Galectin-3 and cancer stemness

Galectin-3 protects distal convoluted tubules in rhabdomyolysis-induced kidney injury

Advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) contribute to cellular damage of various pathologies, including kidney diseases. Acute kidney injury (AKI) represents a syndrome seldom characterized by a single, distinct pathophysiological cause. Rhabdomyolysis-induced acute kidney injury (RIAKI) constitutes roughly 15% of AKI cases, yet its underlying pathophysiology remains poorly understood. Using a murine model of RIAKI induced by muscular glycerol injection, we observed elevated levels of AGEs and the AGE receptor galectin-3 (LGALS3) in the kidney. Immunofluorescence localized LGALS3 to distal nephron segments. According to transcriptomic profiling via next-generation sequencing, RIAKI led to profound changes in kidney metabolism, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Cellular stress was evident in both proximal and distal tubules, as shown by kidney injury markers KIM-1 and NGAL. However, only proximal tubules exhibited overt damage and apoptosis, as detected by routine morphology, active Caspase-3, and TUNEL assay, respectively. In vitro, distal convoluted tubule (DCT) cells challenged with AGEs underwent apoptosis, which was markedly enhanced by Lgals3 siRNA treatment. Thus, in RIAKI, the upregulation of LGALS3 may protect the distal nephron from AGE-mediated damage, while proximal tubules lacking LGALS3 stay at risk. Thus, stimulating LGALS3 in the proximal nephron, if achievable, may attenuate RIAKI.

Polymorphism Pro64His within galectin-3 has functional consequences at proteome level in thyroid cells

Introduction

The single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs4644 at codon 64 of galectin-3 (gal-3, gene name: LGALS3), specifying the variant proline (P64) to histidine (H64), is known to affect the protein's functions and has been associated with the risk of several types of cancer, including differentiated thyroid carcinoma (DTC).

Materials and methods

To deepen our understanding of the biological effects of this SNP, we analyzed the proteome of two isogenic cell lines (NC-P64 vs. NA-H64) derived from the immortalized non-malignant thyrocyte cell line Nthy-Ori, generated through the CRISPR-Cas9 technique to differ by rs4644 genotype. We compared the proteome of these cells to detect differentially expressed proteins and studied their proteome in relation to their transcriptome.

Results

Firstly, we found, consistently with previous studies, that gal-3-H64 could be detected as a monomer, homodimer, and heterodimer composed of one cleaved and one uncleaved monomer, whereas gal-3-P64 could be found only as a monomer or uncleaved homodimer. Moreover, results indicate that rs4644 influences the expression of several proteins, predominantly upregulated in NA-H64 cells. Overall, the differential protein expression could be attributed to the altered mRNA expression, suggesting that rs4644 shapes the function of gal-3 as a transcriptional co-regulator. However, this SNP also appeared to affect post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms for proteins whose expression was oppositely regulated compared to mRNA expression. It is conceivable that the rs4644-dependent activities of gal-3 could be ascribed to the different modalities of self-dimerization.

Conclusion

Our study provided further evidence that rs4644 could affect the gal-3 functions through several routes, which could be at the base of differential susceptibility to diseases, as reported in case-control association studies.

Dietary fiber as a wide pillar of colorectal cancer prevention and adjuvant therapy

Colorectal cancer is the third most incident and second most lethal type of cancer worldwide. Lifestyle and dietary patterns are the key factors for higher disease development risk. The dietary fiber intake from fruits and vegetables, mainly formed by food hydrocolloids, can help to lower the incidence of this type of neoplasia. Different food polysaccharides have applications in anti-tumoral therapy, such as coadjuvant to mainstream drugs, carriage-like properties, or direct influence on tumoral cells. Some classes include inulin, β-glucans, pectins, fucoidans, alginates, mucilages, and gums. Therefore, it is fundamental to discuss colorectal cancer mechanisms and the roles played by different polysaccharides in intestinal health. Genetic, environmental, and immunological modulation of mutated pathways regarding colorectal cancer has been explored before. Microbial diversity, byproduct formation (primarily short-chain fatty acids), inflammatory profile control, and tumoral mutated pathways regulation are thoroughly explored mechanisms by which dietary fiber sources influence a healthy gut ambiance.

Shikonin reduces M2 macrophage population in ovarian cancer by repressing exosome production and the exosomal galectin 3-mediated β-catenin activation

BACKGROUND

Shikonin (SK), a naphthoquinone with anti-tumor effects, has been found to decrease production of tumor-associated exosomes (exo). This study aims to verify the treatment effect of SK on ovarian cancer (OC) cells, especially on the production of exo and their subsequent effect on macrophage polarization.

METHODS

OC cells SKOV3 and A2780 were treated with SK. The exo were isolated from OC cells with or without SK treatment, termed OC exo and SK OC exo, respectively. These exo were used to treat PMA-induced THP-1 cells (M0 macrophages). M2 polarization of macrophages was determined by measuring the M2 specific cell surface markers CD163 and CD206 as well as the secretion of M2 cytokine IL-10. The functions of galectin 3 (LGALS3/GAL3) and β-catenin in macrophage polarization were determined by gain- or loss-of-function assays. CB-17 SCID mice were subcutaneously injected with SKOV3 cells to generate xenograft tumors, followed by OC exo or SK OC exo treatment for in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

SK suppressed viability, migration and invasion, and apoptosis resistance of OC cells in vitro. Compared to OC exo, SK OC exo reduced the M2 polarization of macrophages. Regarding the mechanism, SK reduced exo production in cancer cells, and it decreased the protein level of GAL3 in exo and recipient macrophages, leading to decreased β-catenin activation. M2 polarization of macrophages was restored by LGALS3 overexpression but decreased again by the β-catenin inhibitor FH535. Compared to OC exo, the SK OC exo treatment reduced the xenograft tumor growth in mice, and it decreased the M2 macrophage infiltration within tumor tissues.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests that SK reduces M2 macrophage population in OC by repressing exo production and blocking exosomal GAL3-mediated β-catenin activation.

Recent Progress of Bioinspired Cell Membrane in Cancer Immunotherapy

By modifying immune cells, immunotherapy can activate immune response to establish long-term immune memory and prevent tumor recurrence. However, their effectiveness is largely constricted by the poor immunogenicity, immune escape, and immune tolerance of the tumor. This is related to the characteristics of the tumor itself, such as genome instability and mutation. The combination of various nanocarriers with tumor immunotherapy is beneficial for overcoming the shortcomings of traditional immunotherapy. Nanocarriers coated by cell membranes can extend blood circulation time, improve ability to evade immune clearance, and enhance targeting, thus significantly enhancing the efficacy of immunotherapy and showing great potential in tumor immunotherapy. This article reviews the application research progress of different types of cell membrane-modified nanocarriers in tumor immunotherapy, immunotherapy combination therapy, and tumor vaccines, and provides prospects for future research.

Tumor-Intrinsic Galectin-3 Suppresses Melanoma Metastasis

Melanoma poses a poor prognosis with high mortality rates upon metastasis. Exploring the molecular mechanisms governing melanoma progression paves the way for developing novel approaches to control melanoma metastasis and ultimately enhance patient survival rates. Extracellular galectin-3 (Gal-3) has emerged as a pleiotropic promoter of melanoma metastasis, exerting varying activities depending on its interacting partner. However, whether intracellular Gal-3 promotes melanoma aggressive behavior remains unknown. In this study, we explored Gal-3 expression in human melanoma tissues as well as in murine melanoma models to examine its causal role in metastatic behavior. We found that Gal-3 expression is downregulated in metastatic melanoma tissues compared with its levels in primary melanomas. Enforced silencing of Gal-3 in melanoma cells promoted migration, invasion, colony formation, in vivo xenograft growth, and metastasis and activated canonical oncogenic signaling pathways. Moreover, loss of Gal-3 in melanoma cells resulted in upregulated the expression of the prometastatic transcription factor NFAT1 and its downstream metastasis-associated proteins, matrix metalloproteinase 3, and IL-8. Overall, our findings implicate melanoma intracellular Gal-3 as a major determinant of its metastatic behavior and reveal a negative regulatory role for Gal-3 on the expression of NFAT1 in melanoma cells.

The Role of Galectin3, Tubulinβ, and Maspin in Promoting Tumor Budding in Colorectal Carcinoma and Their Clinical Implications

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of death worldwide. Despite the advances in surgical and therapeutic management, tumor metastases and poor prognosis are still major problems. Tumor budding is a relevant prognostic factor in CRC, and it can predict tumor metastasis. Galectin3 is responsible for the development and progression of many cancers through the regulation of cell-cell/cell-matrix interactions and tumor cell invasion. Tubulin is a microtubule protein, and maspin is a serine protease inhibitor; both induce tumor cell invasion through the stimulation of epithelial-mesenchymal transition. This study aims to evaluate the relationship between the expression of galecin3, tubulinβ, and maspin in CRC and clinicopathological features, including tumor budding, their prognostic roles, and clinical implications using immunohistochemistry. Galectin3, tubulinβ, and maspin were detected in tumor cells in 95%, 65%, and 87.5% of cases and in stromal cells in 28.8%, 40%, and 0% of cases. High expression of galectin3 and tubulinβ expression either in tumor cells or stroma was significantly associated with aggressive tumor features such as lymph node metastasis, lymphovascular invasion, tumor budding, and advanced tumor stage. The nucleocytoplasmic expression of maspin in tumor cells showed a significant association with deeper tumor invasion, lymph node metastasis, tumor budding, and advanced tumor stage. Significant associations were found between high galectin3 tumor cell expression and nucleocytoplasmic maspin and shorter survival. High expression of galectin3, tubulinβ, and nucleocytoplasmic maspin were significantly associated with aggressive tumor features such as tumor invasion, metastasis, high tumor budding, and short survival in CRC. They could be used as biomarkers for tumor budding and tumor aggressiveness in CRC and may be considered for future target therapy.

Galectin inhibitors and nanoparticles as a novel therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma multiforme

Over the past two decades, the gold standard of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) treatment is unchanged and adjunctive therapy has offered little to prolong both quality and quantity of life. To improve pharmacotherapy for GBM, galectins are being studied provided their positive correlation with the malignancy and disease severity. Despite the use of galectin inhibitors and literature displaying the ability of the lectin proteins to decrease tumor burden and decrease mortality within various malignancies, galectin inhibitors have not been studied for GBM therapy. Interestingly, anti-galectin siRNA delivered in nanoparticle capsules, assisting in blood brain barrier penetrance, is well studied for GBM, and has demonstrated a remarkable ability to attenuate both galectin and tumor count. Provided that the two therapies have an analogous anti-galectin effect, it is hypothesized that galectin inhibitors encapsuled within nanoparticles will likely have a similar anti-galectin effect in GBM cells and further correlate to a repressed tumor burden.

Galectin-3 promotes fibrosis in ovarian endometriosis

Objective

This study aimed to investigate the potential role of galectin-3 (Gal-3) in the pathogenesis of fibrotic alterations in ovarian endometriosis (OVE).

Methods

In this study, we collected the ectopic endometrial tissues and eutopic endometrial tissues from 31 OVE patients treated by laparoscopy, and the eutopic endometrial tissues from 23 non-OVE patients with leiomyoma or other benign diseases were used as control. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Masson's trichrome staining were utilized for histopathological assessment. The primary normal endometrial stromal cells (NESC), ectopic endometrial stromal cells (ECSC), and eutopic endometrial stromal cells (EUSC) were isolated. Gal-3 overexpression plasmids (Gal-OE) and short hairpin RNA targeting Gal-3 (Gal-3-shRNA) were transfected into the immortalized human endometriotic cell line 12Z, respectively. RT-qPCR, Western blot analysis, and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels of Gal-3, type I collagen (COL-1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), respectively.

Results

H&E and Masson staining showed that ovarian ectopic endometrium exhibited glandular hyperplasia, high columnar glandular epithelium, apical plasma secretion, more subnuclear vacuoles, and obvious fibrosis, compared with normal endometrium. The mRNA and protein levels of Gal-3 , CTGF, α-SMA, and COL-1 were all upregulated in the ectopic endometrial tissues of OVE patients compared to the eutopic endometrial tissues from OVE patients and non-OVE patients. Moreover, ECSC expressed higher levels of Gal-3, CTGF, α-SMA, and COL-1 than EUSC and NESC. Follow-up investigations demonstrated that the Gal-3 overexpression substantially increased fibrosis-related markers including CTGF, α-SMA, and COL-1 within the 12Z cell line. Conversely, Gal-3 knockdown showed the opposite effects.

Conclusion

Gal-3 promotes fibrosis in OVE, positioning it as a prospective therapeutic target for mitigating fibrosis in endometriosis.

Secretory GFP reconstitution labeling of neighboring cells interrogates cell-cell interactions in metastatic niches

Cancer cells inevitably interact with neighboring host tissue-resident cells during the process of metastatic colonization, establishing a metastatic niche to fuel their survival, growth, and invasion. However, the underlying mechanisms in the metastatic niche are yet to be fully elucidated owing to the lack of methodologies for comprehensively studying the mechanisms of cell-cell interactions in the niche. Here, we improve a split green fluorescent protein (GFP)-based genetically encoded system to develop secretory glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored reconstitution-activated proteins to highlight intercellular connections (sGRAPHIC) for efficient fluorescent labeling of tissue-resident cells that neighbor on and putatively interact with cancer cells in deep tissues. The sGRAPHIC system enables the isolation of metastatic niche-associated tissue-resident cells for their characterization using a single-cell RNA sequencing platform. We use this sGRAPHIC-leveraged transcriptomic platform to uncover gene expression patterns in metastatic niche-associated hepatocytes in a murine model of liver metastasis. Among the marker genes of metastatic niche-associated hepatocytes, we identify Lgals3, encoding galectin-3, as a potential pro-metastatic factor that accelerates metastatic growth and invasion.

Identification of stemness subtypes and features to improve endometrial cancer treatment using machine learning

Endometrial cancer is one of the most common malignant tumours in women, and cancer stem cells are known to play an important role in its growth, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance. Immunotherapy for endometrial cancer is still under research. In this study, a total of 547 endometrial cancer cases were randomly divided into training set (351 cases) set and test set (196 cases). The stemness index of patients was calculated using the One-Class Logistic Regression (OCLR) machine learning algorithm to explore the clinicopathological differences between index levels. Stemness subtypes were determined according to the characteristics of cancer stemness and their clinicopathological characteristics, immune features, and therapeutic effects were described. Our study suggests that endometrial cancer is classified into two stemness subtypes. Stemness subtypes, which are associated with its clinical features, may be independent prognostic factors for endometrial cancer. The stemness subtypes differed significantly in immune activity, immune cell infiltration, and the immune microenvironment, including sensitivity to chemotherapeutic drugs and potential therapeutic compounds. Algorithms were utilised to construct a stemness subtype prediction model and predictor. These findings will provide guidance for the clinical diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of endometrial cancer.

NANOG Dominates Interleukin-6-Induced Sphere Formation in Prostate Cancer

OBJECTIVE

Identifying the dynamics of prostate tumor aggressiveness is essential to find new therapeutics for the treatment. Cancer stem cells contribute to cancer progression by promoting tumor growth and metastasis, resisting treatment, and evading the immune system. Interleukin 6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine that functions in inflammation, immune response, etc. However, dysregulated expression of IL-6 plays a pathological role in such conditions as cancer. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the effect of IL-6 on cancer stemness genes in prostate cancer cells.

METHODS

Enrichment of stem-like cells was achieved through the formation of tumor spheres using the DU-145 cell line. Sphere formation was conducted in a medium supplemented with IL-6 and compared to a control group. The number of spheres was quantified, and the resulting pellet was collected for quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction analysis to assess the impact of IL-6 induction on the expression of stemness-related genes.

RESULTS

Tumor sphere numbers and sizes increased in IL-6-induced environment. NANOG expression elevated in an IL-6-enriched environment compared to the nontreated spheres. Our results demonstrated that IL-6 induction in prostate tumor spheres upregulates NANOG gene expression.

CONCLUSION

Inducing IL-6 in prostate tumor spheres stimulates stemness biomarker NANOG genes. NANOG may be suggested as a therapeutic target for metastatic prostate cancer.

The Role of Galectin-3 in Heart Failure-The Diagnostic, Prognostic and Therapeutic Potential-Where Do We Stand?

Heart failure (HF) is a clinical syndrome with high morbidity and mortality, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing. Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is an important factor in the pathophysiology of HF, mainly due to its role in cardiac fibrosis, inflammation, and ventricular remodeling. Fibrosis is a hallmark of cardiac remodeling, HF, and atrial fibrillation development. This review aims to explore the involvement of Gal-3 in HF and its role in the pathogenesis and clinical diagnostic and prognostic significance. We report data on Gal-3 structure and molecular mechanisms of biological function crucial for HF development. Over the last decade, numerous studies have shown an association between echocardiographic and CMR biomarkers in HF and Gal-3 serum concentration. We discuss facts and concerns about Gal-3's utility in acute and chronic HF with preserved and reduced ejection fraction for diagnosis, prognosis, and risk stratification. Finally, we present attempts to use Gal-3 as a therapeutic target in HF.

New biomarkers: prospect for diagnosis and monitoring of thyroid disease

After the metabolic syndrome and its components, thyroid disorders represent the most common endocrine disorders, with increasing prevalence in the last two decades. Thyroid dysfunctions are distinguished by hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, or inflammation (thyroiditis) of the thyroid gland, in addition to the presence of thyroid nodules that can be benign or malignant. Thyroid cancer is typically detected via an ultrasound (US)-guided fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) and cytological examination of the specimen. This approach has significant limitations due to the small sample size and inability to characterize follicular lesions adequately. Due to the rapid advancement of high-throughput molecular biology techniques, it is now possible to identify new biomarkers for thyroid neoplasms that can supplement traditional imaging modalities in postoperative surveillance and aid in the preoperative cytology examination of indeterminate or follicular lesions. Here, we review current knowledge regarding biomarkers that have been reliable in detecting thyroid neoplasms, making them valuable tools for assessing the efficacy of surgical procedures or adjunctive treatment after surgery. We are particularly interested in providing an up-to-date and systematic review of emerging biomarkers, such as mRNA and non-coding RNAs, that can potentially detect thyroid neoplasms in clinical settings. We discuss evidence for miRNA, lncRNA and circRNA dysregulation in several thyroid neoplasms and assess their potential for use as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers.

Molecular Mechanisms of Tumor Cell Stemness Modulation during Formation of Spheroids

Cancer stem cells (CSCs), their properties and interaction with microenvironment are of interest in modern medicine and biology. There are many studies on the emergence of CSCs and their involvement in tumor pathogenesis. The most important property inherent to CSCs is their stemness. Stemness combines ability of the cell to maintain its pluripotency, give rise to differentiated cells, and interact with environment to maintain a balance between dormancy, proliferation, and regeneration. While adult stem cells exhibit these properties by participating in tissue homeostasis, CSCs behave as their malignant equivalents. High tumor resistance to therapy, ability to differentiate, activate angiogenesis and metastasis arise precisely due to the stemness of CSCs. These cells can be used as a target for therapy of different types of cancer. Laboratory models are needed to study cancer biology and find new therapeutic strategies. A promising direction is three-dimensional tumor models or spheroids. Such models exhibit properties resembling stemness in a natural tumor. By modifying spheroids, it becomes possible to investigate the effect of therapy on CSCs, thus contributing to the development of anti-tumor drug test systems. The review examines the niche of CSCs, the possibility of their study using three-dimensional spheroids, and existing markers for assessing stemness of CSCs.

Novel insights into tumorigenesis and prognosis of endometrial cancer through systematic investigation and validation on mitophagy-related signature

In-depth studies on the pathogenesis of endometrial cancer (EC) are critical because of the increasing global incidence of EC. Mitophagy, a mitochondrial quality control process, plays an important role in carcinogenesis and tumor progression. This study aimed to develop a novel mitophagy-based signature to predict the tumorigenesis and prognosis of EC. Data was downloaded from The Cancer Genome Atlas and Gene Expression Omnibus databases, and 29 mitophagy-related genes were downloaded from the Pathway Unification Database. EC patients were classified into two risk groups based on the two-key- gene signature, TOMM40 and MFN1, which were constructed using Cox regression analysis. A better prognosis was noted in the low-risk group. The model was validated for four aspects: clinical features, mutation status, clinical therapeutic response, and immune cell infiltration status. Moreover, according to the contribution to the risk model, TOMM40 was selected for further in vitro experiments. The silencing of TOMM40 inhibited mitochondrial degradation; suppressed cell proliferation; induced cell apoptosis and G1 phase cell cycle arrest; inhibited migration, invasion, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition; and suppressed cell stemness. In conclusion, the mitophagy-related risk score provides a novel perspective for survival and drug selection during the individual treatment of EC patients. TOMM40 serves as an oncogene in EC and promotes tumor progression via a mitophagy-related pathway. Thus, TOMM40 is a potential therapeutic target in EC.

Innovative Metrics for Reporting and Comparing the Glycan Structural Profile in Biotherapeutics

Glycosylation is a critical quality attribute in biotherapeutics, impacting properties such as protein stability, solubility, clearance rate, efficacy, immunogenicity, and safety. Due to the heterogenic and complex nature of protein glycosylation, comprehensive characterization is demanding. Moreover, the lack of standardized metrics for evaluating and comparing glycosylation profiles hinders comparability studies and the establishment of manufacturing control strategies. To address both challenges, we propose a standardized approach based on novel metrics for a comprehensive glycosylation fingerprint which greatly facilitates the reporting and objective comparison of glycosylation profiles. The analytical workflow is based on a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-based multi-attribute method. Based on the analytical data, a matrix of glycosylation-related quality attributes, both at site-specific and whole molecule level, are computed, which provide metrics for a comprehensive product glycosylation fingerprint. Two case studies illustrate the applicability of the proposed indices as a standardized and versatile approach for reporting all dimensions of the glycosylation profile. The proposed approach further facilitates the assessments of risks associated with changes in the glycosylation profile that may affect efficacy, clearance, and immunogenicity.

Transcriptome Analysis of Diffuse Large B-Cell Lymphoma Cells Inducibly Expressing MyD88 L265P Mutation Identifies Upregulated CD44, LGALS3, NFKBIZ, and BATF as Downstream Targets of Oncogenic NF-κB Signaling

During innate immune responses, myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) functions as a critical signaling adaptor protein integrating stimuli from toll-like receptors (TLR) and the interleukin-1 receptor (IL-1R) family and translates them into specific cellular outcomes. In B cells, somatic mutations in MyD88 trigger oncogenic NF-κB signaling independent of receptor stimulation, which leads to the development of B-cell malignancies. However, the exact molecular mechanisms and downstream signaling targets remain unresolved. We established an inducible system to introduce MyD88 to lymphoma cell lines and performed transcriptomic analysis (RNA-seq) to identify genes differentially expressed by MyD88 bearing the L265P oncogenic mutation. We show that MyD88L265P activates NF-κB signaling and upregulates genes that might contribute to lymphomagenesis, including CD44, LGALS3 (coding Galectin-3), NFKBIZ (coding IkBƺ), and BATF. Moreover, we demonstrate that CD44 can serve as a marker of the activated B-cell (ABC) subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and that CD44 expression is correlated with overall survival in DLBCL patients. Our results shed new light on the downstream outcomes of MyD88L265P oncogenic signaling that might be involved in cellular transformation and provide novel therapeutical targets.

Complementary and Integrative Medicine in Pancreatic Cancer

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Pancreatic cancer has high mortality and morbidity rates, associated with the issues of typically late diagnosis and the limited effectiveness of current treatments. Patients tend to experience multiple symptoms that can include anxiety, fear, depression, fatigue, weakness, peripheral neuropathy, and abdominal pain, which reduce quality of life (QoL) and may compromise the treatment continuum. Many of those symptoms are amenable to complementary and integrative medicine (CIM) therapies as a part of supportive and palliative care. This article reviews research findings on the beneficial effect of use of CIM modalities in regard to pancreatic cancer, with emphasis on pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC).

RECENT FINDINGS

Given the often-poor prognosis of the disease, patients with PDAC often seek integrative therapies to help manage the disease itself, to provide support through cancer treatment and its symptoms, and to provide emotional stress relief. Data is accumulating in the past few years on the potential benefits of CIM to the management of pancreatic cancer symptoms and treatment side effects, in order to augment supportive care. This data reveal that nutrition counselling; digestive enzyme therapy; microbiome support; dietary supplements; lifestyle interventions (physical activity and circadian health/sleep hygiene) appear to improve QoL of these patients through reduced symptom burden and meeting psychological needs, such as distress and fatigue. Acupuncture, mindfulness, yoga, reflexology, massage, and homeopathy may also contribute to symptom reduction, both physical and psychological, in all stages of the disease. There is supporting evidence that some CIM modalities may alleviate side effects and symptoms related to pancreatic cancer and its treatment, suggesting that practitioners might consider integrating these modalities in certain situations encountered in the treatment of pancreatic cancer. Further investigation is needed to define the optimal integration of CIM into the treatment and supportive care of patients affected by pancreatic cancer.

Cellular Transcriptomics of Carboplatin Resistance in a Metastatic Canine Osteosarcoma Cell Line

Osteosarcoma prognosis has remained unchanged for the past three decades. In both humans and canines, treatment is limited to excision, radiation, and chemotherapy. Chemoresistance is the primary cause of treatment failure, and the trajectory of tumor evolution while under selective pressure from treatment is thought to be the major contributing factor in both species. We sought to understand the nature of platinum-based chemotherapy resistance by investigating cells that were subjected to repeated treatment and recovery cycles with increased carboplatin concentrations. Three HMPOS-derived cell lines, two resistant and one naïve, underwent single-cell RNA sequencing to examine transcriptomic perturbation and identify pathways leading to resistance and phenotypic changes. We identified the mechanisms of acquired chemoresistance and inferred the induced cellular trajectory that evolved with repeated exposure. The gene expression patterns indicated that acquired chemoresistance was strongly associated with a process similar to epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT), a phenomenon associated with the acquisition of migratory and invasive properties associated with metastatic disease. We conclude that the observed trajectory of tumor adaptability is directly correlated with chemoresistance and the phase of the EMT-like phenotype is directly affected by the level of chemoresistance. We infer that the EMT-like phenotype is a critical component of tumor evolution under treatment pressure and is vital to understanding the mechanisms of chemoresistance and to improving osteosarcoma prognosis.

Implications of Transglutaminase-Mediated Protein Serotonylation in the Epigenetic Landscape, Small Cell Lung Cancer, and Beyond

In the case of small-cell lung carcinoma, the highly metastatic nature of the disease and the propensity for several chromatin modifiers to harbor mutations suggest that epigenetic manipulation may also be a promising route for oncotherapy, but histone deacetylase inhibitors on their own do not appear to be particularly effective, suggesting that there may be other regulatory parameters that dictate the effectiveness of vorinostat's reversal of histone deacetylation. Recent discoveries that serotonylation of histone H3 alters the permissibility of gene expression have led to renewed attention to this rare modification, as facilitated by transglutaminase 2, and at the same time introduce new questions about whether this modification belongs to a part of the concerted cohort of regulator events for modulating the epigenetic landscape. This review explores the mechanistic details behind protein serotonylation and its possible connections to the epigenome via histone modifications and glycan interactions and attempts to elucidate the role of transglutaminase 2, such that optimizations to existing histone deacetylase inhibitor designs or combination therapies may be devised for lung and other types of cancer.

Targeting galectin-driven regulatory circuits in cancer and fibrosis

Galectins are a family of endogenous glycan-binding proteins that have crucial roles in a broad range of physiological and pathological processes. As a group, these proteins use both extracellular and intracellular mechanisms as well as glycan-dependent and independent pathways to reprogramme the fate and function of numerous cell types. Given their multifunctional roles in both tissue fibrosis and cancer, galectins have been identified as potential therapeutic targets for these disorders. Here, we focus on the therapeutic relevance of galectins, particularly galectin 1 (GAL1), GAL3 and GAL9 to tumour progression and fibrotic diseases. We consider an array of galectin-targeted strategies, including small-molecule carbohydrate inhibitors, natural polysaccharides and their derivatives, peptides, peptidomimetics and biological agents (notably, neutralizing monoclonal antibodies and truncated galectins) and discuss their mechanisms of action, selectivity and therapeutic potential in preclinical models of fibrosis and cancer. We also review the results of clinical trials that aim to evaluate the efficacy of galectin inhibitors in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis and cancer. The rapid pace of glycobiology research, combined with the acute need for drugs to alleviate fibrotic inflammation and overcome resistance to anticancer therapies, will accelerate the translation of anti-galectin therapeutics into clinical practice.

Spatial regulation of the glycocalyx component podocalyxin is a switch for prometastatic function

The glycocalyx component and sialomucin podocalyxin (PODXL) is required for normal tissue development by promoting apical membranes to form between cells, triggering lumen formation. Elevated PODXL expression is also associated with metastasis and poor clinical outcome in multiple tumor types. How PODXL presents this duality in effect remains unknown. We identify an unexpected function of PODXL as a decoy receptor for galectin-3 (GAL3), whereby the PODXL-GAL3 interaction releases GAL3 repression of integrin-based invasion. Differential cortical targeting of PODXL, regulated by ubiquitination, is the molecular mechanism controlling alternate fates. Both PODXL high and low surface levels occur in parallel subpopulations within cancer cells. Orthotopic intraprostatic xenograft of PODXL-manipulated cells or those with different surface levels of PODXL define that this axis controls metastasis in vivo. Clinically, interplay between PODXL-GAL3 stratifies prostate cancer patients with poor outcome. Our studies define the molecular mechanisms and context in which PODXL promotes invasion and metastasis.

The germline factor DDX4 contributes to the chemoresistance of small cell lung cancer cells

Human cancers often re-express germline factors, yet their mechanistic role in oncogenesis and cancer progression remains unknown. Here we demonstrate that DEAD-box helicase 4 (DDX4), a germline factor and RNA helicase conserved in all multicellular organisms, contributes to increased cell motility and cisplatin-mediated drug resistance in small cell lung cancer (SCLC) cells. Proteomic analysis suggests that DDX4 expression upregulates proteins related to DNA repair and immune/inflammatory response. Consistent with these trends in cell lines, DDX4 depletion compromised in vivo tumor development while its overexpression enhanced tumor growth even after cisplatin treatment in nude mice. Further, the relatively higher DDX4 expression in SCLC patients correlates with decreased survival and shows increased expression of immune/inflammatory response markers. Taken together, we propose that DDX4 increases SCLC cell survival, by increasing the DNA damage and immune response pathways, especially under challenging conditions such as cisplatin treatment.

Distinct cholangiocarcinoma cell migration in 2D monolayer and 3D spheroid culture based on galectin-3 expression and localization

Introduction

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is difficult to cure due to its ineffective treatment and advanced stage diagnosis. Thoroughly mechanistic understandings of CCA pathogenesis crucially help improving the treatment success rates. Using three-dimensional (3D) cell culture platform offers several advantages over a traditional two-dimensional (2D) culture as it resembles more closely to in vivo tumor.

Methods

Here, we aimed to establish the 3D CCA spheroids with lowly (KKU-100) and highly (KKU-213A) metastatic potentials to investigate the CCA migratory process and its EMT-associated galectin-3 in the 3D setting.

Results and discussion

Firstly, the growth of lowly metastatic KKU-100 cells was slower than highly metastatic KKU-213A cells in both 2D and 3D systems. Hollow formation was observed exclusively inside the KKU-213A spheroids, not in KKU-100. Additionally, the migration activity of KKU-213A cells was higher than that of KKU-100 cells in both 2D and 3D systems. Besides, altered expression of galectin-3 were observed across all CCA culture conditions with substantial relocalization from inside the 2D cells to the border of spheroids in the 3D system. Notably, the CCA migration was inversely proportional to the galectin-3 expression in the 3D culture, but not in the 2D setting. This suggests the contribution of culture platforms to the alternation of the CCA cell migration process.

Conclusions

Thus, our data revealed that 3D culture of CCA cells was phenotypically distinct from 2D culture and pointed to the superiority of using the 3D culture model for examining the CCA cellular mechanisms, providing knowledges that are better correlated with CCA phenotypes in vivo.

Decoding Strategies to Evade Immunoregulators Galectin-1, -3, and -9 and Their Ligands as Novel Therapeutics in Cancer Immunotherapy

Galectins are a family of ß-galactoside-binding proteins that play a variety of roles in normal physiology. In cancer, their expression levels are typically elevated and often associated with poor prognosis. They are known to fuel a variety of cancer progression pathways through their glycan-binding interactions with cancer, stromal, and immune cell surfaces. Of the 15 galectins in mammals, galectin (Gal)-1, -3, and -9 are particularly notable for their critical roles in tumor immune escape. While these galectins play integral roles in promoting cancer progression, they are also instrumental in regulating the survival, differentiation, and function of anti-tumor T cells that compromise anti-tumor immunity and weaken novel immunotherapies. To this end, there has been a surge in the development of new strategies to inhibit their pro-malignancy characteristics, particularly in reversing tumor immunosuppression through galectin-glycan ligand-targeting methods. This review examines some new approaches to evading Gal-1, -3, and -9-ligand interactions to interfere with their tumor-promoting and immunoregulating activities. Whether using neutralizing antibodies, synthetic peptides, glyco-metabolic modifiers, competitive inhibitors, vaccines, gene editing, exo-glycan modification, or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells, these methods offer new hope of synergizing their inhibitory effects with current immunotherapeutic methods and yielding highly effective, durable responses.

Emergence of MUC1 in Mammals for Adaptation of Barrier Epithelia

The mucin 1 (MUC1) gene was discovered based on its overexpression in human breast cancers. Subsequent work demonstrated that MUC1 is aberrantly expressed in cancers originating from other diverse organs, including skin and immune cells. These findings supported a role for MUC1 in the adaptation of barrier tissues to infection and environmental stress. Of fundamental importance for this evolutionary adaptation was inclusion of a SEA domain, which catalyzes autoproteolysis of the MUC1 protein and formation of a non-covalent heterodimeric complex. The resulting MUC1 heterodimer is poised at the apical cell membrane to respond to loss of homeostasis. Disruption of the complex releases the MUC1 N-terminal (MUC1-N) subunit into a protective mucous gel. Conversely, the transmembrane C-terminal (MUC1-C) subunit activates a program of lineage plasticity, epigenetic reprogramming and repair. This MUC1-C-activated program apparently evolved for barrier tissues to mount self-regulating proliferative, inflammatory and remodeling responses associated with wound healing. Emerging evidence indicates that MUC1-C underpins inflammatory adaptation of tissue stem cells and immune cells in the barrier niche. This review focuses on how prolonged activation of MUC1-C by chronic inflammation in these niches promotes the cancer stem cell (CSC) state by establishing auto-inductive nodes that drive self-renewal and tumorigenicity.

Berberine inhibits carcinogenesis through antagonizing the ATX-LPA-LPAR2-p38-leptin axis in a mouse hepatoma model

Chemoprevention of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is highly desirable in clinic. Berberine (BBR) is reported to play potential roles in cancer treatment and prevention. We studied the chemopreventive effect of BBR on hepatocellular carcinogenesis in an inflammation-driven mouse model, as it was enriched in liver after oral administration. Oral BBR significantly decreased the number and volume of visible nodular tumors, and prolonged the median overall survival by 9 and 8 weeks in the diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-injected male and female mice respectively. The nodular tumors were induced through activation of the lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) pathway in liver. LPA stimulated the abnormal leptin transcription through interacting with LPA receptor-2 (LPAR2) followed by p38 activation, and BBR inhibited carcinogenesis by suppressing the bioactivity of LPA. Specifically, BBR significantly reduced the expression of the LPA synthetase autotaxin (ATX) and LPAR2 in the nodular tumors of DEN-injected mice. Subsequently, BBR repressed the abnormal transcription of leptin stimulated by LPA-induced phosphorylation of p38 in hepatoma cells. In fact, BBR reduced the abnormal expression of leptin in livers of DEN-injected male mice throughout the course of an 8-month experiment. BBR might be a preventive agent for HCC, working at least partially through antagonizing the ATX-LPA-LPAR2-p38-leptin axis in liver.

The Features of Checkpoint Receptor—Ligand Interaction in Cancer and the Therapeutic Effectiveness of Their Inhibition

To date, certain problems have been identified in cancer immunotherapy using the inhibition of immune checkpoints (ICs). Despite the excellent effect of cancer therapy in some cases when blocking the PD-L1 (programmed death-ligand 1) ligand and the immune cell receptors PD-1 (programmed cell death protein 1) and CTLA4 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4) with antibodies, the proportion of patients responding to such therapy is still far from desirable. This situation has stimulated the exploration of additional receptors and ligands as targets for immunotherapy. In our article, based on the analysis of the available data, the TIM-3 (T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-3), LAG-3 (lymphocyte-activation gene 3), TIGIT (T-cell immunoreceptor with Ig and immunoreceptor tyrosine-based inhibitory motif (ITIM) domains), VISTA (V-domain Ig suppressor of T-cell activation), and BTLA (B- and T-lymphocyte attenuator) receptors and their ligands are comprehensively considered. Data on the relationship between receptor expression and the clinical characteristics of tumors are presented and are analyzed together with the results of preclinical and clinical studies on the therapeutic efficacy of their blocking. Such a comprehensive analysis makes it possible to assess the prospects of receptors of this series as targets for anticancer therapy. The expression of the LAG-3 receptor shows the most unambiguous relationship with the clinical characteristics of cancer. Its inhibition is the most effective of the analyzed series in terms of the antitumor response. The expression of TIGIT and BTLA correlates well with clinical characteristics and demonstrates antitumor efficacy in preclinical and clinical studies, which indicates their high promise as targets for anticancer therapy. At the same time, the relationship of VISTA and TIM-3 expression with the clinical characteristics of the tumor is contradictory, and the results on the antitumor effectiveness of their inhibition are inconsistent.

Cellular and Molecular Mechanism of Pulmonary Fibrosis Post-COVID-19: Focus on Galectin-1, -3, -8, -9

Pulmonary fibrosis is a consequence of the pathological accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM), which finally leads to lung scarring. Although the pulmonary fibrogenesis is almost known, the last two years of the COVID-19 pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its post effects added new particularities which need to be explored. Many questions remain about how pulmonary fibrotic changes occur within the lungs of COVID-19 patients, and whether the changes will persist long term or are capable of resolving. This review brings together existing knowledge on both COVID-19 and pulmonary fibrosis, starting with the main key players in promoting pulmonary fibrosis, such as alveolar and endothelial cells, fibroblasts, lipofibroblasts, and macrophages. Further, we provide an overview of the main molecular mechanisms driving the fibrotic process in connection with Galactin-1, -3, -8, and -9, together with the currently approved and newly proposed clinical therapeutic solutions given for the treatment of fibrosis, based on their inhibition. The work underlines the particular pathways and processes that may be implicated in pulmonary fibrosis pathogenesis post-SARS-CoV-2 viral infection. The recent data suggest that galectin-1, -3, -8, and -9 could become valuable biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of lung fibrosis post-COVID-19 and promising molecular targets for the development of new and original therapeutic tools to treat the disease.

MG-Pe: A Novel Galectin-3 Ligand with Antimelanoma Properties and Adjuvant Effects to Dacarbazine

Melanoma is a highly metastatic and rapidly progressing cancer, a leading cause of mortality among skin cancers. The melanoma microenvironment, formed from the activity of malignant cells on the extracellular matrix and the recruitment of immune cells, plays an active role in the development of drug resistance and tumor recurrence, which are clinical challenges in cancer treatment. These tumoral metabolic processes are affected by proteins, including Galectin-3 (Gal-3), which is extensively involved in cancer development. Previously, we characterized a partially methylated mannogalactan (MG-Pe) with antimelanoma activities. In vivo models of melanoma were used to observe MG-Pe effects in survival, spontaneous, and experimental metastases and in tissue oxidative stress. Analytical assays for the molecular interaction of MG-Pe and Gal-3 were performed using a quartz crystal microbalance, atomic force microscopy, and contact angle tensiometer. MG-Pe exhibits an additive effect when administered together with the chemotherapeutic agent dacarbazine, leading to increased survival of treated mice, metastases reduction, and the modulation of oxidative stress. MG-Pe binds to galectin-3. Furthermore, MG-Pe antitumor effects were substantially reduced in Gal-3/KO mice. Our results showed that the novel Gal-3 ligand, MG-Pe, has both antitumor and antimetastatic effects, alone or in combination with chemotherapy.

SREBP1 regulates Lgals3 activation in response to cholesterol loading

Aberrant smooth muscle cell (SMC) plasticity is etiological to vascular diseases. Cholesterol induces SMC phenotypic transition featuring high LGALS3 (galectin-3) expression. This proatherogenic process is poorly understood for its molecular underpinnings, in particular, the mechanistic role of sterol regulatory-element binding protein-1 (SREBP1), a master regulator of lipid metabolism. Herein we show that cholesterol loading stimulated SREBP1 expression in mouse, rat, and human SMCs. SREBP1 positively regulated LGALS3 expression (and vice versa), whereas Krüppel-like factor-15 (KLF15) acted as a negative regulator. Both bound to the Lgals3 promoter, yet at discrete sites, as revealed by chromatin immunoprecipitation-qPCR and electrophoretic mobility shift assays. SREBP1 and LGALS3 each abated KLF15 protein, and blocking the bromo/extraterminal domain-containing proteins (BETs) family of acetyl-histone readers abolished cholesterol-stimulated SREBP1/LGALS3 protein production. Furthermore, silencing bromodomain protein 2 (BRD2; but not other BETs) reduced SREBP1; endogenous BRD2 co-immunoprecipitated with SREBP1's transcription-active domain, its own promoter DNA, and that of L gals 3. Thus, results identify a previously uncharacterized cholesterol-responsive dyad-SREBP1 and LGALS3, constituting a feedforward circuit that can be blocked by BETs inhibition. This study provides new insights into SMC phenotypic transition and potential interventional targets.

Proteomic alterations in extracellular vesicles induced by oncogenic PIK3CA mutations

PIK3CA is one of the most frequently mutated genes in human cancers, with the two most prevalent activating mutations being E545K and H1047R. Although the altered intracellular signaling pathways in these cells have been described, the effect of these mutations on their extracellular vesicles (EVs) has not yet been reported. To study altered cellular physiology and intercellular communication through proteomic analysis of EVs, MCF10A cells and their isogenic mutant versions (PIK3CA E545K and H1047R) were cultured and their EVs enriched by differential ultracentrifugation. Proteins were extracted, digested with trypsin and the peptides labeled with tandem mass tag (TMT) reagents and analyzed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Four thousand six hundred and fifty-five peptides were identified from 579 proteins of which 522 proteins have been previously described in EVs. Relative quantitation revealed altered levels of EV proteins including several cell adhesion molecules. Mesothelin, E-cadherin, and epithelial cell adhesion molecule were elevated in both mutant cell-derived EVs. Markers of tumor invasion and progression like galectin-3 and transforming growth factor beta induced protein were increased in both mutants. Overall, activating mutations in PIK3CA result in altered EV composition with characteristic changes associated with these hotspot mutations.

Glycan-Lectin Interactions as Novel Immunosuppression Drivers in Glioblastoma

Despite diagnostic and therapeutic improvements, glioblastoma (GB) remains one of the most threatening brain tumor in adults, underlining the urgent need of new therapeutic targets. Lectins are glycan-binding proteins that regulate several biological processes through the recognition of specific sugar motifs. Lectins and their ligands are found on immune cells, endothelial cells and, also, tumor cells, pointing out a strong correlation among immunity, tumor microenvironment and vascularization. In GB, altered glycans and lectins contribute to tumor progression and immune evasion, shaping the tumor-immune landscape promoting immunosuppressive cell subsets, such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) and M2-macrophages, and affecting immunoeffector populations, such as CD8⁺ T cells and dendritic cells (DCs). Here, we discuss the latest knowledge on the immune cells, immune related lectin receptors (C-type lectins, Siglecs, galectins) and changes in glycosylation that are involved in immunosuppressive mechanisms in GB, highlighting their interest as possible novel therapeutical targets.

Galectin Family Members: Emerging Novel Targets for Lymphoma Therapy?

The galectin family of proteins has high affinity with β-galactoside-containing glycans. These proteins participate in cell growth and differentiation, cell adhesion, cell signal transduction, cell apoptosis, and other cellular activities. In recent years, a large number of studies have described the expression and correlation of galectins in different tumors. Each member of the family plays a vital role in tumor growth, progression, angiogenesis, adhesion, and tumor immune escape. Studies on the roles of galectins in lymphoma have mainly involved galectin-1, -3, -7, and -9. The results suggest that galectins may become novel targets for precise tumor treatment. This article reviews current research progress regarding galectins in lymphoma and provides new ideas for exploring them as novel targets for treating lymphoma and other important medical issues.

Galectin‐3 enhances trastuzumab resistance by regulating cancer malignancy and stemness in HER2 ‐positive breast cancer cells

Purpose

The aim of this study was to explore the role of galectin‐3 in human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)‐positive breast cancer cells and the potential mechanism.

Methods

Kaplan–Meier (KM)‐plot and The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) databases were used to study the role of galectin‐3 in the prognosis of HER2‐positive breast cancer. The effects of galectin‐3 on cell proliferation, migration, invasion, and colony formation ability in HER2‐positive breast cancer cells were examined. The relationship between galectin‐3 and important components in the HER2 pathways, including HER2, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), protein kinase B (AKT), and phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), was further studied. Lentivirus and CRISPR/Cas9 were used to construct stable cell lines. Cell counting kit‐8 (CCK‐8) and apoptosis assays were used to study the relationship between galectin‐3 and trastuzumab. The effect of galectin‐3 on cell stemness was studied by mammosphere formation assay. The effects of galectin‐3 on stemness biomarkers and the Notch1 pathway were examined. Tumorigenic models were used to evaluate the effects of galectin‐3 on tumorigenesis and the therapeutic effect of trastuzumab in vivo.

Results

HER2‐positive breast cancer patients with a high expression level of LGALS3 (the gene encoding galectin‐3) messenger RNA (mRNA) showed a poor prognosis. Galectin‐3 promoted cancer malignancy through phosphoinositide 3‐kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling pathway activation and upregulated stemness by activating the Notch1 signaling pathway in HER2‐positive breast cancer cells. These two factors contributed to the enhancement of trastuzumab resistance in cells. Knockout of LGALS3 had a synergistic therapeutic effect with trastuzumab both in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusions

Galectin‐3 may represent a prognostic predictor and therapeutic target for HER2‐positive breast cancer.

Cardiovascular Biomarkers: Lessons of the Past and Prospects for the Future

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are a major healthcare burden on the population worldwide. Early detection of this disease is important in prevention and treatment to minimise morbidity and mortality. Biomarkers are a critical tool to either diagnose, screen, or provide prognostic information for pathological conditions. This review discusses the historical cardiac biomarkers used to detect these conditions, discussing their application and their limitations. Identification of new biomarkers have since replaced these and are now in use in routine clinical practice, but still do not detect all disease. Future cardiac biomarkers are showing promise in early studies, but further studies are required to show their value in improving detection of CVD above the current biomarkers. Additionally, the analytical platforms that would allow them to be adopted in healthcare are yet to be established. There is also the need to identify whether these biomarkers can be used for diagnostic, prognostic, or screening purposes, which will impact their implementation in routine clinical practice.

General Strategies for Glycan Microarray Data Processing and Analysis

Glycan microarrays provide a high-throughput technology for rapidly profiling interactions between carbohydrates and glycan-binding proteins (GBPs). Use of glycan microarrays involves several general steps, including construction of the microarray, carrying out the assay, detection of binding events, and analysis of the results. While multiple platforms have been developed to construct microarrays, most utilize fluorescence for detection of binding events. This chapter describes methods to acquire and process microarray images, including generating GAL files, imaging of the slide, aligning the grid, detecting problematic spots, and evaluating the quality of the data. The chapter focuses on processing our neoglycoprotein microarrays, but many of the lessons we have learned are applicable to other array formats.

Galectin-8, cytokines, and the storm

Galectin-8 (Gal-8) belongs to a family of animal lectins that modulate cell adhesion, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and immune responses. Recent studies have shown that mammalian Gal-8 induces in an autocrine and paracrine manner, the expression and secretion of cytokines and chemokines such as RANKL, IL-6, IL-1β, SDF-1, and MCP-1. This involves Gal-8 binding to receptor complexes that include MRC2/uPAR/LRP1, integrins, and CD44. Receptors ligation triggers FAK, ERK, Akt, and the JNK signaling pathways, leading to induction of NF-κB that promotes cytokine expression. Indeed, immune-competent Gal-8 knockout (KO) mice express systemic lower levels of cytokines and chemokines while the opposite is true for Gal-8 transgenic animals. Cytokine and chemokine secretion, induced by Gal-8, promotes the migration of cancer cells toward cells expressing this lectin. Accordingly, Gal-8 KO mice experience reduced tumor size and smaller and fewer metastatic lesions when injected with cancer cells. These observations suggest the existence of a ‘vicious cycle’ whereby Gal-8 expression and secretion promotes the secretion of cytokines and chemokines that further promote Gal-8 expression. This ‘vicious cycle’ could enhance the development of a ‘cytokine storm’ which is a key contributor to the poor prognosis of COVID-19 patients.

FOXP3 activated-LINC01232 accelerates the stemness of non-small cell lung carcinoma by activating TGF-β signaling pathway and recruiting IGF2BP2 to stabilize TGFBR1

Non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide with high incidence and mortality. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been reported to affect human cancer progression. The present study aimed to investigate the regulatory role and mechanism of long intergenic non-protein coding RNA 1232 (LINC01232) in NSCLC cells. RT-qPCR results revealed that LINC01232 expression was high in NSCLC cells. Flow cytometry and sphere formation assays indicated that LINC01232 significantly promoted NSCLC cell stemness. Luciferase reporter assay and ChIP assay validated that forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) could bind to LINC01232 promoter and activate LINC01232 transcription. Further, LINC01232 was certified to activate TGF-β signaling pathway through regulating transforming growth factor beta receptor 1 (TGFBR1). After RIP and RNA pull down assays, insulin like growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 2 (IGF2BP2) was proven as the RNA-binding protein (RBP) for LINC01232. LINC01232 promoted TGFBR1 mRNA stability via recruiting IGF2BP2. Subsequently, LINC01232 was verified to accelerate NSCLC cell stemness and induce macrophage M2 polarization via upregulating TGFBR1. Taken together, FOXP3 activated-LINC01232 accelerated NSCLC cell stemness by activating TGF-β signaling pathway and recruiting IGF2BP2 to stabilize TGFBR1, which might offer a rationale for lncRNA-based treatment to NSCLC.

Analysis of the Single-Cell Heterogeneity of Adenocarcinoma Cell Lines and the Investigation of Intratumor Heterogeneity Reveals the Expression of Transmembrane Protein 45A (TMEM45A) in Lung Adenocarcinoma Cancer Patients

Simple Summary

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the main causes of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Intratumoral heterogeneity (ITH) is responsible for the majority of difficulties encountered in the treatment of lung-cancer patients. Therefore, the heterogeneity of NSCLC cell lines and primary lung adenocarcinoma was investigated by single-cell mass cytometry (CyTOF). Human NSCLC adenocarcinoma cells A549, H1975, and H1650 were studied at single-cell resolution for the expression pattern of 13 markers: GLUT1, MCT4, CA9, TMEM45A, CD66, CD274, CD24, CD326, pan-keratin, TRA-1-60, galectin-3, galectin-1, and EGFR. The intra- and inter-cell-line heterogeneity of A549, H1975, and H1650 cells were demonstrated through hypoxic modeling. Additionally, human primary lung adenocarcinoma, and non-involved healthy lung tissue were homogenized to prepare a single-cell suspension for CyTOF analysis. The single-cell heterogeneity was confirmed using unsupervised viSNE and FlowSOM analysis. Our results also show, for the first time, that TMEM45A is expressed in lung adenocarcinoma.

Abstract

Intratumoral heterogeneity (ITH) is responsible for the majority of difficulties encountered in the treatment of lung-cancer patients. Therefore, the heterogeneity of NSCLC cell lines and primary lung adenocarcinoma was investigated by single-cell mass cytometry (CyTOF). First, we studied the single-cell heterogeneity of frequent NSCLC adenocarcinoma models, such as A549, H1975, and H1650. The intra- and inter-cell-line single-cell heterogeneity is represented in the expression patterns of 13 markers—namely GLUT1, MCT4, CA9, TMEM45A, CD66, CD274 (PD-L1), CD24, CD326 (EpCAM), pan-keratin, TRA-1-60, galectin-3, galectin-1, and EGFR. The qRT-PCR and CyTOF analyses revealed that a hypoxic microenvironment and altered metabolism may influence cell-line heterogeneity. Additionally, human primary lung adenocarcinoma and non-involved healthy lung tissue biopsies were homogenized to prepare a single-cell suspension for CyTOF analysis. The CyTOF showed the ITH of human primary lung adenocarcinoma for 14 markers; particularly, the higher expressions of GLUT1, MCT4, CA9, TMEM45A, and CD66 were associated with the lung-tumor tissue. Our single-cell results are the first to demonstrate TMEM45A expression in human lung adenocarcinoma, which was verified by immunohistochemistry.

Potential Roles of Modified Pectin Targeting Galectin-3 against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2

Modified pectin (MP) is a bioactive complex polysaccharide that is broken down into smaller fragments of units and used as an oral dietary supplement for cell proliferation. MP is safe and non-toxic with promising therapeutic properties with regard to targeting galectin-3 (GAL-3) toward the prevention and inhibition of viral infections through the modulation of the immune response and anti-inflammatory cytokine effects. This effect of MP as a GAL-3 antagonism, which has shown benefits in preclinical and clinical models, may be of relevance to the progression of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) in coronavirus disease 2019 patients. The outbreak of emerging infectious diseases continues to pose a threat to human health. Further to the circulation of multiple variants of SARS-CoV-2, an effective and alternative therapeutic approach to combat it has become pertinent. The use of MP as a GAL-3 inhibitor could serve as an antiviral agent blocking against the SARS-CoV-2-binding spike protein. This review highlights the potential effects of MP in viral infections, its proposed role as a GAL-3 inhibitor, and the associated function concerning a SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Galectins in Glioma: Current Roles in Cancer Progression and Future Directions for Improving Treatment

Simple Summary

Glioblastomas are among the most common and aggressive brain tumors. The high rate of recurrence and mortality associated with this cancer underscores the need for the development of new therapeutical targets. Galectins are among the new targets that have attracted the attention of many scientists working in the field of cancer. They form a group of small proteins found in many tissues where they accomplish various physiological roles, including regulation of immune response and resistance to cell death. In many types of cancer, however, production of abnormally high levels of galectins by cancer cells can be detrimental to patients. Elevated levels of galectins can, for example, suppress the ability of the host’s immune system to kill cancer cells. They can also provide cancer cells with resistance to drugs-induced cell death. Here, we review the recent progress that has contributed to a better understanding of the mechanisms of actions of galectins in glioblastoma. We also discuss recent development of anti-galectin drugs and the challenges associated with their use in clinical settings, with particular attention to their role in reducing the efficacy of immunotherapy, a promising treatment that exploits the capacity of the immune system to recognize and kill cancer cells.

Abstract

Traditional wisdom suggests that galectins play pivotal roles at different steps in cancer progression. Galectins are particularly well known for their ability to increase the invasiveness of cancer cells and their resistance to drug-induced cell death. They also contribute to the development of local and systemic immunosuppression, allowing cancer cells to escape the host’s immunological defense. This is particularly true in glioma, the most common primary intracranial tumor. Abnormally high production of extracellular galectins in glioma contributes to the establishment of a strong immunosuppressive environment that favors immune escape and tumor progression. Considering the recent development and success of immunotherapy in halting cancer progression, it is logical to foresee that galectin-specific drugs may help to improve the success rate of immunotherapy for glioma. This provides a new perspective to target galectins, whose intracellular roles in cancer progression have already been investigated thoroughly. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of action of galectins at different steps of glioma progression and the potential of galectin-specific drugs for the treatment of glioma.

Galectin‑3 blockade suppresses the growth of cetuximab‑resistant human oral squamous cell carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a cancer associated with high mortality (accounting for 3.1/100,000 deaths per year in Brazil in 2013) and a high frequency of amplification in the expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Treatment with the EGFR inhibitor cetuximab leads to drug resistance in patients with OSCC due to unknown mechanisms. Galectin‑3 (Gal‑3) is a β‑galactoside binding lectin that regulates multiple signaling pathways in cells. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of Gal‑3 in cetuximab‑resistant (cet‑R) OSCC. The OSCC HSC3 cell line was selected to establish a mouse xenograft model, which was treated with cetuximab to induce resistance. Subsequently, a Gal‑3 inhibitor was used to treat cet‑R tumors, and the tumor volume was monitored. The expression of Gal‑3, phosphorylated (p)‑ERK1/2 and p‑Akt was assessed using immunohistochemistry. The combined effect of cetuximab and the Gal‑3 inhibitor on HSC3 tumor xenografts was also investigated. HSC3 cells were cultured in vitro to investigate the regulatory effects of Gal‑3 on ERK1/2 and Akt via western blotting. In addition, the effects of the Gal‑3 inhibitor on the proliferation, colony formation, invasion and apoptosis of HSC3 cells were investigated by performing Cell Counting Kit‑8, colony formation, Transwell and apoptosis assays, respectively. In cet‑R OSCC tumors, increased expression of Gal‑3, p‑ERK1/2 and p‑Akt was observed. Further research demonstrated that Gal‑3 regulated the expression of both ERK1/2 and Akt in HSC3 cells by promoting phosphorylation. Moreover, the Gal‑3 inhibitor decreased the proliferation and invasion, but increased the apoptosis of cet‑R HSC3 cells. In addition, the Gal‑3 inhibitor suppressed the growth of cet‑R tumors. Collectively, the results indicated that the Gal‑3 inhibitor and cetuximab displayed a synergistic inhibitory effect on OSCC tumors. In summary, the present study demonstrated that Gal‑3 may serve an important role in cet‑R OSCC. The combination of cetuximab and the Gal‑3 inhibitor may display a synergistic antitumor effect, thereby inhibiting the development of cetuximab resistance in OSCC.