Age-related changes in 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 activity in normotensive subjects

Associations of schizophrenia with the activities of the HPA and HPG axes and their interactions characterized by hair-based biomarkers

BACKGROUND

Past studies on schizophrenia (SCZ) and the stress-sensitive neuroendocrine systems have mostly focused on a single system and traditionally utilized acute biomarkers (e.g., biomarkers from blood, urine and saliva) that poorly match the chronic course of schizophrenia in time span. Using eight biomarkers in hair, this study aimed to explore the functional characteristics of SCZ patients in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes and the interaction between the two axes.

METHODS

Hair samples were taken from 137 SCZ patients and 73 controls. The SCZ patients were diagnosed by their attending physician according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV and were clinically stable after treatment. Gender, age, BMI, frequency of hair washing, marital status, education level, family history of mental illness and clozapine dosage were concurrently collected as covariates. The 10-item perceived stress scale (PSS-10) and the social readjustment rating scale were used to assess chronic stress status in SCZ patients. Eight hair biomarkers, cortisol, cortisone, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), testosterone, progesterone, cortisol/cortisone, cortisol/DHEA and cortisol/testosterone, were measured by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometer. Among them, cortisol, cortisone, DHEA and cortisol/DHEA reflected the functional activity of the HPA axis, and testosterone and progesterone reflected the functional activity of the HPG axis, and cortisol/cortisone reflected the activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase types 2 (11β-HSD 2), and cortisol/testosterone reflected the HPA-HPG interaction.

RESULTS

SCZ patients showed significantly higher cortisone and cortisol/testosterone than controls (p<0.001, η²p=0.180 and p=0.015, η²p=0.031), lower testosterone (p=0.009, η²p=0.034), progesterone (p<0.001, η²p=0.069) and cortisol/cortisone (p=0.001, η²p=0.054). There were significant intergroup differences in male and female progesterone (p=0.003, η²p=0.088 and p=0.030, η²p=0.049) and female testosterone (p=0.028, η²p=0.051). In SCZ patients, cortisol, cortisol/cortisone, cortisol/DHEA and cortisol/testosterone were positively associated with PSS-10 score (ps<0.05, 0.212

CONCLUSION

The function of the HPA and HPG axes, the activity of 11β-HSD 2 and the HPA-HPG interaction were abnormal in SCZ patients. The abnormality of neuroendocrine systems was associated with chronic stress status in SCZ patients. This study provided evidence for abnormalities in the neuroendocrine systems in SCZ patients.

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Key Words

• 11β-HSD 2
• HPA axis
• HPG axis
• Hair biomarkers
• Schizophrenia

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MESH Headings

• Humans
• Female
• Male
• Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System/metabolism
• Schizophrenia/metabolism
• Pituitary-Adrenal System/metabolism
• Pituitary-Adrenal System/physiopathology
• Hair/chemistry
• Hair/metabolism
• Biomarkers/metabolism
• Adult
• Hydrocortisone/metabolism
• Hydrocortisone/analysis
• Cortisone/metabolism
• Cortisone/analysis
• Testosterone/metabolism
• Testosterone/analysis
• Dehydroepiandrosterone/metabolism
• Dehydroepiandrosterone/analysis
• Stress, Psychological/metabolism
• Middle Aged
• Progesterone/metabolism
• Progesterone/analysis
• Case-Control Studies

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Affiliation(s)

Deyi Qi Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Weiliang Wang School of Nursing, Harbin Medical University, Harbin 163319, China.
Liuxi Chu Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Yan Wu Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Wei Wang Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Minhui Zhu Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Lin Yuan Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
Wei Gao Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210024, China
Huihua Deng Department of Brain and Learning Science, School of Biological Science & Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China; Key Laboratory of Child Development and Learning Science (Southeast University), Ministry of Education, Nanjing 211189, China; Institute of Child Development and Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China.

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Low Cortisone as a Novel Predictor of the Low-Renin Phenotype

A large proportion of patients with low-renin hypertension (LRH) correspond to primary aldosteronism (PA). However, some of these subjects have low to normal aldosterone. Since low renin is driven by excessive mineralocorticoids or glucocorticoids acting on mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs), we hypothesize that a low-cortisone condition, associated classically with 11βHSD2 deficiency, is a proxy of chronic MR activation by cortisol, which can also lead to low renin, elevated blood pressure, and renal and vascular alterations.

Objective

To evaluate low cortisone as a predictor of low renin activity and its association with parameters of kidney and vascular damage.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was carried out in 206 adult subjects. The subjects were classified according to low plasma renin activity (<1 ng/mL × hours) and low cortisone (<25th percentile).

Results

Plasma renin activity was associated with aldosterone (r = 0.36; P < .001) and cortisone (r = 0.22; P = .001). A binary logistic regression analysis showed that serum cortisone per ug/dL increase predicted the low-renin phenotype (OR 0.4, 95% CI 0.21-0.78). The receiver operating characteristic curves for cortisone showed an area under the curve of 0.6 to discriminate subjects with low renin activity from controls. The low-cortisone subjects showed higher albuminuria and PAI-1 and lower sodium excretion. The association study also showed that urinary cortisone was correlated with blood pressure and serum potassium (P < .05).

Conclusion

This is the first study showing that low cortisone is a predictor of a low-renin condition. Low cortisone also predicted surrogate markers of vascular and renal damage. Since the aldosterone to renin ratio is used in the screening of PA, low cortisone values should be considered additionally to avoid false positives in the aldosterone-renin ratio calculation.

Analysis of clinical factors associated with Kampo formula-induced pseudoaldosteronism based on self-reported information from the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report database

Drug-induced pseudoaldosteronism is a typical adverse effect of Kampo formulas. Previous research described the potential risks of Kampo formula-linked pseudoaldosteronism. However, few studies assessed the risk factors using a real-world database and a data-mining approach. Using the Japanese Adverse Drug Event Report database, we extracted pseudoaldosteronism reports for 148 Kampo formulas covered by Japanese national health insurance. Adverse events were decided according to the preferred terminology of the Medical Dictionary for Regulatory Activities/Japanese version 25.1. We calculated reporting odds ratio (RORs) and identified Kampo formulas as suspected causes of pseudoaldosteronism. Moreover, we evaluated clinical factors associated with Kampo formula-induced pseudoaldosteronism via logistic regression. From April 2004 to November 2022, 6334 adverse events related to the Kampo formulas were reported. We selected 2471 reports containing complete clinical data, including 210 reports on pseudoaldosteronism. In the pseudoaldosteronism group, 69.0% of patients were female, and 85.2% were ≥70 years old. The formulas most commonly associated with pseudoaldosteronism were Shakuyakukanzoto, Yokukansan, and Ryokeijutsukanto (ROR [95% confidence interval {CI}] = 18.3 [13.0-25.9], 8.1 [5.4-12.0], and 5.5 [1.4-21.9], respectively). Logistic analysis identified female sex (odds ratio [OR] [95% CI] = 1.7 [1.2-2.6]; P = 0.006), older age (≥70, 5.0 [3.2-7.8]; P < 0.001), low body weight (<50 kg, 2.2 [1.5-3.2]; P < 0.001), diuretics usage (2.1 [1.3-4.8]; P = 0.004), hypertension (1.6 [1.1-2.4]; P = 0.014), and dementia (7.0 [4.2-11.6]; P < 0.001) as pseudoaldosteronism-related factors. Additionally, the daily Glycyrrhiza dose (OR = 2.1 [1.9-2.3]; P < 0.001) and duration of administration (>14 days, OR = 2.8 [1.7-4.5]; P < 0.001) were associated with adverse events. We did not observe an interaction between aging and hypertension. Careful follow-up is warranted during long-term Glycyrrhiza-containing Kampo formula use in patients with multiple clinical factors for pseudoaldosteronism.

Infertility and cortisol: a systematic review

Introduction

Stress and infertility form a complex relationship. In line with this, various stress-related biological markers have been investigated in infertility.

Methods

This systematic review was performed using PRISMA guidelines (i) to report whether cortisol is highly present in infertile patients compared to fertile control; (ii) to report whether there is any significant difference in the cortisol level in infertile subjects that conceive and those that didn't at the end of assisted reproduction treatments. Original articles involving human (male and female) as subjects were extracted from four electronic databases, including the list of references from the published papers. Sixteen original full-length articles involving male (4), female (11), and both genders (1) were included.

Results

Findings from studies that compared the cortisol level between infertile and fertile subjects indicate that (i) Male: three studies reported elevated cortisol level in infertile patients and one found no significant difference; (ii) Female: four studies reported increased cortisol level in infertile subjects and three studies found no significant difference. Findings from studies that measured the cortisol level from infertile patients that conceived and those that didn't indicate that (i) Male: one study reported no significant difference; (ii) Female: one study reported elevated cortisol in infertile patients that conceived, whereas two studies reported increased cortisol in infertile patients that was unable to conceive. Five studies found no significant difference between the groups.

Discussion

In the present review we only included the cortisol value that was measured prior to stimulation or IVF treatment or during natural or spontaneous cycles, despite this, there are still variations in the sampling period, assessment techniques and patients' characteristics. Hence, at present, we are still unable to conclude that cortisol is significantly elevated in infertile patients. We warrant future studies to standardize the time of biological sample collection and other limitations that were addressed in the review to negate the unwanted influencing factors.

DNA Methylation Is a Potential Biomarker for Cardiometabolic Health in Mexican Children and Adolescents

DNA methylation (DNAm) is a plausible mechanism underlying cardiometabolic abnormalities, but evidence is limited among youth. This analysis included 410 offspring of the Early Life Exposure in Mexico to Environmental Toxicants (ELEMENT) birth cohort followed up to two time points in late childhood/adolescence. At Time 1, DNAm was quantified in blood leukocytes at long interspersed nuclear elements (LINE-1), H19, and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD-2), and at Time 2 in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPAR-α). At each time point, cardiometabolic risk factors were assessed including lipid profiles, glucose, blood pressure, and anthropometry. Linear mixed effects models were used for LINE-1, H19, and 11β-HSD-2 to account for the repeated-measure outcomes. Linear regression models were conducted for the cross-sectional association between PPAR-α with the outcomes. DNAm at LINE-1 was associated with log glucose at site 1 [β = -0.029, p = 0.0006] and with log high-density lipoprotein cholesterol at site 3 [β = 0.063, p = 0.0072]. 11β-HSD-2 DNAm at site 4 was associated with log glucose (β = -0.018, p = 0.0018). DNAm at LINE-1 and 11β-HSD-2 was associated with few cardiometabolic risk factors among youth in a locus-specific manner. These findings underscore the potential for epigenetic biomarkers to increase our understanding of cardiometabolic risk earlier in life.

Diagnosis and Treatment of Monogenic Hypertension in Children

Although the majority of individuals with hypertension (HTN) have primary and polygenic HTN, monogenic HTN is a secondary type that is widely thought to play a key role in pediatric HTN, which has the characteristics of early onset, refractory HTN with a positive family history, and electrolyte disorders. Monogenic HTN results from single genetic mutations that contribute to the dysregulation of blood pressure (BP) in the kidneys and adrenal glands. It is pathophysiologically associated with increased sodium reabsorption in the distal tubule, intravascular volume expansion, and HTN, as well as low renin and varying aldosterone levels. Simultaneously increased or decreased potassium levels also provide clues for the diagnosis of monogenic HTN. Discovering the genetic factors that cause an increase in BP has been shown to be related to the choice of and responses to antihypertensive medications. Therefore, early and precise diagnosis with genetic sequencing and effective treatment with accurate antihypertensive agents are critical in the management of monogenic HTN. In addition, understanding the genetic architecture of BP, causative molecular pathways perturbing BP regulation, and pharmacogenomics can help with the selection of precision and personalized medicine, as well as improve morbidity and mortality in adulthood.

Apparent mineralocorticoid excess: comprehensive overview of molecular genetics

Apparent mineralocorticoid excess is an autosomal recessive form of monogenic disease characterized by juvenile resistant low-renin hypertension, marked hypokalemic alkalosis, low aldosterone levels, and high ratios of cortisol to cortisone metabolites. It is caused by defects in the HSD11B2 gene, encoding the enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2), which is primarily involved in the peripheral conversion of cortisol to cortisone. To date, over 50 deleterious HSD11B2 mutations have been identified worldwide. Multiple molecular mechanisms function in the lowering of 11β-HSD2 activity, including damaging protein stability, lowered affinity for the substrate and cofactor, and disrupting the dimer interface. Genetic polymorphism, environmental factors as well as epigenetic modifications may also offer an implicit explanation for the molecular pathogenesis of AME. A precise diagnosis depends on genetic testing, which allows for early and specific management to avoid the morbidity and mortality from target organ damage. In this review, we provide insights into the molecular genetics of classic and non-classic apparent mineralocorticoid excess and aim to offer a comprehensive overview of this monogenic disease.

Importance of Micromilieu for Pathophysiologic Mineralocorticoid Receptor Activity—When the Mineralocorticoid Receptor Resides in the Wrong Neighborhood

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is a member of the steroid receptor family and acts as a ligand-dependent transcription factor. In addition to its classical effects on water and electrolyte balance, its involvement in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and renal diseases has been the subject of research for several years. The molecular basis of the latter has not been fully elucidated, but an isolated increase in the concentration of the MR ligand aldosterone or MR expression does not suffice to explain long-term pathologic actions of the receptor. Several studies suggest that MR activity and signal transduction are modulated by the surrounding microenvironment, which therefore plays an important role in MR pathophysiological effects. Local changes in micromilieu, including hypoxia, ischemia/reperfusion, inflammation, radical stress, and aberrant salt or glucose concentrations affect MR activation and therefore may influence the probability of unphysiological MR actions. The surrounding micromilieu may modulate genomic MR activity either by causing changes in MR expression or MR activity; for example, by inducing posttranslational modifications of the MR or novel interaction with coregulators, DNA-binding sites, or non-classical pathways. This should be considered when developing treatment options and strategies for prevention of MR-associated diseases.

Clinical, biochemical, and miRNA profile of subjects with positive screening of primary aldosteronism and nonclassic apparent mineralocorticoid excess

Primary aldosteronism (PA) and nonclassic apparent mineralocorticoid excess (NCAME) have been recognized as endocrine-related conditions having a broad clinical-biochemical spectrum, spanning from normotension to severe arterial hypertension (AHT). However, the coexistence of both phenotypes have not been reported to date.

AIM

To identify and characterize clinical and biochemical parameters of subjects with both PA and NCAME conditions (NCAME&PA) and study the miRNA cargo in their urinary extracellular vesicles as potential biomarkers for this novel condition.

METHODS

We performed a cross-sectional study of 206 Chilean adult subjects from a primary care cohort. We measured blood pressure (BP), cortisol (F), cortisone (E), aldosterone, plasma renin activity (PRA), microalbuminuria (MAC), plasma NGAL, MMP9, fractional-potassium-excretion (FEK). Subjects were classified as NCAME&PA, PA, NCAME, essential hypertensives (EH), or healthy controls (CTL). EV-miRNAs were quantified by Taqman-qPCR.

RESULTS

We found that 30.6% subjects had an abnormal endocrine phenotype: NCAME&PA (6.8%), PA (11.2%) or NCAME (12.6%), and the prevalence of AHT was 92.9%, 82.6%, and 65%, respectively. NCAME&PA subjects had both lower cortisone (p < 0.05) and lower PRA (p < 0.0001), higher FEK (p = 0.02) and higher MAC (p = 0.01) than EH or CTL. NCAME&PA subjects had also higher NGAL levels than CTL and PA (p < 0.05). Exosome miR-192, miR-133a and miR-21 expression decreased with phenotype severity and correlated with BP and PRA (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

We identified adult subjects with a combined condition of NCAME and PA associated with higher BP, increased renal and endothelial damage markers than control and EH. Additionally, we observed a differential expression of a specific miRNAs, suggesting a potential role of these miRNAs associated to this novel combined phenotype.

Cortisol and Cortisone in Early Childhood in Very-Low-Birthweight Infants and Term-Born Infants

INTRODUCTION

Besides programming of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, changes in the activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (11β-HSD2) could contribute to the later metabolic and cardiovascular consequences of preterm birth.

OBJECTIVE

We compared serum cortisol, cortisone, and cortisol/cortisone ratio in early childhood in very-low-birthweight (VLBW) infants and term appropriate for gestational age (AGA) born infants.

METHODS

We included 41 VLBW infants, participating in the randomized controlled Neonatal Insulin Replacement Therapy in Europe trial, and 64 term AGA-born infants. Cortisol and cortisone were measured in blood samples taken at 6 months and 2 years corrected age (VLBW children) and at 3 months and 1 and 2 years (term children). At 2 years of (corrected) age (HDL) cholesterol, triglycerides, glucose, and insulin were also measured.

RESULTS

During the first 2 years of life, cortisol/cortisone ratio is higher in VLBW children compared to term children. In the total group of children, cortisol/cortisone ratio is positively related to triglycerides at 2 years of (corrected) age. In VLBW children, over the first 2 years of life both cortisol and cortisone are higher in the early-insulin group compared to the standard care group.

CONCLUSIONS

In VLBW infants, lower 11β-HSD2 activity probably contributes to the long-term metabolic and cardiovascular risks. In VLBW infants, early insulin treatment could affect programming of the HPA axis, resulting in higher cortisol and cortisone levels during early childhood.

Posttranslational Modifications of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor and Cardiovascular Aging

During aging, the cardiovascular system is especially prone to a decline in function and to life-expectancy limiting diseases. Cardiovascular aging is associated with increased arterial stiffness and vasoconstriction as well as left ventricular hypertrophy and reduced diastolic function. Pathological changes include endothelial dysfunction, atherosclerosis, fibrosis, hypertrophy, inflammation, and changes in micromilieu with increased production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system is an important mediator of electrolyte and blood pressure homeostasis and a key contributor to pathological remodeling processes of the cardiovascular system. Its effects are partially conveyed by the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), a ligand-dependent transcription factor, whose activity increases during aging and cardiovascular diseases without correlating changes of its ligand aldosterone. There is growing evidence that the MR can be enzymatically and non-enzymatically modified and that these modifications contribute to ligand-independent modulation of MR activity. Modifications reported so far include phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, sumoylation and changes induced by nitrosative and oxidative stress. This review focuses on the different posttranslational modifications of the MR, their impact on MR function and degradation and the possible implications for cardiovascular aging and diseases.

An update in toxicology of ageing

The field of ageing research has been rapidly advancing in recent decades and it had provided insight into the complexity of ageing phenomenon. However, as the organism-environment interaction appears to significantly affect the organismal pace of ageing, the systematic approach for gerontogenic risk assessment of environmental factors has yet to be established. This puts demand on development of effective biomarker of ageing, as a relevant tool to quantify effects of gerontogenic exposures, contingent on multidisciplinary research approach. Here we review the current knowledge regarding the main endogenous gerontogenic pathways involved in acceleration of ageing through environmental exposures. These include inflammatory and oxidative stress-triggered processes, dysregulation of maintenance of cellular anabolism and catabolism and loss of protein homeostasis. The most effective biomarkers showing specificity and relevancy to ageing phenotypes are summarized, as well. The crucial part of this review was dedicated to the comprehensive overview of environmental gerontogens including various types of radiation, certain types of pesticides, heavy metals, drugs and addictive substances, unhealthy dietary patterns, and sedentary life as well as psychosocial stress. The reported effects in vitro and in vivo of both recognized and potential gerontogens are described with respect to the up-to-date knowledge in geroscience. Finally, hormetic and ageing decelerating effects of environmental factors are briefly discussed, as well.

Impact of cortisol on blood pressure and hypertension-mediated organ damage in hypertensive patients

OBJECTIVES

Patients with overt and subclinical Cushing's syndrome frequently develop hypertension, metabolism disorders, and atherosclerotic lesions. The aim of the present study was to test the association between cortisol and blood pressure (BP), organ damage, and metabolic parameters in hypertensive patients without hypercortisolism.

METHODS

After exclusion of patients treated with corticosteroids or with Cushing's syndrome, the cohort included 623 hypertensive patients (mean ± SD age 50.3 ± 15.4 years, 50.9% men, median 24-h BP 146/88 mmHg) with an extended work-up (lipid profile, hypertension-mediated organ damage). Cortisol secretion was assessed by plasma cortisol at 0800 and 1600 h, and by 24-h urinary free cortisol (24 h UFC) normalized if required to urine creatinine (UFC/U creat).

RESULTS

Plasma cortisol at 1600 h, 24 h-UFC, and UFC/U creat were significantly and positively correlated with daytime, night-time, and 24-h SBP; plasma cortisol at 0800 h was not associated with BP. The strongest correlations were observed in the subgroup of aged more than 50 years (correlation coefficients between 0.23 and 0.28). These correlations remained after adjustment on plasma aldosterone. Metabolic parameters were weakly associated with cortisol. Arterial stiffness (central pulse pressure and pulse wave velocity), plasma NT-proBNP, and microalbuminuria were significantly correlated with 24 h UFC, UFC/U creat, and plasma cortisol at 1600 h.

CONCLUSION

Cortisol influences weakly the level of BP independently from plasma aldosterone in hypertensive patients, particularly in older patients, and that there was weak association with HMOD. It may, therefore, be of interest to test specific treatments targeting cortisol excess in selected hypertensive patients.

Age-related changes in endogenous glucocorticoids, gonadal steroids, endocannabinoids and their ratios in plasma and hair from the male C57BL/6 mice

Age-related level changes of hormones, endocannabinoids and their ratios are of pathophysiological significance for understanding functions, activities and interactions of the endocrine systems, including the hypothalamic-pituitaryadrenal (HPA), hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axes and endogenous cannabinoid system (ECS). The present study aimed to investigate the age-dependent fluctuations of glucocorticoids, gonadal steroids, endocannabinoids and their ratios from 21 days to 10 months in both plasma and hair from the male C57BL/6 mice. A novel framework based on the liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was developed to simultaneously determine ten hormones and two endocannabinoids in plasma and hair. Results showed that glucocorticoids, corticosterone (CORT), aldosterone (ALD), 11-dehydrocorticosterone (11-DHC), gonadal steroids, progesterone (P), dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), testosterone (T) and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) in plasma were unimodally fluctuated (ps < 0.001) along age with the maximum value at 2.7-month-old. In contrast, the other two gonadal steroids, estrone (E1) and estradiol (E2) were declined with age (ps < 0.001). Differently, endocannabinoids, N-arachidonoyl-ethanolamine (AEA) and 1-arachydonoyl glycerol (1-AG) showed nadir and zenith values at 2.7-month-old and 3.4-month-old, respectively (ps < 0.001). Additionally, the ratios of CORT to 11-DHC and ALD in plasma were dropped similarly with age (ps < 0.001). The ratios of 1-AG to AEA, and of T to A4 and DHT, and of DHEA to A4 were unimodally changed (ps < 0.001) along age with maximum value at 2.7- or 3.4-month-old. In contrast, the ratios of E2 to T and E1 to A4 were decreased with age (ps < 0.05). The rest six ratios that reflected the interactions among the three endocrine systems, were similar age-dependent and showed nadir and zenith values at 2.7-month-old and 3.4-month-old, respectively (ps < 0.05). Most importantly, these findings in light of age-related changing patterns in plasma were repeated in hair, suggesting that the fi41-ndings in the two matrices were mutually validated. However, it was worth noting that their magnitude of levels in the two bio-matrices were markedly different. The current findings could provide reliable hormone and endocannabinoid signatures with age on neuroendocrine profiles as well as their ratios for the male C57BL/6 mice.

Salivary cortisol, cortisone and serum cortisol concentrations are related to age and body mass index in healthy children and young people

BACKGROUND

Saliva is an ideal medium in which to measure cortisol in children. However, there are very few data reporting salivary cortisol or cortisone concentrations in healthy children since the introduction of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to routine laboratory practice.

DESIGN

Early morning serum cortisol, salivary cortisol and cortisone were measured on fasting samples, and salivary hormones were measured in samples collected every 2 hours during waking hours, and 30 minutes after waking the following morning.

PARTICIPANTS

43 healthy paediatric volunteers (19 female), median age 11.5 years, range 6.2-18.7, participated.

RESULTS

Early morning serum cortisol (265 nmol/L, 156-516) correlated strongly with salivary cortisol (4.7 nmol/L, 1.1-14.6) and cortisone (28.8 nmol/L, 11.7-56.6), P < .0001 for both. Serum cortisol, salivary cortisol and salivary cortisone correlated directly with age (P < .0001, P = .002 and P = .015, respectively), and salivary cortisone/cortisol ratio correlated indirectly with age (P = .007). Between 08.00 and 21.00, area under the curve for salivary cortisol (mean ± 1 SD) was 41.8 ± 19.1 and for cortisone 213.0 ± 61.2. Salivary cortisol was undetectable in 25/130 (19%) of samples collected after 13.00, while cortisone was always detectable.

DISCUSSION

Salivary cortisol and cortisone concentrations are strongly related to serum cortisol concentrations; however, cortisone may be a preferable measure as cortisol is often undetectable. Age may be an important factor in the interpretation of early morning cortisol measurements made in serum and saliva.

The spectrum of low-renin hypertension

Low-renin hypertension (LRH) is a frequent condition in patients with arterial hypertension, accounting for 30% of patients. Monogenic forms can cause LRH in a minority of cases. However, in the large majority of patients, LRH is caused by the combined effects of congenital and acquired factors, comprising dietary habits. Several genetic variants have been proposed as co-factors in the pathogenesis of LRH with normal-low serum aldosterone. Emerging evidences support the hypothesis that a large proportion of LRH with normal-high serum aldosterone is associated with subclinical primary aldosteronism (PA). The recent identification of aldosterone-producing cell clusters (APCCs) as the possible cause of subclinical PA, further supported the concept of a continuous spectrum of autonomous aldosterone secretion, from subclinical forms towards overt PA. In this review we describe the main aspects of LRH, focusing on molecular basis, clinical risk profile and patients' management.

Classic and Nonclassic Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess Syndrome

CONTEXT

Arterial hypertension (AHT) is one of the most frequent pathologies in the general population. Subtypes of essential hypertension characterized by low renin levels allowed the identification of 2 different clinical entities: aldosterone-mediated mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activation and cortisol-mediated MR activation.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

This review is based upon a search of Pubmed and Google Scholar databases, up to August 2019, for all publications relating to endocrine hypertension, apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME) and cortisol (F) to cortisone (E) metabolism.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

The spectrum of cortisol-mediated MR activation includes the classic AME syndrome to milder (nonclassic) forms of AME, the latter with a much higher prevalence (7.1%) than classic AME but different phenotype and genotype. Nonclassic AME (NC-AME) is mainly related to partial 11βHSD2 deficiency associated with genetic variations and epigenetic modifications (first hit) and potential additive actions of endogenous or exogenous inhibitors (ie, glycyrrhetinic acid-like factors [GALFS]) and other factors (ie, age, high sodium intake) (second hit). Subjects with NC-AME are characterized by a high F/E ratio, low E levels, normal to elevated blood pressure, low plasma renin and increased urinary potassium excretion. NC-AME condition should benefit from low-sodium and potassium diet recommendations and monotherapy with MR antagonists.

CONCLUSION

NC-AME has a higher prevalence and a milder phenotypical spectrum than AME. NC-AME etiology is associated to a first hit (gene and epigene level) and an additive second hit. NC-AME subjects are candidates to be treated with MR antagonists aimed to improve blood pressure, end-organ damage, and modulate the renin levels.

Overview of Monogenic Forms of Hypertension Combined With Hypokalemia

Hypertension is an important risk factor in many conditions and creates a heavy burden of disease and mortality globally. Polygenic hypertension is the most common form; however, it is increasingly recognized that monogenic hypertension is not rare, especially in patients with electrolyte disorders. Single genetic alterations are associated with plasma volume expansion and catecholamines/sympathetic excess with simultaneously increased potassium excretion in the urine and potassium intracellular shift. Early-onset refractory hypertension and profound hypokalemia are characteristics of monogenic hypertension. However, accumulated evidence shows the existence of phenotypic heterogeneity in monogenic hypertension meaning that, even for mild symptoms, clinicians cannot easily exclude the possibility of monogenic hypertension. Genetic, epigenetic and non-genetic factors are all possible mechanisms influencing phenotypic diversity. Genetic sequencing is a precise and efficient method that can broaden the mutant gene spectrum of the disease and is very helpful for understanding the pathophysiology of monogenic hypertension. Genetic sequencing, along with biochemical tests and imaging modalities, is essential for the early diagnosis and targeted management of monogenic hypertension to avoid long-term catastrophic complications.

Low-Renin Hypertension

Low-renin hypertension affects 30% of hypertensive patients. Primary hyperaldosteronism presents with low renin and aldosterone excess. Low-renin, low-aldosterone hypertension represents a wide spectrum of disorders that includes essential low-renin hypertension, hereditary forms of hypertension, and hypertension secondary to endogenous or exogenous factors. This review addresses the different conditions that present with low-renin hypertension, discussing an appropriate diagnostic approach and highlighting the genetic subtypes within familial forms.

Analysis of novel heterozygous mutations in the CYP11B2 gene causing congenital aldosterone synthase deficiency and literature review

Aldosterone synthase deficiency (ASD) is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by severe hyperkalemia, salt loss, vomiting, severe dehydration and failure to thrive. ASD is a life-threatening electrolyte imbalance in infants resulting from mutations in CYP11B2. We described ASD in a Chinese male infant with vomiting, poor feeding and failure to thrive. He was mildly dehydrated, with a weight of 6 kg (-3.45 SDS) and length of 67 cm (-3.10 SDS). Laboratory tests showed hyponatremia (119 mmol/L), serum potassium 5.4 mmol/L, low plasma aldosterone and plasma renin activity (PRA) levels. Next-generation sequencing of his DNA revealed compound heterozygous mutations in CYP11B2, a known variant c.1391_1393delTGC (p.Leu464del, rs776404064) and a novel variant c.1294delA (p.Arg432Glyfs*37). The HEK-293T expression system was used to investigate the variants, demonstrating negligible aldosterone synthesis compared with WT CYP11B2. The patient started fludrocortisone and subsequently gained 3.2 kg of weight and normalized serum sodium (137 mmol/L). We further reviewed reported cases of ASD, summarizing clinical features and CYP11B2 mutations; missense and nonsense mutations are most frequent. Fludrocortisone treatment is essential for ASD, and the need for mineralocorticoid replacement wanes with age; eventually, therapy can be discontinued for many affected children. Our study broadens the ASD phenotypic spectrum and shows the efficiency of next-generation sequencing for patients with atypical clinical manifestations.

Clinical, Biochemical, and Genetic Characteristics of "Nonclassic" Apparent Mineralocorticoid Excess Syndrome

CONTEXT

Classical apparent mineralocorticoid excess (AME) is a rare recessive disorder, caused by severe 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme (11β-HSD2) deficiency. AME manifests as low-renin pediatric hypertension, hypokalemia and high cortisol/cortisone (F/E) ratio.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate nonclassic AME (NC-AME) due to partial 11β-HSD2 insufficiency and its association with hypertension, mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activation, and inflammatory parameters.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

Primary care cohort.

PARTICIPANTS

We recruited 127 adolescents and adults. Subjects with secondary hypertension were excluded. We measured clinical, biochemical, renal, vascular, and inflammatory variables. Sequencing of HSD11B2 gene was performed in all subjects.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

NC-AME.

RESULTS

Serum F/E ratio was positively associated with systolic blood pressure (BP), microalbuminuria, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP). Serum cortisone correlated with MR activation parameters even when adjusted for age, body mass index, and sex: lower cortisone with higher potassium excretion (partial r = -0.29, P = 0.002) and with lower plasma renin activity (PRA) (partial r = 0.29, P = 0.001). Consistently, we identified 9 in 127 subjects (7.1%) with high F/E ratios (first quartile) and low cortisone (last quartile), suggestive of NC-AME. These subjects had higher systolic BP, 141.4 ± 25.7 mm Hg vs 127.3 ± 18.1 mm Hg, P = 0.03; lower PRA, 0.36 ± 0.19 ng/L*s vs 0.64 ± 0.47 ng/L*s, P < 0.0001; and greater potassium excretion, microalbuminuria, hs-CRP, and plasminogen activator inhibitor. We only found in 2 out of 9 subjects with NC-AME heterozygous mutations in the HSD11B2 gene.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest a spectrum of partial 11β-HSD2 insufficiency in a primary care cohort without the classic phenotype and genotype of AME. NC-AME may represent a phenotype of MR activation and cardiovascular risk, suggesting that these subjects could be treated with MR antagonists.

Sex Differences in Aging and Associated Biomarkers

Aging is a natural process defined by the gradual, time-dependent decline of biological and behavioural functions, for which individuals of the same chronological age show variability. The capacity of biological systems to continuously adjust for optimal functioning despite ever changing environments is essential for healthy aging, and variability in these adaptive homeostatic mechanisms may reflect such heterogeneity in the aging process. With an ever-increasing aging population, interest in biomarkers of aging is growing. Although no universally accepted definition of biomarkers of healthy aging exists, mediators of homeostasis are consistently used as measures of the aging process. As important sex differences are known to underlie many of these systems, it is imperative to consider that this may reflect, to some extent, the sex differences observed in aging and age-related disease states. This chapter aims to outline sex differences in key homeostatic domains thought to be associated with the pathophysiology of aging, often proposed as biomarkers of aging and age-related disease states. This includes considering sex-based differences and hormonal status with regards to the gonadal and adrenal endocrine systems and immune function.

Role of Aldosterone and Mineralocorticoid Receptor in Cardiovascular Aging

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) was originally identified as a regulator of blood pressure, able to modulate renal sodium handling in response to its principal ligand aldosterone. MR is expressed in several extra-renal tissues, including the heart, vasculature, and adipose tissue. More recent studies have shown that extra-renal MR plays a relevant role in the control of cardiovascular and metabolic functions and has recently been implicated in the pathophysiology of aging. MR activation promotes vasoconstriction and acts as a potent pro-fibrotic agent in cardiovascular remodeling. Aging is associated with increased arterial stiffness and vascular tone, and modifications of arterial structure and function are responsible for these alterations. MR activation contributes to increase blood pressure with aging by regulating myogenic tone, vasoconstriction, and vascular oxidative stress. Importantly, aging represents an important contributor to the increased prevalence of cardiometabolic syndrome. In the elderly, dysregulation of MR signaling is associated with hypertension, obesity, and diabetes, representing an important cause of increased cardiovascular risk. Clinical use of MR antagonists is limited by the adverse effects induced by MR blockade in the kidney, raising the risk of hyperkalaemia in older patients with reduced renal function. Therefore, there is an unmet need for the enhanced understanding of the role of MR in aging and for development of novel specific MR antagonists in the context of cardiovascular rehabilitation in the elderly, in order to reduce relevant side effects.

Diagnostic approach to low-renin hypertension

Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) plays a crucial role in maintaining water and electrolytes homoeostasis, and its deregulation contributes to the development of arterial hypertension. Since the historical description of the "classical" RAAS, a dramatic increase in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the development of both essential and secondary hypertension has occurred. Approximatively 25% of the patients affected by arterial hypertension display low-renin levels, a definition that is largely arbitrary and depends on the investigated population and the specific characteristics of the assay. Most often, low-renin levels are expression of a physiological response to sodium-volume overload, but also a significant number of secondary hereditary or acquired conditions falls within this category. In a context of suppressed renin status, the concomitant examination of plasma aldosterone levels (which can be inappropriately elevated, within the normal range or suppressed) and plasma potassium are essential to formulate a differential diagnosis. To distinguish between the different forms of low-renin hypertension is of fundamental importance to address the patient to the proper clinical management, as each subtype requires a specific and targeted therapy. The present review will discuss the differential diagnosis of the most common medical conditions manifesting with a clinical phenotype of low-renin hypertension, enlightening the novelties in genetics of the familial forms.

Sodium Intake Is associated With Endothelial Damage Biomarkers and Metabolic Dysregulation

BACKGROUND

Mounting evidence has associated high sodium (HS) intake with hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. We investigated whether HS intake modulates the parameters of endothelial damage, inflammation, and oxidative stress.

METHODS

We used a cross-sectional study design including 223 Chilean subjects (6.9-65.0 years old). We measured aldosterone, renin activity, cortisol, cortisone, adiponectin, leptin, hsCRP, interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (PAI-1), metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and MMP-2 activity, and malondialdehyde. Sodium and creatinine were measured in 24-hour urine samples. The subjects were divided by sodium intake, high sodium (HS): ≥150 mEq/day, n = 118, and adequate sodium (AS): <150 mEq/day, n = 105.

RESULTS

We observed a positive correlation between urinary sodium excretion and blood pressure (r = 0.1669, P = 0.0124 for systolic and r = 0.2416, P = 0.0003 for diastolic), glycemia (r = 0.2660, P < 0.0001), and triglycerides (r = 0.1604, P = 0.0175) and a highly significant correlation between sodium excretion and PAI-1 (r = 0.2701, P < 0.0001). An inverse correlation was observed between urinary sodium and HDL-cholesterol (r = -0.2093, P = 0.0018) and adiponectin (r = -0.2679, P < 0.0001). In a linear regression model, urinary sodium excretion remained significantly associated with PAI-1 values even after adjusting for age, gender, and BMI. The HS group had higher blood pressure, glycemia, HOMA-IR, atherogenic index of plasma, and PAI-1 values than the group with AS intake.

CONCLUSIONS

HS intake is associated with endothelial damage (high PAI-1) and metabolic dysregulation. On the other hand, inflammation and oxidative stress parameters are not modified by sodium intake.

Serum Cortisol and Cortisone as Potential Biomarkers of Partial 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2 Deficiency

BACKGROUND

Pathogenic variations in HSD11B2 gene triggers the apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome (AME). There is scarce information regarding the phenotypes of subjects carrying heterozygous pathogenic variants in HSD11B2 gene. We investigated if serum cortisol/cortisone (F/E) ratio and cortisone are useful for identifying partial 11βHSD2 deficiency in those heterozygous subjects.

METHODS

We studied two patients diagnosed with AME and their families carrying either D223N or R213C mutation. We also evaluated 32 healthy control subjects (13 children and 19 adults) to obtain normal references ranges for all measured variables. Case 1: A boy carrying D223N mutation in HSD11B2 gene and Case 2: A girl carrying R213C mutation. We assessed serum F/E ratio and cortisone by HPLC-MS/MS, aldosterone, plasma-renin-activity(PRA), electrolytes, and HSD11B2 genetic analyses.

RESULTS

The normal values (median [interquartile range]) in children for serum F/E and cortisone (µg/dl) were 2.56 [2.21-3.69] and 2.54 [2.35-2.88], and in adults were 4.42 [3.70-4.90] and 2.23 [1.92-2.57], respectively. Case 1 showed a very high serum F/E 28.8 and low cortisone 0.46 µg/dl. His mother and sister were normotensives and heterozygous for D223N mutation with high F/E (13.2 and 6.0, respectively) and low cortisone (2.0 and 2.2, respectively). Case 2 showed a very high serum F/E 175 and suppressed cortisone 0.11 µg/dl. Her parents and sister were heterozygous for the R213C mutation with normal phenotype, but high F/E and low cortisone. Heterozygous subjects showed normal aldosterone, PRA, but lower fractional excretion of sodium and urinary Na/K ratio than controls.

CONCLUSION

Serum F/E ratio and cortisone allow to identify partial 11βHSD2 deficiencies, as occurs in heterozygous subjects, who would be susceptible to develop arterial hypertension.

The Low-Renin Hypertension Phenotype: Genetics and the Role of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor

A substantial proportion of patients with hypertension have a low or suppressed renin. This phenotype of low-renin hypertension (LRH) may be the manifestation of inherited genetic syndromes, acquired somatic mutations, or environmental exposures. Activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor is a common final mechanism for the development of LRH. Classically, the individual causes of LRH have been considered to be rare diseases; however, recent advances suggest that there are milder and "non-classical" variants of many LRH-inducing conditions. In this regard, our understanding of the underlying genetics and mechanisms accounting for LRH, and therefore, potentially the pathogenesis of a large subset of essential hypertension, is evolving. This review will discuss the potential causes of LRH, with a focus on implicated genetic mechanisms, the expanding recognition of non-classical variants of conditions that induce LRH, and the role of the mineralocorticoid receptor in determining this phenotype.

11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type-II activity is affected by grapefruit juice and intense muscular work

OBJECTIVE

The enzymatic activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase-2 (11β-HSD2) is key to protecting mineral corticoid receptors from cortisol and has been implicated in blood pressure regulation. Grapefruit juice (GFJ) and acidity are thought to inhibit this enzyme in vitro. This study examines the effect of GFJ and intense exercise on 11β-HSD2 enzyme activity in vivo.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Eighteen subjects ingested GFJ or apple juice (CON) on separate days prior to reporting to the laboratory in a randomized order. Saliva (Sal) samples were obtained at baseline, 15 and 45 minutes post-treadmill stress test; Sal cortisone (E) and cortisol (F) levels were determined, and the Sal cortisone:cortisol (E:F) ratio was used as an index of 11β-HSD2 enzyme activity at rest and after intense muscular work.

RESULTS

GFJ treatment decreased baseline 11β-HSD2 enzyme activity (44%) and Sal-E (28%) compared to CON (both, p < 0.05). Sal-E (r = 0.61, p < 0.05) and Sal-F (r = 0.66, p < 0.05) were correlated with diastolic blood pressure (DBP) in GFJ-treated individuals. Treadmill stress significantly increased Sal-E and Sal-F but did not alter 11β-HSD2 enzyme activity regardless of treatment. When treatments were examined separately, CON 11β-HSD2 enzyme activity decreased by 36% (p < 0.05) from baseline to 15 post-treadmill exercise.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that GFJ and intense muscular work decrease 11β-HSD-2 activity independently, and no additive effect was noted. The association between DBP and the levels of Sal-F and Sal-E during the GFJ trial should be interpreted cautiously and warrants further investigation.

The Spectrum of Subclinical Primary Aldosteronism and Incident Hypertension: A Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Primary aldosteronism is recognized as a severe form of renin-independent aldosteronism that results in excessive mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) activation.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether a spectrum of subclinical renin-independent aldosteronism that increases risk for hypertension exists among normotensive persons.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

National community-based study.

PARTICIPANTS

850 untreated normotensive participants in MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis) with measurements of serum aldosterone and plasma renin activity (PRA).

MEASUREMENTS

Longitudinal analyses investigated whether aldosterone concentrations, in the context of physiologic PRA phenotypes (suppressed, ≤0.50 µg/L per hour; indeterminate, 0.51 to 0.99 µg/L per hour; unsuppressed, ≥1.0 µg/L per hour), were associated with incident hypertension (defined as systolic blood pressure ≥140 mm Hg, diastolic blood pressure ≥90 mm Hg, or initiation of antihypertensive medications). Cross-sectional analyses investigated associations between aldosterone and MR activity, assessed via serum potassium and urinary fractional excretion of potassium.

RESULTS

A suppressed renin phenotype was associated with a higher rate of incident hypertension than other PRA phenotypes (incidence rates per 1000 person-years of follow-up: suppressed renin phenotype, 85.4 events [95% CI, 73.4 to 99.3 events]; indeterminate renin phenotype, 53.3 events [CI, 42.8 to 66.4 events]; unsuppressed renin phenotype, 54.5 events [CI, 41.8 to 71.0 events]). With renin suppression, higher aldosterone concentrations were independently associated with an increased risk for incident hypertension, whereas no association between aldosterone and hypertension was seen when renin was not suppressed. Higher aldosterone concentrations were associated with lower serum potassium and higher urinary excretion of potassium, but only when renin was suppressed.

LIMITATION

Sodium and potassium were measured several years before renin and aldosterone.

CONCLUSION

Suppression of renin and higher aldosterone concentrations in the context of this renin suppression are associated with an increased risk for hypertension and possibly also with increased MR activity. These findings suggest a clinically relevant spectrum of subclinical primary aldosteronism (renin-independent aldosteronism) in normotension.

PRIMARY FUNDING SOURCE

National Institutes of Health.

Cortisol/cortisone ratio and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity are associated with pediatric primary hypertension

OBJECTIVE

To identify novel biomarkers associated with pediatric primary hypertension.

METHODS

We recruited 350 participants (4-16 years). Anthropometric parameters and aldosterone, plasma renin activity, cortisol, cortisone, Homeostasis Model Assessment Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, adiponectin, IL-6, plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 levels and matrix metalloproteinase-9 and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-9 and MMP-2) activities were measured. Genomic DNA was isolated. Patients with altered glucose metabolism, severe obesity [BMI-SD score (BMI-SDS) > 2.5], renovascular disease, primary aldosteronism and apparent mineralocorticoid excess syndrome were excluded.

RESULTS

In selected participants (n = 320), SBP was positively correlated with BMI-SDS (r = 0.382, P < 0.001), HOMA-IR (r = 0.211, P < 0.001), MMP-9 activity (r = 0.215, P < 0.001) and the cortisol/cortisone ratio (r = 0.231, P < 0.001). DBP showed similar correlations with these variables. No correlation was observed with aldosterone or plasma renin activity. Participants were categorized as hypertensive (n = 59) or nonhypertensive (n = 261). In the univariate analysis, hypertensive patients had higher BMI-SDS (P < 0.001), HOMA-IR (P < 0.001), high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (P < 0.001), MMP-9 activity (P < 0.001), plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 (P < 0.001) and cortisol/cortisone ratio (P < 0.001) than nonhypertensive patients. Multiple regression analysis showed that the variables that remained associated with hypertension were higher BMI-SDS [odds ratio (OR) = 3.74; 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.84-7.58], a higher cortisol/cortisone ratio (OR = 3.92; 95% CI = 1.98-7.71) and increased MMP-9 activity (OR = 4.23; 95% CI = 2.15-8.32).

CONCLUSION

We report that MMP-9 activity and the cortisol/cortisone ratio were higher in pediatric primary hypertensive patients, and these associations were independent of the effect of obesity. The potential role of these novel biomarkers in predicting hypertension risk and blood pressure regulation warrants further investigation.

In Obesity, HPA Axis Activity Does Not Increase with BMI, but Declines with Aging: A Meta-Analysis of Clinical Studies

Background

Obesity is one of the major public health challenges worldwide. It involves numerous endocrine disorders as etiological factors or as complications. Previous studies strongly suggested the involvement of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity in obesity, however, to date, no consistent trend in obesity-associated alterations of the HPA axis has been identified. Aging has been demonstrated to aggravate obesity and to induce abnormalities of the HPA axis. Thus, the question arises whether obesity is correlated with peripheral indicators of HPA function in adult populations.

Objectives

We aimed to meta-analyze literature data on peripheral cortisol levels as indicators of HPA activity in obesity during aging, in order to identify possible explanations for previous contradictory findings and to suggest new approaches for future clinical studies.

Data Sources

3,596 records were identified through searching of PubMed, Embase and Cochrane Library Database. Altogether 26 articles were suitable for analyses.

Study Eligibility Criteria

Empirical research papers were eligible provided that they reported data of healthy adult individuals, included body mass index (BMI) and measured at least one relevant peripheral cortisol parameter (i.e., either morning blood cortisol or 24-h urinary free cortisol).

Statistical Methods

We used random effect models in each of the meta-analyses calculating with the DerSimonian and Laird weighting methods. I-squared indicator and Q test were performed to assess heterogeneity. Meta-regression was applied to explore the effect of BMI and age on morning blood and urinary free cortisol levels. To assess publication bias Egger’s test was used.

Results

Obesity did not show any correlation with the studied peripheral cortisol values. On the other hand, peripheral cortisol levels declined with aging within the obese, but not in the non-obese groups.

Conclusions

Our analysis demonstrated that obesity or healthy aging does not lead to enhanced HPA axis activity, peripheral cortisol levels rather decline with aging.

Usefulness and Pitfalls in Sodium Intake Estimation: Comparison of Dietary Assessment and Urinary Excretion in Chilean Children and Adults

BACKGROUND

High sodium intake has been associated with various noncommunicable disease like hypertension, cardiovascular disease, or stroke. To estimate accurately sodium intake is challenging in clinical practice. We investigate the usefulness and limitations of assessing sodium intake simultaneously by dietary assessment and urinary samples in both children and adults.

METHODS

We used a cross-sectional study design inviting 298 Chilean subjects (74 children and 222 adults) aged between 9 and 66 years of both genders. Sodium intake by dietary assessment was obtained from Chilean food composition data, based on FAO tables. Sodium and creatinine excretion were measured in 24-hour urine samples, in all participants.

RESULTS

Adequate urinary collection was obtained in 81% of children (59/74) and 61% of adults (135/222). The mean sodium intake by dietary assessment was similar to the sodium excretion in 24 hours (3,121±1,153mg/d vs. 3,114±1,353mg/24h, P = nonsignificant) in children but was significantly lower (3,208±1,284mg/d vs. 4,160±1,651mg/24h, P < 0.001) in adults. In both children and adults, sodium intake correlated with urinary sodium excretion (r = 0.456, P < 0.003 and r = 0.390, P < 0.001, respectively). Secondary analyses also suggested that the dietary assessment was more inaccurate in overweight adult subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results showed that average sodium intake was higher than recommended in both children and adults (WHO ≤2,000mg/d). The sodium intake estimated by dietary assessment correlated with urinary excretion in all subjects, but in obese adults was more inaccurate than in children. Future studies to validate the appropriate test to assess sodium intake by age and nutritional status are warranted.

Emerging Roles of the Mineralocorticoid Receptor in Pathology: Toward New Paradigms in Clinical Pharmacology

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) and its ligand aldosterone are the principal modulators of hormone-regulated renal sodium reabsorption. In addition to the kidney, there are several other cells and organs expressing MR, in which its activation mediates pathologic changes, indicating potential therapeutic applications of pharmacological MR antagonism. Steroidal MR antagonists have been used for decades to fight hypertension and more recently heart failure. New therapeutic indications are now arising, and nonsteroidal MR antagonists are currently under development. This review is focused on nonclassic MR targets in cardiac, vascular, renal, metabolic, ocular, and cutaneous diseases. The MR, associated with other risk factors, is involved in organ fibrosis, inflammation, oxidative stress, and aging; for example, in the kidney and heart MR mediates hormonal tissue-specific ion channel regulation. Genetic and epigenetic modifications of MR expression/activity that have been documented in hypertension may also present significant risk factors in other diseases and be susceptible to MR antagonism. Excess mineralocorticoid signaling, mediated by aldosterone or glucocorticoids binding, now appears deleterious in the progression of pathologies that may lead to end-stage organ failure and could therefore benefit from the repositioning of pharmacological MR antagonists.

Citosine-Adenine-Repeat Microsatellite of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2 Gene in Hypertensive Children

BACKGROUND

The impairment of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 enzyme (11βHSD2) results in an inefficient conversion of cortisol to cortisone, which triggers hypertension. Cytosine-adenine repeat (CA repeat) microsatellite has been associated with low HSD11B2 gene expression.

AIM

To determine whether the CA-repeat length in intron 1 affect the serum cortisol to cortisone (F/E) ratio and/or blood pressure (BP) levels in pediatric subjects.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Eighty-one hypertensive (HT) and 117 normotensive (NT) subjects participated in this study. We measured BP levels, as well as the F and E and F/E ratio in morning sera and 12-hour urine samples. The length of CA repeats was determined through fragment analysis. We compared the allele distribution between the HT and NT groups, and the patients were dichotomized into groups with short alleles (S) (<21 CA repeats) or long alleles (L), and also in groups according genotype (allele combination: S/S and S/L + L/L).

RESULTS

We found no differences in the distribution of CA-repeat allelic length between the NT and HT groups (P = 0.7807), and there was no correlation between the CA-repeat allelic length and BP (P = 0.1151) levels or the serum F/E ratio (P = 0.6778). However, the serum F/E ratio was higher in the HT group than in the NT group (P = 0.0251). The serum F/E ratio was associated with systolic BP index independent of body mass index only in HT group.

CONCLUSIONS

The CA-repeat length did not influence BP levels or serum F/E ratios in pediatric subjects. However, the serum F/E ratio was associated with BP, suggesting a role of 11βHSD2 in mineralocorticoid hypertension.

A semi-physiologically based pharmacokinetic pharmacodynamic model for glycyrrhizin-induced pseudoaldosteronism and prediction of the dose limit causing hypokalemia in a virtual elderly population

Glycyrrhizin (GL) is a widely used food additive which can cause severe pseudoaldosteronism at high doses or after a long period of consumption. The aim of the present study was to develop a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) pharmacodynamic (PD) model for GL-induced pseudoaldosteronism to improve the safe use of GL. Since the major metabolite of GL, glycyrrhetic acid (GA), is largely responsible for pseudoaldosteronism via inhibition of the kidney enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroiddehydrogenase 2 (11β-HSD 2), a semi-PBPK model was first developed in rat to predict the systemic pharmacokinetics of and the kidney exposure to GA. A human PBPK model was then developed using parameters either from the rat model or from in vitro studies in combination with essential scaling factors. Kidney exposure to GA was further linked to an Imax model in the 11β-HSD 2 module of the PD model to predict the urinary excretion of cortisol and cortisone. Subsequently, activation of the mineralocorticoid receptor in the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-electrolyte system was associated with an increased cortisol level. Experimental data for various scenarios were used to optimize and validate the model which was finally able to predict the plasma levels of angiotensin II, aldosterone, potassium and sodium. The Monte Carlo method was applied to predict the probability distribution of the individual dose limits of GL causing pseudoaldosteronism in the elderly according to the distribution of sensitivity factors using serum potassium as an indicator. The critical value of the dose limit was found to be 101 mg with a probability of 3.07%.

Intrafollicular cortisol levels inversely correlate with cumulus cell lipid content as a possible energy source during oocyte meiotic resumption in women undergoing ovarian stimulation for in vitro fertilization

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether follicular fluid (FF) cortisol levels affect cumulus cell (CC) lipid content during oocyte meiotic resumption, and whether CCs express genes for glucocorticoid action.

DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Academic medical center.

PATIENT(S)

Thirty-seven nonobese women underwent ovarian stimulation for in vitro fertilization (IVF).

INTERVENTION(S)

At oocyte retrieval, FF was aspirated from the first follicle (>16 mm in size) of each ovary and pooled CCs were collected.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Follicular fluid cortisol and cortisone analysis was performed with the use of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. CCs were stained with lipid fluorescent dye Bodipy FL C16 to determine lipid content with the use of confocal microscopy. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was used to detect CC gene expression of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) types 1 and 2, glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1), lipoprotein lipase (LPL), and hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL).

RESULT(S)

Adjusting for maternal age, FF cortisol levels negatively correlated with CC lipid content and positively correlated with numbers of total and mature oocytes. CCs expressed genes for 11β-HSD type 1 as the predominant 11β-HSD isoform, NR3C1, LPL, and HSL.

CONCLUSION(S)

FF cortisol levels may regulate CC lipolysis during oocyte meiotic resumption and affect oocyte quality during IVF.

Longitudinal changes in glucocorticoid metabolism are associated with later development of adverse metabolic phenotype

OBJECTIVE

Dysregulation of enzymes that control local tissue steroid metabolism has been implicated in the pathogenesis of obesity and insulin resistance; however, longitudinal changes in glucocorticoid metabolism have not been investigated. This study was performed to evaluate the role of glucocorticoid metabolism in the development of insulin resistance and obesity and to identify biomarkers for future development of metabolic disease.

DESIGN

This was a prospective longitudinal observation study conducted over 5 years.

METHODS

A 24-h collection was used to serially analyze urinary glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid metabolites in 57 obese and overweight patients with no prior diagnosis of diabetes mellitus, recruited from the community.

RESULTS

Baseline higher 5α-reductase (5αR) activity, but not 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity, was predictive of increased fasting insulin at final visit (11.4 compared with 7.4 mU/l in subjects with lower 5αR activity, P<0.05), area under the curve insulin response to oral glucose tolerance test (176.7 compared with 89.1 mU/l.h, P<0.01), and homeostasis model assessment (HOMA2-IR; 1.3 compared with 0.8, P<0.01). Higher total glucocorticoid production was associated with abnormal glucose tolerance and increased BMI. During this study, systolic blood pressure increased (equivalent to ∼1 mmHg/year), as did plasma sodium levels; this evidence of increased mineralocorticoid activity was associated with increased aldosterone metabolites and decreased 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Increased 5αR activity and glucocorticoid secretion rate over time are linked with the development of metabolic disease, and may represent targets for therapeutic intervention, which merits further study.