. [PMID: 22852858 PMCID: PMC4059390 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2012.697840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Methylmercury (MeHg) is a global environmental pollutant with significant adverse effects on human health. As the major target of MeHg, the central nervous system (CNS) exhibits the most recognizable poisoning symptoms. The role of the two major nonneuronal cell types, astrocytes and microglia, in response to MeHg exposure was recently compared. These two cell types share several common features in MeHg toxicity, but interestingly, these cells types also exhibit distinct response kinetics, indicating a cell-specific role in mediating MeHg-induced neurotoxicity. The aim of this study was to review the most recent literature and summarize key features of glial responses to this organometal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingwei Ni
- Department of Surgery, New York Hospital Medical Center Queens, New York City, New York, USA
| | - Xin Li
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - João B. T. Rocha
- Departamento de Química, Centro de Ciências Naturais e Exatas, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Farina
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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Interferon-gamma- and perforin-mediated immune responses for resistance against Toxoplasma gondii in the brain. Expert Rev Mol Med 2011; 13:e31. [PMID: 22005272 DOI: 10.1017/s1462399411002018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan parasite that causes various diseases, including lymphadenitis, congenital infection of fetuses and life-threatening toxoplasmic encephalitis in immunocompromised individuals. Interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-mediated immune responses are essential for controlling tachyzoite proliferation during both acute acquired infection and reactivation of infection in the brain. Both CD4+ and CD8+ T cells produce this cytokine in response to infection, although the latter has more potent protective activity. IFN-γ can activate microglia, astrocytes and macrophages, and these activated cells control the proliferation of tachyzoites using different molecules, depending on cell type and host species. IFN-γ also has a crucial role in the recruitment of T cells into the brain after infection by inducing expression of the adhesion molecule VCAM-1 on cerebrovascular endothelial cells, and chemokines such as CXCL9, CXCL10 and CCL5. A recent study showed that CD8+ T cells are able to remove T. gondii cysts, which represent the stage of the parasite in chronic infection, from the brain through their perforin-mediated activity. Thus, the resistance to cerebral infection with T. gondii requires a coordinated network using both IFN-γ- and perforin-mediated immune responses. Elucidating how these two protective mechanisms function and collaborate in the brain against T. gondii will be crucial in developing a new method to prevent and eradicate this parasitic infection.
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Fu X, Lawson MA, Kelley KW, Dantzer R. HIV-1 Tat activates indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase in murine organotypic hippocampal slice cultures in a p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase-dependent manner. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:88. [PMID: 21810259 PMCID: PMC3162509 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Background We have established that activation of the tryptophan degrading enzyme indoleamine 2,3 dioxygenase (IDO) mediates the switch from cytokine-induced sickness behavior to depressive-like behavior. Because human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Tat protein causes depressive-like behavior in mice, we investigated its ability to activate IDO in organotypic hippocampal slice cultures (OHSCs) derived from neonatal C57BL/6 mice. Methods Depressive-like behavior in C57BL/6J mice was assessed by the forced swim test. Expression of cytokines and IDO mRNA in OHSCs was measured by real-time RT-PCR and cytokine protein was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). p38 MAPK phosphorylation was analyzed by western blot. Results Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of Tat (40 ng) induced depressive-like behavior in the absence of sickness. Addition of Tat (40 ng/slice) to the medium of OHSCs induced IDO steady-state mRNA that peaked at 6 h. This effect was potentiated by pretreatment with IFNγ. Tat also induced the synthesis and release of TNFα and IL-6 protein in the supernatant of the slices and increased expression of the inducible isoform of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and the serotonin transporter (SERT). Tat had no effect on endogenous synthesis of IFNγ. To explore the mechanisms of Tat-induced IDO expression, slices were pretreated with the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) inhibitor SB 202190 for 30 min before Tat treatment. SB 202190 significantly decreased IDO expression induced by Tat, and this effect was accompanied by a reduction of Tat-induced expression of TNFα, IL-6, iNOS and SERT. Conclusion These data establish that Tat induces IDO expression via an IFNγ-independent mechanism that depends upon activation of p38 MAPK. Targeting IDO itself or the p38 MAPK signaling pathway could provide a novel therapy for comorbid depressive disorders in HIV-1-infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Fu
- Integrative Immunology and Behavior Program, Department of Animal Sciences, College of ACES, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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Henn A, Kirner S, Leist M. TLR2 hypersensitivity of astrocytes as functional consequence of previous inflammatory episodes. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:3237-47. [PMID: 21282508 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Precedent inflammatory episodes may drastically modify the function and reactivity of cells. We investigated whether priming of astrocytes by microglia-derived cytokines alters their subsequent reaction to pathogen-associated danger signals not recognized in the quiescent state. Resting primary murine astrocytes expressed little TLR2, and neither the TLR2/6 ligand fibroblast-stimulating lipopeptide-1 (FSL1) nor the TLR1/2 ligand Pam(3)CysSK(4) (P3C) triggered NF-κB translocation or IL-6 release. We made use of single-cell detection of NF-κB translocation as easily detectable and sharply regulated upstream indicator of an inflammatory response or of c-Jun phosphorylation to measure restimulation events in astrocytes under varying conditions. Cells prestimulated with IL-1β, with a TLR3 ligand, with a complete cytokine mix consisting of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ, or with media conditioned by activated microglia responded strongly to FSL1 or P3C stimulation, whereas the sensitivity of the NF-κB response to other pattern recognition receptors was unchanged. This sensitization to TLR2 ligands was associated with an initial upregulation of TLR2, displayed a "memory" window of several days, and was largely independent of the length of prestimulation. The altered signaling led to altered function, as FSL1 or P3C triggered the release of IL-6, CCL-20, and CXCL-2 in primed cells, but not in resting astrocytes. These data confirmed the hypothesis that astrocytes exposed to activated microglia assume a different functional phenotype involving longer term TLR2 responsiveness, even after the initial stimulation by inflammatory mediators has ended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Henn
- Doerenkamp-Zbinden Chair of in vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, University of Konstanz, D-78457 Konstanz, Germany
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39
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Tu L, Moriya C, Imai T, Ishida H, Tetsutani K, Duan X, Murata S, Tanaka K, Shimokawa C, Hisaeda H, Himeno K. Critical role for the immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 in the resistance of mice to Toxoplasma gondii
infection. Eur J Immunol 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/eji.200939117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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40
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Romero CR, Herzig DS, Etogo A, Nunez J, Mahmoudizad R, Fang G, Murphey ED, Toliver-Kinsky T, Sherwood ER. The role of interferon-γ in the pathogenesis of acute intra-abdominal sepsis. J Leukoc Biol 2010; 88:725-35. [PMID: 20628064 DOI: 10.1189/jlb.0509307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies indicate that IFN-γ facilitates systemic inflammation during endotoxin-induced shock. However, the pathobiology of IFN-γ in clinically relevant models of septic shock, such as CLP, is not well understood. In this study, the role of IFN-γ in the pathogenesis of CLP-induced septic shock was evaluated by examining IFN-γ production at the tissue and cellular levels. The impact of IFN-γ neutralization on systemic inflammation, bacterial clearance, and survival was also determined. Following CLP, concentrations of IFN-γ in plasma and peritoneal lavage fluid were low in comparison with concentrations of IL-6 and MIP-2, as was IFN-γ mRNA expression in liver and spleen. The overall percentage of IFN-γ+ splenocytes was <5% after CLP and not statistically different from control mice. Intracellular IFN-γ was present in a large proportion of peritoneal exudate cells after CLP, primarily in infiltrating myeloid cells and NK cells. i.p. myeloid cell activation was decreased in IFN-γKO mice, and plasma concentrations of IL-6 and MIP-2 were significantly lower in IFN-γKO mice and in mice treated with anti-IFN-γ compared with controls, but bacterial clearance was not affected. IFN-γKO mice were resistant to CLP-induced mortality when treated with systemic antibiotics. However, neutralization of IFN-γ with blocking antibodies did not improve survival significantly. These studies show that IFN-γ facilitates the proinflammatory response during CLP-induced septic shock. However, neutralization of IFN-γ did not improve survival uniformly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R Romero
- Department of Anesthesiology, The University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0591, USA
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41
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CD4 T-cell suppression by cells from Toxoplasma gondii-infected retinas is mediated by surface protein PD-L1. Infect Immun 2010; 78:3484-92. [PMID: 20498261 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00117-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
In the inflamed retina, CD4(+) T cells can cause retinal damage when they are not properly regulated. Since tissue expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and costimulatory molecules is a key mechanism for regulating effector T cells, we tested the hypothesis that upregulation of these proteins in the retina contributes to the regulation of CD4 T cells. Here we report that in retinas infected with the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, MHC class II is upregulated on infiltrating leukocytes as well as on resident retinal cells, including photoreceptors. Flow cytometric analysis indicated that B7 costimulatory family members (CD80, CD86, ICOS-L, and programmed death ligand 2 [PD-L2]) were not expressed on class II(+) cells. In contrast, PD-L1 (also named B7-H1 or CD274) was expressed on the majority of both hematopoietic and resident retinal MHC class II-expressing cells. Retinal cells from Toxoplasma-infected animals were able to suppress T-cell activation in a PD-L1-dependent manner. Finally, we demonstrate that the expression of MHC class II and PD-L1 was critically dependent on gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) expression. These data suggest that retinal MHC class II and PD-L1 expression is a novel mechanism by which the retina protects itself from CD4 T-cell-mediated immune damage in ocular toxoplasmosis and other types of retinal immune responses.
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Suzuki Y, Wang X, Jortner BS, Payne L, Ni Y, Michie SA, Xu B, Kudo T, Perkins S. Removal of Toxoplasma gondii cysts from the brain by perforin-mediated activity of CD8+ T cells. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2010; 176:1607-13. [PMID: 20167872 DOI: 10.2353/ajpath.2010.090825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chronic infection with Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most common parasitic infections in humans. Formation of tissue cysts is the basis of persistence of the parasite in infected hosts, and this cyst stage has generally been regarded as untouchable. Here we provide the first evidence that the immune system can eliminate T. gondii cysts from the brains of infected hosts when immune T cells are transferred into infected immunodeficient animals that have already developed large numbers of cysts. This T cell-mediated immune process was associated with accumulation of microglia and macrophages around tissue cysts. CD8(+) immune T cells possess a potent activity to remove the cysts. The initiation of this process by CD8(+) T cells does not require their production of interferon-gamma, the major mediator to prevent proliferation of tachyzoites during acute infection, but does require perforin. These results suggest that CD8(+) T cells induce elimination of T. gondii cysts through their perforin-mediated cytotoxic activity. Our findings provide a new mechanism of the immune system to fight against chronic infection with T. gondii and suggest a possibility of developing a novel vaccine to eliminate cysts from patients with chronic infection and to prevent the establishment of chronic infection after a newly acquired infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhiro Suzuki
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA.
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Prandota J. Mollaret meningitis may be caused by reactivation of latent cerebral toxoplasmosis. Int J Neurosci 2010; 119:1655-92. [PMID: 19922380 DOI: 10.1080/00207450802480044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mollaret meningitis (MM) occurs mainly in females and is characterized by recurrent episodes of headache, transient neurological abnormalities, and the cerebrospinal fluid containing mononuclear cells. HSV-2 was usually identified as the causative agent. Recently, we found that recurrent headaches in non-HIV-infected subjects were due to acquired cerebral toxoplasmosis (CT). The aim of the study was therefore to focus on molecular pathomechanisms that may lead to reactivation of latent CT and manifest as MM. Literature data cited in this work were selected to illustrate that various factors may affect latent CNS Toxoplasma gondii infection/inflammation intensity and/or host defense mechanisms, i.e., the production of NO, cytokines, tryptophan degradation by indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, mechanisms mediated by an IFN-gamma responsive gene family, limiting the availability of intracellular iron to T. gondii, and production of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species, finally inducing choroid plexitis and/or vasculitis. Examples of triggers revealing MM and accompanying disturbances of IFN-gamma-mediated immune responses that control HSV-2 and T. gondii include: female predominance (female mice are more susceptible to T. gondii infection than males); HSV-2 infection (increased IFN-gamma, IL-12); metaraminol (increased plasma catecholamine levels, changes in cytokine expression favoring T(H)2 cells responses); probably cholesterol contained in debris from ruptured epidermoid cysts (decreased NO; increased TNF-alpha, IL-6, IL-8). These irregularities induced by the triggers may be responsible for reactivation of latent CT and development of MM. Thus, subjects with MM should have test(s) for T. gondii infection performed obligatorily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Prandota
- Pediatrics & Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Social Pediatrics, Faculty of Public Health, University Medical School, Wroclaw, Poland.
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Tu L, Moriya C, Imai T, Ishida H, Tetsutani K, Duan X, Murata S, Tanaka K, Shimokawa C, Hisaeda H, Himeno K. Critical role for the immunoproteasome subunit LMP7 in the resistance of mice to Toxoplasma gondii infection. Eur J Immunol 2010; 39:3385-94. [PMID: 19830724 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200839117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Proteasome-mediated proteolysis is responsible for the generation of immunogenic epitopes presented by MHC class I molecules, which activate antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Immunoproteasomes, defined by the presence of the three catalytic subunits LMP2, MECL-1, and LMP7, have been hypothesized to optimize MHC class I antigen processing. In this study, we demonstrate that the infection of mice with a protozoan parasite, Toxoplasma gondii, induced the expression of LMP7 mRNA in APC and increased the capacity of APC to induce the production of IFN-gamma by antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. In vitro infection of a DC cell line with T. gondii also induced the expression of LMP7 and resulted in enhanced proteasome proteolytic activity. Finally, mice lacking LMP7 were highly susceptible to infection with T. gondii and showed a reduced number of functional CD8+ T cells. These results demonstrate that proteasomes containing LMP7 play an indispensable role in the survival of mice infected with T. gondii, presumably due to the efficient generation of CTL epitopes required for the functional development of CD8+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Tu
- Department of Parasitology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Pereira KS, Franco RMB, Leal DAG. Transmission of toxoplasmosis (Toxoplasma gondii) by foods. ADVANCES IN FOOD AND NUTRITION RESEARCH 2010; 60:1-19. [PMID: 20691951 DOI: 10.1016/s1043-4526(10)60001-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Protozoan foodborne diseases are generally underrecognized. Toxoplasma gondii is the causative agent of toxoplasmosis, one of the most prevalent parasitic infections to humans and domestic animals. The most likely source of T. gondii occurring through food is the consumption of raw or undercooked meat contaminated with tissue cysts. Sporulated T. gondii oocysts, from the feces of infected cats, present in the environment are a potential source of infection. The ingestion of water contaminated with oocysts and the eating of unwashed raw vegetables or fruits were identified as an important risk factor in most epidemiological studies. This review presents information and data to show the importance of T. gondii transmission by foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Signori Pereira
- Departamento de Engenharia Bioquímica, Escola de Química, Centro de Tecnologia Bloco E - Sala 203, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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46
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Manéglier B, Malleret B, Guillemin GJ, Spreux-Varoquaux O, Devillier P, Rogez-Kreuz C, Porcheray F, Thérond P, Dormont D, Clayette P. Modulation of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase expression and activity by HIV-1 in human macrophages. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2009; 23:573-81. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2009.00703.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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47
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Kaur C, Ling E. Periventricular white matter damage in the hypoxic neonatal brain: Role of microglial cells. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 87:264-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 11/12/2008] [Accepted: 01/08/2009] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Major histocompatibility complex haplotype determines hsp70-dependent protection against measles virus neurovirulence. J Virol 2009; 83:5544-55. [PMID: 19321604 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02673-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
In vitro studies show that hsp70 promotes gene expression for multiple viral families, although there are few reports on the in vivo significance of virus-hsp70 interaction. Previously we showed that hsp70-dependent stimulation of Edmonston measles virus (Ed MeV) transcription caused an increased cytopathic effect and mortality in transgenic hsp70-overexpressing C57BL/6 mice (H-2(b)). The response to MeV infection is influenced by the major histocompatibility complex haplotype; H-2(d) mice are resistant to brain infection due to robust antiviral immune responses, whereas H-2(b) mice are susceptible due to deficiencies in this response. We therefore tested the hypothesis that the outcome of MeV-hsp70 interaction may be dependent upon the host H-2 haplotype. The impact of selective neuronal hsp70 overexpression on Ed MeV brain infection was tested with congenic C57BL/10 H-2(d) neonatal mice. In this context, hsp70 overexpression conferred complete protection against virus-induced mortality, compared to >30% mortality in nontransgenic mice. Selective depletion of T-cell populations showed that transgenic mice exhibit a diminished reliance on T cells for protection. Brain transcript analysis indicated enhanced innate immune activation and signaling through Toll-like receptors 2 and 4 at early times postinfection for transgenic infected mice relative to those for nontransgenic infected mice. Collectively, results suggest that hsp70 can enhance innate antiviral immunity through Toll-like receptor signaling, supporting a protective role for physiological responses that enhance tissue levels of hsp70 (e.g., fever), and that the H-2 haplotype determines the effectiveness of this response.
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Steel CD, Hahto SM, Ciavarra RP. Peripheral dendritic cells are essential for both the innate and adaptive antiviral immune responses in the central nervous system. Virology 2009; 387:117-26. [PMID: 19264338 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2009.01.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2008] [Revised: 11/18/2008] [Accepted: 01/22/2009] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Intranasal application of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) causes acute infection of the central nervous system (CNS). However, VSV encephalitis is not invariably fatal, suggesting that the CNS may contain a professional antigen-presenting cell (APC) capable of inducing or propagating a protective antiviral immune response. To examine this possibility, we first characterized the cellular elements that infiltrate the brain as well as the activation status of resident microglia in the brains of normal and transgenic mice acutely ablated of peripheral dendritic cells (DCs) in vivo. VSV encephalitis was characterized by a pronounced infiltrate of myeloid cells (CD45(high)CD11b(+)) and CD8(+) T cells containing a subset that was specific for the immunodominant VSV nuclear protein epitope. This T cell response correlated temporally with a rapid and sustained upregulation of MHC class I expression on microglia, whereas class II expression was markedly delayed. Ablation of peripheral DCs profoundly inhibited the inflammatory response as well as infiltration of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. Unexpectedly, the VSV-induced interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) response in the CNS remained intact in DC-deficient mice. Thus, both the inflammatory and certain components of the adaptive primary antiviral immune response in the CNS are dependent on peripheral DCs in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina D Steel
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Cell Biology, Eastern Virginia Medical School, 700 W Olney Road, Norfolk, VA 23501, USA
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Garweg JG, Candolfi E. Immunopathology in ocular toxoplasmosis: facts and clues. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2009; 104:211-20. [DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762009000200014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2008] [Accepted: 02/02/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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