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Bhuiyan NZ, Hasan MK, Mahmud Z, Hossain MS, Rahman A. Prevention of Alzheimer's disease through diet: An exploratory review. Metabol Open 2023; 20:100257. [PMID: 37781687 PMCID: PMC10539673 DOI: 10.1016/j.metop.2023.100257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 08/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction This exploratory review article describes about the genetic factors behind Alzheimer's disease (AD), their association with foods, and their relationships with cognitive impairment. It explores the dietary patterns and economic challenges in AD prevention. Methods Scopus, PubMed and Google Scholar were searched for articles that examined the relationships between Diets, Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and Socioeconomic conditions in preventative Alzheimer's disease studies. Graphs and Network analysis data were taken from Scopus under the MeSH search method, including words, Alzheimer's, APoE4, Tau protein, APP, Amyloid precursor protein, Beta-Amyloid, Aβ, Mediterranean Diet, MD, DASH diet, MIND diet, SES, Socioeconomic, Developed country, Underdeveloped country, Preventions. The network analysis was done through VOS viewer. Results Mediterranean diet (MD) accurately lowers AD (Alzheimer's Disease) risk to 53% and 35% for people who follow it moderately. MIND scores had a statistically significant reduction in AD rate compared to those in the lowest tertial (53% and 35% reduction, respectively). Subjects with the highest adherence to the MD and DASH had a 54% and 39% lower risk of developing AD, respectively, compared to those in the lowest tertial. Omega-6, PUFA, found in nuts and fish, can play most roles in the clearance of Aβ. Vitamin D inhibits induced fibrillar Aβ apoptosis. However, the high cost of these diet components rise doubt about the effectiveness of AD prevention through healthy diets. Conclusion The finding of this study revealed an association between diet and the effects of the chemical components of foods on AD biomarkers. More research is required to see if nutrition is a risk or a protective factor for Alzheimer's disease to encourage research to be translated into therapeutic practice and to clarify nutritional advice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nusrat Zahan Bhuiyan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National University Bangladesh, Gazipur, 1704, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Kamrul Hasan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National University Bangladesh, Gazipur, 1704, Bangladesh
- Department of Public Health, North South University, Dhaka, 1229, Bangladesh
| | - Zimam Mahmud
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Sabbir Hossain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, National University Bangladesh, Gazipur, 1704, Bangladesh
| | - Atiqur Rahman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Dhaka, Dhaka, 1000, Bangladesh
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2
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Cao C, Fu G, Xu R, Li N. Coupling of Alzheimer's Disease Genetic Risk Factors with Viral Susceptibility and Inflammation. Aging Dis 2023:AD.2023.1017. [PMID: 37962454 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2023.1017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by persistent cognitive decline. Amyloid plaque deposition and neurofibrillary tangles are the main pathological features of AD brain, though mechanisms leading to the formation of lesions remain to be understood. Genetic efforts through genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified dozens of risk genes influencing the pathogenesis and progression of AD, some of which have been revealed in close association with increased viral susceptibilities and abnormal inflammatory responses in AD patients. In the present study, we try to present a list of AD candidate genes that have been shown to affect viral infection and inflammatory responses. Understanding of how AD susceptibility genes interact with the viral life cycle and potential inflammatory pathways would provide possible therapeutic targets for both AD and infectious diseases.
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3
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Cao C, Zhang L, Sorensen MD, Reifenberger G, Kristensen BW, McIntyre TM, Lin F. D-2-hydroxyglutarate regulates human brain vascular endothelial cell proliferation and barrier function. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2023; 82:921-933. [PMID: 37740942 PMCID: PMC10588003 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlad072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Gain-of-function mutations in isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) genes result in excessive production of (D)-2-hydroxyglutarate (D-2HG) which intrinsically modifies tumor cell epigenetics and impacts surrounding noncancerous cells through nonepigenetic pathways. However, whether D-2HG has a paracrine effect on endothelial cells in the tumor microenvironment needs further clarification. We quantified microvessel density by immunohistochemistry using tissue sections from 60 high-grade astrocytic gliomas with or without IDH mutation. Microvessel density was found to be reduced in tumors carrying an IDH mutation. Ex vivo experiments showed that D-2HG inhibited endothelial cell migration, wound healing, and tube formation by suppressing cell proliferation but not viability, possibly through reduced activation of the mTOR/STAT3 pathway. Further, D-2HG reduced fluorescent dextran permeability and decreased paracellular T-cell transendothelial migration by augmenting expression of junctional proteins thereby collectively increasing endothelial barrier function. These results indicate that D-2HG may influence the tumor vascular microenvironment by reducing the intratumoral vasculature density and by inhibiting the transport of metabolites and extravasation of circulating cells into the astrocytoma microenvironment. These observations provide a rationale for combining IDH inhibition with antitumor immunological/angiogenic approaches and suggest a molecular basis for resistance to antiangiogenic drugs in patients whose tumors express a mutant IDH allele.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Cao
- Department of Hematology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Lingjun Zhang
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Mia D Sorensen
- Department of Pathology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Guido Reifenberger
- Institute of Neuropathology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich Heine University, and University Hospital Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), Partner Site Essen/Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Bjarne W Kristensen
- Department of Pathology, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Pathology, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine and Biotech Research and Innovation Center (BRIC), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas M McIntyre
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Feng Lin
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
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4
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Fu WY, Ip NY. The role of genetic risk factors of Alzheimer's disease in synaptic dysfunction. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 139:3-12. [PMID: 35918217 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive deterioration of cognitive functions. Due to the extended global life expectancy, the prevalence of AD is increasing among aging populations worldwide. While AD is a multifactorial disease, synaptic dysfunction is one of the major neuropathological changes that occur early in AD, before clinical symptoms appear, and is associated with the progression of cognitive deterioration. However, the underlying pathological mechanisms leading to this synaptic dysfunction remains unclear. Recent large-scale genomic analyses have identified more than 40 genetic risk factors that are associated with AD. In this review, we discuss the functional roles of these genes in synaptogenesis and synaptic functions under physiological conditions, and how their functions are dysregulated in AD. This will provide insights into the contributions of these encoded proteins to synaptic dysfunction during AD pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Yu Fu
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China
| | - Nancy Y Ip
- Division of Life Science, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Molecular Neuroscience Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, Hong Kong Science Park, Hong Kong, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Science, Disease and Drug Development, HKUST Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518057, China.
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5
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Parolo S, Mariotti F, Bora P, Carboni L, Domenici E. Single-cell-led drug repurposing for Alzheimer's disease. Sci Rep 2023; 13:222. [PMID: 36604493 PMCID: PMC9816180 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-27420-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia. Notwithstanding the huge investments in drug development, only one disease-modifying treatment has been recently approved. Here we present a single-cell-led systems biology pipeline for the identification of drug repurposing candidates. Using single-cell RNA sequencing data of brain tissues from patients with Alzheimer's disease, genome-wide association study results, and multiple gene annotation resources, we built a multi-cellular Alzheimer's disease molecular network that we leveraged for gaining cell-specific insights into Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology and for the identification of drug repurposing candidates. Our computational approach pointed out 54 candidate drugs, mainly targeting MAPK and IGF1R signaling pathways, which could be further evaluated for their potential as Alzheimer's disease therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Parolo
- Fondazione the Microsoft Research-University of Trento Centre for Computational and Systems Biology (COSBI), 38068, Rovereto, Italy.
| | - Federica Mariotti
- grid.491181.4Fondazione the Microsoft Research-University of Trento Centre for Computational and Systems Biology (COSBI), 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Pranami Bora
- grid.491181.4Fondazione the Microsoft Research-University of Trento Centre for Computational and Systems Biology (COSBI), 38068 Rovereto, Italy
| | - Lucia Carboni
- grid.6292.f0000 0004 1757 1758Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Enrico Domenici
- grid.491181.4Fondazione the Microsoft Research-University of Trento Centre for Computational and Systems Biology (COSBI), 38068 Rovereto, Italy ,grid.11696.390000 0004 1937 0351Department of Cellular, Computational and Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, 38123 Trento, Italy
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6
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Limone A, Veneruso I, D'Argenio V, Sarnataro D. Endosomal trafficking and related genetic underpinnings as a hub in Alzheimer's disease. J Cell Physiol 2022; 237:3803-3815. [PMID: 35994714 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.30864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Revised: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Genetic studies support the amyloid cascade as the leading hypothesis for the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although significant efforts have been made in untangling the amyloid and other pathological events in AD, ongoing interventions for AD have not been revealed efficacious for slowing down disease progression. Recent advances in the field of genetics have shed light on the etiology of AD, identifying numerous risk genes associated with late-onset AD, including genes related to intracellular endosomal trafficking. Some of the bases for the development of AD may be explained by the recently emerging AD genetic "hubs," which include the processing pathway of amyloid precursor protein and the endocytic pathway. The endosomal genetic hub may represent a common pathway through which many pathological effects can be mediated and novel, alternative biological targets could be identified for therapeutic interventions. The aim of this review is to focus on the genetic and biological aspects of the endosomal compartments related to AD progression. We report recent studies which describe how changes in endosomal genetics impact on functional events, such as the amyloidogenic and non-amyloidogenic processing, degradative pathways, and the importance of receptors related to endocytic trafficking, including the 37/67 kDa laminin-1 receptor ribosomal protein SA, and their implications for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Limone
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University, Napoli, Italy
| | - Iolanda Veneruso
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University, Napoli, Italy.,CEINGE-Biotecnologie Avanzate, Napoli, Italy
| | - Valeria D'Argenio
- CEINGE-Biotecnologie Avanzate, Napoli, Italy.,Department of Human Sciences and Quality of Life Promotion, San Raffaele Open University, Roma, Italy
| | - Daniela Sarnataro
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Medical Biotechnology, Federico II University, Napoli, Italy
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7
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Yi SS. Disease predictability review using common biomarkers appearing in diabetic nephropathy and neurodegeneration of experimental animals. Lab Anim Res 2022; 38:3. [PMID: 35130988 PMCID: PMC8822750 DOI: 10.1186/s42826-022-00113-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It is recently known that the kidney and brain have a very rich distribution of blood vessels, and the histological structures of micro-vessels are very similar. Therefore, a number of studies have reported that renal diseases like chronic kidney disease (CKD) caused by various causes have a very close relationship with the occurrence of neurodegenerative diseases. On the other hand, since diabetic nephropathy, which is caused by chronic inflammation, such as diabetes, often shows very different prognoses even in patients at the same clinical stage, the judgment of their disease prognosis will have a critical meaning in clinical practice. Recently, many studies of cerebro-renal interaction have been reported using experimental animals. The discovery of common biomarkers found in both organs can predict the prognosis of renal disease and the possibility of neurodegenerative disease progression. More associations can be found with novel common biomarkers found in the brain and kidneys that seem entirely unrelated. In that case, it will ultimately be a research field that can expand predictive models of patients' complex diseases through these biomarkers in clinical practice. It is presented biomarkers such as α-klotho, Nephrin, and Synaptopodin. These markers are observed in both the brain and kidney, and it has been reported that both organs show a very significant change in function according to their expression. Even though the brain and kidneys perform very independent functions, it is thought that it has a crucial diagnostic significance that the genes commonly expressed in both organs are functionally effective. With the discovery of novel biomarkers that share cerebro-renal interactions at the early stage of diabetic nephropathy, physicians can predict post-clinical symptoms and prevent severe neurodegenerative and cerebrovascular diseases. Therefore, further study for the diseases of these two organs in laboratory animals means that the field of research on this relationship can be expanded in the future. In the future, more attention and research will be needed on the possibility of prediction for the prevention of neurological diseases caused by CKD in disease animal models.
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8
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Tesi N, Hulsman M, van der Lee SJ, Jansen IE, Stringa N, van Schoor NM, Scheltens P, van der Flier WM, Huisman M, Reinders MJT, Holstege H. The Effect of Alzheimer's Disease-Associated Genetic Variants on Longevity. Front Genet 2022; 12:748781. [PMID: 34992629 PMCID: PMC8724252 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.748781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human longevity is influenced by the genetic risk of age-related diseases. As Alzheimer’s disease (AD) represents a common condition at old age, an interplay between genetic factors affecting AD and longevity is expected. We explored this interplay by studying the prevalence of AD-associated single-nucleotide-polymorphisms (SNPs) in cognitively healthy centenarians, and replicated findings in a parental-longevity GWAS. We found that 28/38 SNPs that increased AD-risk also associated with lower odds of longevity. For each SNP, we express the imbalance between AD- and longevity-risk as an effect-size distribution. Based on these distributions, we grouped the SNPs in three groups: 17 SNPs increased AD-risk more than they decreased longevity-risk, and were enriched for β-amyloid metabolism and immune signaling; 11 variants reported a larger longevity-effect compared to their AD-effect, were enriched for endocytosis/immune-signaling, and were previously associated with other age-related diseases. Unexpectedly, 10 variants associated with an increased risk of AD and higher odds of longevity. Altogether, we show that different AD-associated SNPs have different effects on longevity, including SNPs that may confer general neuro-protective functions against AD and other age-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccolò Tesi
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Alzheimer Centre, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Marc Hulsman
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Alzheimer Centre, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Sven J van der Lee
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Alzheimer Centre, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Iris E Jansen
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Complex Trait Genetics, Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, VU, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Najada Stringa
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Natasja M van Schoor
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Philip Scheltens
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Wiesje M van der Flier
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Department of Epidemiology and Data Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Martijn Huisman
- Department of Epidemiology and Data Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Marcel J T Reinders
- Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Henne Holstege
- Section Genomics of Neurodegenerative Diseases and Aging, Department of Clinical Genetics, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Alzheimer Centre, Department of Neurology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.,Delft Bioinformatics Lab, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
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9
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Rabaneda-Bueno R, Mena-Montes B, Torres-Castro S, Torres-Carrillo N, Torres-Carrillo NM. Advances in Genetics and Epigenetic Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease: A Notion for Therapeutic Treatment. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:1959. [PMID: 34946908 PMCID: PMC8700838 DOI: 10.3390/genes12121959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Revised: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a disabling neurodegenerative disorder that leads to long-term functional and cognitive impairment and greatly reduces life expectancy. Early genetic studies focused on tracking variations in genome-wide DNA sequences discovered several polymorphisms and novel susceptibility genes associated with AD. However, despite the numerous risk factors already identified, there is still no fully satisfactory explanation for the mechanisms underlying the onset of the disease. Also, as with other complex human diseases, the causes of low heritability are unclear. Epigenetic mechanisms, in which changes in gene expression do not depend on changes in genotype, have attracted considerable attention in recent years and are key to understanding the processes that influence age-related changes and various neurological diseases. With the recent use of massive sequencing techniques, methods for studying epigenome variations in AD have also evolved tremendously, allowing the discovery of differentially expressed disease traits under different conditions and experimental settings. This is important for understanding disease development and for unlocking new potential AD therapies. In this work, we outline the genomic and epigenomic components involved in the initiation and development of AD and identify potentially effective therapeutic targets for disease control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Rabaneda-Bueno
- Biology Centre of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Institute of Hydrobiology, 37005 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
- School of Biological Sciences, James Clerk Maxwell Building, The King’s Buildings Campus, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
| | - Beatriz Mena-Montes
- Laboratorio de Biología del Envejecimiento, Departamento de Investigación Básica, Instituto Nacional de Geriatría, Mexico City 10200, Mexico;
| | - Sara Torres-Castro
- Departamento de Epidemiología Demográfica y Determinantes Sociales, Instituto Nacional de Geriatría, Mexico City 10200, Mexico;
| | - Norma Torres-Carrillo
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico; (N.T.-C.); (N.M.T.-C.)
| | - Nora Magdalena Torres-Carrillo
- Departamento de Microbiología y Patología, Centro Universitario de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara 44340, Jalisco, Mexico; (N.T.-C.); (N.M.T.-C.)
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10
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Szabo MP, Mishra S, Knupp A, Young JE. The role of Alzheimer's disease risk genes in endolysosomal pathways. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 162:105576. [PMID: 34871734 PMCID: PMC9071255 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
There is ample pathological and biological evidence for endo-lysosomal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and emerging genetic studies repeatedly implicate endo-lysosomal genes as associated with increased AD risk. The endo-lysosomal network (ELN) is essential for all cell types of the central nervous system (CNS), yet each unique cell type utilizes cellular trafficking differently (see Fig. 1). Challenges ahead involve defining the role of AD associated genes in the functionality of the endo-lysosomal network (ELN) and understanding how this impacts the cellular dysfunction that occurs in AD. This is critical to the development of new therapeutics that will impact, and potentially reverse, early disease phenotypes. Here we review some early evidence of ELN dysfunction in AD pathogenesis and discuss the role of selected AD-associated risk genes in this pathway. In particular, we review genes that have been replicated in multiple genome-wide association studies(Andrews et al., 2020; Jansen et al., 2019; Kunkle et al., 2019; Lambert et al., 2013; Marioni et al., 2018) and reviewed in(Andrews et al., 2020) that have defined roles in the endo-lysosomal network. These genes include SORL1, an AD risk gene harboring both rare and common variants associated with AD risk and a role in trafficking cargo, including APP, through the ELN; BIN1, a regulator of clathrin-mediated endocytosis whose expression correlates with Tau pathology; CD2AP, an AD risk gene with roles in endosome morphology and recycling; PICALM, a clathrin-binding protein that mediates trafficking between the trans-Golgi network and endosomes; and Ephrin Receptors, a family of receptor tyrosine kinases with AD associations and interactions with other AD risk genes. Finally, we will discuss how human cellular models can elucidate cell-type specific differences in ELN dysfunction in AD and aid in therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcell P Szabo
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America
| | - Swati Mishra
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America
| | - Allison Knupp
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America
| | - Jessica E Young
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America; Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98109, United States of America.
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11
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Gockley J, Montgomery KS, Poehlman WL, Wiley JC, Liu Y, Gerasimov E, Greenwood AK, Sieberts SK, Wingo AP, Wingo TS, Mangravite LM, Logsdon BA. Multi-tissue neocortical transcriptome-wide association study implicates 8 genes across 6 genomic loci in Alzheimer's disease. Genome Med 2021; 13:76. [PMID: 33947463 PMCID: PMC8094491 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-021-00890-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an incurable neurodegenerative disease currently affecting 1.75% of the US population, with projected growth to 3.46% by 2050. Identifying common genetic variants driving differences in transcript expression that confer AD risk is necessary to elucidate AD mechanism and develop therapeutic interventions. We modify the FUSION transcriptome-wide association study (TWAS) pipeline to ingest gene expression values from multiple neocortical regions. METHODS A combined dataset of 2003 genotypes clustered to 1000 Genomes individuals from Utah with Northern and Western European ancestry (CEU) was used to construct a training set of 790 genotypes paired to 888 RNASeq profiles from temporal cortex (TCX = 248), prefrontal cortex (FP = 50), inferior frontal gyrus (IFG = 41), superior temporal gyrus (STG = 34), parahippocampal cortex (PHG = 34), and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC = 461). Following within-tissue normalization and covariate adjustment, predictive weights to impute expression components based on a gene's surrounding cis-variants were trained. The FUSION pipeline was modified to support input of pre-scaled expression values and support cross validation with a repeated measure design arising from the presence of multiple transcriptome samples from the same individual across different tissues. RESULTS Cis-variant architecture alone was informative to train weights and impute expression for 6780 (49.67%) autosomal genes, the majority of which significantly correlated with gene expression; FDR < 5%: N = 6775 (99.92%), Bonferroni: N = 6716 (99.06%). Validation of weights in 515 matched genotype to RNASeq profiles from the CommonMind Consortium (CMC) was (72.14%) in DLPFC profiles. Association of imputed expression components from all 2003 genotype profiles yielded 8 genes significantly associated with AD (FDR < 0.05): APOC1, EED, CD2AP, CEACAM19, CLPTM1, MTCH2, TREM2, and KNOP1. CONCLUSIONS We provide evidence of cis-genetic variation conferring AD risk through 8 genes across six distinct genomic loci. Moreover, we provide expression weights for 6780 genes as a valuable resource to the community, which can be abstracted across the neocortex and a wide range of neuronal phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Yue Liu
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Ekaterina Gerasimov
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | | | | | - Aliza P Wingo
- Division of Mental Health, Atlanta VA Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Thomas S Wingo
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | | | - Benjamin A Logsdon
- Cajal Neuroscience, 1616 Eastlake Avenue East, Suite 208, Seattle, WA, 98102, USA.
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Vidal C, Zhang L. An Analysis of the Neurological and Molecular Alterations Underlying the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:cells10030546. [PMID: 33806317 PMCID: PMC7998384 DOI: 10.3390/cells10030546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, neurofibrillary tangles, and neuronal loss. Unfortunately, despite decades of studies being performed on these histological alterations, there is no effective treatment or cure for AD. Identifying the molecular characteristics of the disease is imperative to understanding the pathogenesis of AD. Furthermore, uncovering the key causative alterations of AD can be valuable in developing models for AD treatment. Several alterations have been implicated in driving this disease, including blood–brain barrier dysfunction, hypoxia, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, glucose hypometabolism, and altered heme homeostasis. Although these alterations have all been associated with the progression of AD, the root cause of AD has not been identified. Intriguingly, recent studies have pinpointed dysfunctional heme metabolism as a culprit of the development of AD. Heme has been shown to be central in neuronal function, mitochondrial respiration, and oxidative stress. Therefore, dysregulation of heme homeostasis may play a pivotal role in the manifestation of AD and its various alterations. This review will discuss the most common neurological and molecular alterations associated with AD and point out the critical role heme plays in the development of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Li Zhang
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-972-883-5757
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13
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Kurakin A, Bredesen DE. Alzheimer's disease as a systems network disorder: chronic stress/dyshomeostasis, innate immunity, and genetics. Aging (Albany NY) 2020; 12:17815-17844. [PMID: 32957083 PMCID: PMC7585078 DOI: 10.18632/aging.103883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Ineffective results of clinical trials of over 200 anti-Alzheimer's drug candidates, with a 99.6% attrition rate, suggest that the current paradigm of Alzheimer's disease (AD) may be incomplete, necessitating exploration of alternative and complementary frameworks.Using algorithms for hypothesis independent search and expert-assisted synthesis of heterogeneous data, we attempted to reconcile multimodal clinical profiles of early-stage AD patients and accumulated research data within a parsimonious framework. Results of our analysis suggest that Alzheimer's may not be a brain disease but a progressive system-level network disorder, which is driven by chronic network stress and dyshomeostasis. The latter can be caused by various endogenous and exogenous factors, such as chronic inflammatory conditions, infections, vascular dysfunction, head trauma, environmental toxicity, and immune disorders. Whether originating in the brain or on the periphery, chronic stress, toxicity, and inflammation are communicated to the central nervous system (CNS) via humoral and neural routes, preferentially targeting high-centrality regulatory nodes and circuits of the nervous system, and eventually manifesting as a neurodegenerative CNS disease.In this report, we outline an alternative perspective on AD as a systems network disorder and discuss biochemical and genetic evidence suggesting the central role of chronic tissue injury/dyshomeostasis, innate immune reactivity, and inflammation in the etiopathobiology of Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei Kurakin
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
| | - Dale E. Bredesen
- Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA,Buck Institute for Research on Aging, Novato, CA 94945, USA
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14
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Pharmacologically reversible zonation-dependent endothelial cell transcriptomic changes with neurodegenerative disease associations in the aged brain. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4413. [PMID: 32887883 PMCID: PMC7474063 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18249-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The molecular signatures of cells in the brain have been revealed in unprecedented detail, yet the ageing-associated genome-wide expression changes that may contribute to neurovascular dysfunction in neurodegenerative diseases remain elusive. Here, we report zonation-dependent transcriptomic changes in aged mouse brain endothelial cells (ECs), which prominently implicate altered immune/cytokine signaling in ECs of all vascular segments, and functional changes impacting the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and glucose/energy metabolism especially in capillary ECs (capECs). An overrepresentation of Alzheimer disease (AD) GWAS genes is evident among the human orthologs of the differentially expressed genes of aged capECs, while comparative analysis revealed a subset of concordantly downregulated, functionally important genes in human AD brains. Treatment with exenatide, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, strongly reverses aged mouse brain EC transcriptomic changes and BBB leakage, with associated attenuation of microglial priming. We thus revealed transcriptomic alterations underlying brain EC ageing that are complex yet pharmacologically reversible. Blood–brain barrier dysfunction occurs in ageing and in neurodegenerative diseases. Here, the authors use scRNA-seq to identify transcriptomic changes in endothelial cell subtypes in the aged mouse brain, some of which may generalize to human and can be reversed by treatment with a GLP-1R agonist.
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15
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Wang Y, Brieher WM. CD2AP links actin to PI3 kinase activity to extend epithelial cell height and constrain cell area. J Cell Biol 2020; 219:jcb.201812087. [PMID: 31723006 PMCID: PMC7039212 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201812087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial cells are categorized as cuboidal versus squamous based on the height of the lateral membrane. Wang and Brieher show that CD2AP links PI3K activity to actin assembly to extend the height of the lateral membrane. Maintaining the correct ratio of apical, basal, and lateral membrane domains is important for epithelial physiology. Here, we show that CD2AP is a critical determinant of epithelial membrane proportions. Depletion of CD2AP or phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) inhibition results in loss of F-actin and expansion of apical–basal domains, which comes at the expense of lateral membrane height in MDCK cells. We demonstrate that the SH3 domains of CD2AP bind to PI3K and are necessary for PI3K activity along lateral membranes and constraining cell area. Tethering the SH3 domains of CD2AP or p110γ to the membrane is sufficient to rescue CD2AP-knockdown phenotypes. CD2AP and PI3K are both upstream and downstream of actin polymerization. Since CD2AP binds to both actin filaments and PI3K, CD2AP might bridge actin assembly to PI3K activation to form a positive feedback loop to support lateral membrane extension. Our results provide insight into the squamous to cuboidal to columnar epithelial transitions seen in complex epithelial tissues in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuou Wang
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
| | - William M Brieher
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL
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16
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Li Y, Wang B, Wang ZW, Huang Y, Jian JC, Lu YS. Molecular cloning, characterization and expression profiles of CD2AP in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) responding to Streptococcus agalactiae infection and interaction with CD2 cytoplasmic segment. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 101:205-215. [PMID: 32247045 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.03.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The interaction between CD2-associated protein (CD2AP) and CD2 plays a vital role in lymphocyte adhesion and T cells activation in mammals. In this study, a CD2AP gene (GenBank accession number: MK579862; designated as On-CD2AP) was identified from tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Sequence analysis showed that On-CD2AP protein shares high similarity with mammals, including three Src homology 3 (SH3) domains, a section of poly proline motif and a coiled coil region. Transcription levels of On-CD2AP were detected in nine tissues of healthy Nile tilapia, and the highest expression levels were detected in the spleen and gill. On-CD2AP were significantly up-regulated in thymus, head kidney and brain after infected by Streptococcus agalactiae, as well as in head kidney leukocytes (HKLs) with LPS and LTA stimulation. Moreover, a section conserved pro-rich motif that are responsible for binding of CD2 to CD2AP were found in the CD2 cytoplasmic sequence of Nile tilapia (On-CD2C). A weak interaction between On-CD2AP and On-CD2C was proved by yeast two-hybrid assay. In addition, the recombinant proteins of CD2AP-His (rOn-CD2AP-His) and GST-CD2C (GST-rOn-CD2C) were obtained through prokaryotic expression system. His pull-down assay showed that rOn-CD2AP-His and GST-rOn-CD2C could bind to each other. These findings indicate that CD2AP is crucial in immune response during S.agalactiae infection, and the mechanism of interaction between CD2AP and CD2 is conservative in Nile tilapia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Li
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Aquatic Animal Health Assessment, Shenzhen, 518120, Guangdong, China; Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhanjiang), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Bei Wang
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Aquatic Animal Health Assessment, Shenzhen, 518120, Guangdong, China; Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhanjiang), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Zhanjiang, China; Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.
| | - Zhi-Wen Wang
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Aquatic Animal Health Assessment, Shenzhen, 518120, Guangdong, China; Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhanjiang), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Zhanjiang, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Aquatic Animal Health Assessment, Shenzhen, 518120, Guangdong, China; Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhanjiang), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Zhanjiang, China; Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Ji-Chang Jian
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Aquatic Animal Health Assessment, Shenzhen, 518120, Guangdong, China; Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Yi-Shan Lu
- Shenzhen Institute of Guangdong Ocean University, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Aquatic Animal Health Assessment, Shenzhen, 518120, Guangdong, China; Fisheries College of Guangdong Ocean University, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhanjiang), Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Pathogenic Biology and Epidemiology for Aquatic Economic Animals & Key Laboratory of Control for Diseases of Aquatic Economic Animals of Guangdong Higher Education Institutes, Zhanjiang, China; Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, China; Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, China.
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17
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Olin JW, Di Narzo AF, d’Escamard V, Kadian-Dodov D, Cheng H, Georges A, King A, Thomas A, Barwari T, Michelis KC, Bouchareb R, Bander E, Anyanwu A, Stelzer P, Filsoufi F, Florman S, Civelek M, Debette S, Jeunemaitre X, Björkegren JLM, Mayr M, Bouatia-Naji N, Hao K, Kovacic JC. A plasma proteogenomic signature for fibromuscular dysplasia. Cardiovasc Res 2020; 116:63-77. [PMID: 31424497 PMCID: PMC6918065 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvz219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 08/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD) is a poorly understood disease that predominantly affects women during middle-life, with features that include stenosis, aneurysm, and dissection of medium-large arteries. Recently, plasma proteomics has emerged as an important means to understand cardiovascular diseases. Our objectives were: (i) to characterize plasma proteins and determine if any exhibit differential abundance in FMD subjects vs. matched healthy controls and (ii) to leverage these protein data to conduct systems analyses to provide biologic insights on FMD, and explore if this could be developed into a blood-based FMD test. METHODS AND RESULTS Females with 'multifocal' FMD and matched healthy controls underwent clinical phenotyping, dermal biopsy, and blood draw. Using dual-capture proximity extension assay and nuclear magnetic resonance-spectroscopy, we evaluated plasma levels of 981 proteins and 31 lipid sub-classes, respectively. In a discovery cohort (Ncases = 90, Ncontrols = 100), we identified 105 proteins and 16 lipid sub-classes (predominantly triglycerides and fatty acids) with differential plasma abundance in FMD cases vs. controls. In an independent cohort (Ncases = 23, Ncontrols = 28), we successfully validated 37 plasma proteins and 10 lipid sub-classes with differential abundance. Among these, 5/37 proteins exhibited genetic control and Bayesian analyses identified 3 of these as potential upstream drivers of FMD. In a 3rd cohort (Ncases = 506, Ncontrols = 876) the genetic locus of one of these upstream disease drivers, CD2-associated protein (CD2AP), was independently validated as being associated with risk of having FMD (odds ratios = 1.36; P = 0.0003). Immune-fluorescence staining identified that CD2AP is expressed by the endothelium of medium-large arteries. Finally, machine learning trained on the discovery cohort was used to develop a test for FMD. When independently applied to the validation cohort, the test showed a c-statistic of 0.73 and sensitivity of 78.3%. CONCLUSION FMD exhibits a plasma proteogenomic and lipid signature that includes potential causative disease drivers, and which holds promise for developing a blood-based test for this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey W Olin
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Antonio F Di Narzo
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Valentina d’Escamard
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Daniella Kadian-Dodov
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Haoxiang Cheng
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Adrien Georges
- INSERM, UMR970 Paris Cardiovascular Research Center (PARCC), Paris, France
- Paris-Descartes University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75006, France
| | - Annette King
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Allison Thomas
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Temo Barwari
- King’s British Heart Foundation Centre, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Katherine C Michelis
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Rihab Bouchareb
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Emir Bander
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Anelechi Anyanwu
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Paul Stelzer
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Farzan Filsoufi
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Sander Florman
- Recanati-Miller Transplantation Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mete Civelek
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Stephanie Debette
- Bordeaux Population Health Research Centre, INSERM U1219, University of Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
- Memory Clinic, Department of Neurology and Institute for Neurodegenerative Diseases, CHU de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Xavier Jeunemaitre
- INSERM, UMR970 Paris Cardiovascular Research Center (PARCC), Paris, France
- Paris-Descartes University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75006, France
- Assistance Publique-Hôpital De Paris, Department of Genetics and Referral Center for Rare Vascular Diseases, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Paris, F-75015, France
| | - Johan L M Björkegren
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
- Integrated Cardio Metabolic Centre, Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska Universitetssjukhuset, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Manuel Mayr
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
- King’s British Heart Foundation Centre, King’s College London, London, UK
| | - Nabila Bouatia-Naji
- INSERM, UMR970 Paris Cardiovascular Research Center (PARCC), Paris, France
- Paris-Descartes University, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris 75006, France
| | - Ke Hao
- Department of Genetics & Genomic Sciences, Institute of Genomics and Multiscale Biology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, USA
| | - Jason C Kovacic
- The Zena and Michael A. Wiener Cardiovascular Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, One Gustave L. Levy Place, Box 1030, New York, NY 10029, USA
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Pandey RS, Graham L, Uyar A, Preuss C, Howell GR, Carter GW. Genetic perturbations of disease risk genes in mice capture transcriptomic signatures of late-onset Alzheimer's disease. Mol Neurodegener 2019; 14:50. [PMID: 31878951 PMCID: PMC6933917 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-019-0351-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND New genetic and genomic resources have identified multiple genetic risk factors for late-onset Alzheimer's disease (LOAD) and characterized this common dementia at the molecular level. Experimental studies in model organisms can validate these associations and elucidate the links between specific genetic factors and transcriptomic signatures. Animal models based on LOAD-associated genes can potentially connect common genetic variation with LOAD transcriptomes, thereby providing novel insights into basic biological mechanisms underlying the disease. METHODS We performed RNA-Seq on whole brain samples from a panel of six-month-old female mice, each carrying one of the following mutations: homozygous deletions of Apoe and Clu; hemizygous deletions of Bin1 and Cd2ap; and a transgenic APOEε4. Similar data from a transgenic APP/PS1 model was included for comparison to early-onset variant effects. Weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) was used to identify modules of correlated genes and each module was tested for differential expression by strain. We then compared mouse modules with human postmortem brain modules from the Accelerating Medicine's Partnership for AD (AMP-AD) to determine the LOAD-related processes affected by each genetic risk factor. RESULTS Mouse modules were significantly enriched in multiple AD-related processes, including immune response, inflammation, lipid processing, endocytosis, and synaptic cell function. WGCNA modules were significantly associated with Apoe-/-, APOEε4, Clu-/-, and APP/PS1 mouse models. Apoe-/-, GFAP-driven APOEε4, and APP/PS1 driven modules overlapped with AMP-AD inflammation and microglial modules; Clu-/- driven modules overlapped with synaptic modules; and APP/PS1 modules separately overlapped with lipid-processing and metabolism modules. CONCLUSIONS This study of genetic mouse models provides a basis to dissect the role of AD risk genes in relevant AD pathologies. We determined that different genetic perturbations affect different molecular mechanisms comprising AD, and mapped specific effects to each risk gene. Our approach provides a platform for further exploration into the causes and progression of AD by assessing animal models at different ages and/or with different combinations of LOAD risk variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi S. Pandey
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT USA
| | - Leah Graham
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME USA
- Sackler School of graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA USA
| | - Asli Uyar
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT USA
| | | | - Gareth R. Howell
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME USA
- Sackler School of graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA USA
| | - Gregory W. Carter
- The Jackson Laboratory for Genomic Medicine, Farmington, CT USA
- The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME USA
- Sackler School of graduate Biomedical Sciences, Tufts University, Boston, MA USA
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19
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Zhao L, Matloff W, Ning K, Kim H, Dinov ID, Toga AW. Age-Related Differences in Brain Morphology and the Modifiers in Middle-Aged and Older Adults. Cereb Cortex 2019; 29:4169-4193. [PMID: 30535294 PMCID: PMC6931275 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhy300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain structural morphology differs with age. This study examined age-differences in surface-based morphometric measures of cortical thickness, volume, and surface area in a well-defined sample of 8137 generally healthy UK Biobank participants aged 45-79 years. We illustrate that the complexity of age-related brain morphological differences may be related to the laminar organization and regional evolutionary history of the cortex, and age of about 60 is a break point for increasing negative associations between age and brain morphology in Alzheimer's disease (AD)-prone areas. We also report novel relationships of age-related cortical differences with individual factors of sex, cognitive functions of fluid intelligence, reaction time and prospective memory, cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, sleep disruption, genetic markers of apolipoprotein E, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, catechol-O-methyltransferase, and several genome-wide association study loci for AD and further reveal joint effects of cognitive functions, lifestyle behaviors, and education on age-related cortical differences. These findings provide one of the most extensive characterizations of age associations with major brain morphological measures and improve our understanding of normal structural brain aging and its potential modifiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Zhao
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - William Matloff
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Kaida Ning
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Hosung Kim
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Ivo D Dinov
- Statistics Online Computational Resource, HBBS, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2003, USA
- Michigan Institute for Data Science, HBBS, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1042, USA
| | - Arthur W Toga
- Laboratory of Neuro Imaging, USC Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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20
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Ojelade SA, Lee TV, Giagtzoglou N, Yu L, Ugur B, Li Y, Duraine L, Zuo Z, Petyuk V, De Jager PL, Bennett DA, Arenkiel BR, Bellen HJ, Shulman JM. cindr, the Drosophila Homolog of the CD2AP Alzheimer's Disease Risk Gene, Is Required for Synaptic Transmission and Proteostasis. Cell Rep 2019; 28:1799-1813.e5. [PMID: 31412248 PMCID: PMC6703184 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Alzheimer's disease (AD) susceptibility gene, CD2-associated protein (CD2AP), encodes an actin binding adaptor protein, but its function in the nervous system is largely unknown. Loss of the Drosophila ortholog cindr enhances neurotoxicity of human Tau, which forms neurofibrillary tangle pathology in AD. We show that Cindr is expressed in neurons and present at synaptic terminals. cindr mutants show impairments in synapse maturation and both synaptic vesicle recycling and release. Cindr associates and genetically interacts with 14-3-3ζ, regulates the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and affects turnover of Synapsin and the plasma membrane calcium ATPase (PMCA). Loss of cindr elevates PMCA levels and reduces cytosolic calcium. Studies of Cd2ap null mice support a conserved role in synaptic proteostasis, and CD2AP protein levels are inversely related to Synapsin abundance in human postmortem brains. Our results reveal CD2AP neuronal requirements with relevance to AD susceptibility, including for proteostasis, calcium handling, and synaptic structure and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shamsideen A Ojelade
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Tom V Lee
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Nikolaos Giagtzoglou
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lei Yu
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Berrak Ugur
- Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Yarong Li
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Lita Duraine
- Department of Molecular & Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Zhongyuan Zuo
- Department of Molecular & Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Vlad Petyuk
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, USA
| | - Philip L De Jager
- Center for Translational & Computational Neuroimmunology, Department of Neurology and the Taub Institute, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, NY 10032, USA; Cell Circuits Program, Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - David A Bennett
- Rush Alzheimer's Disease Center, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Benjamin R Arenkiel
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular & Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Hugo J Bellen
- Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular & Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Joshua M Shulman
- Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Jan and Dan Duncan Neurologic Research Institute, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Program in Developmental Biology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Molecular & Human Genetics, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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21
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Tao QQ, Chen YC, Wu ZY. The role of CD2AP in the Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. Aging Dis 2019; 10:901-907. [PMID: 31440393 PMCID: PMC6675523 DOI: 10.14336/ad.2018.1025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease characterized by irreversible decline in cognition with unclear pathogenesis. Recently, accumulating evidence has revealed that CD2 associated protein (CD2AP), a scaffolding molecule regulates signal transduction and cytoskeletal molecules, is implicated in AD pathogenesis. Several single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in CD2AP gene are associated with higher risk for AD and mRNA levels of CD2AP are decreased in peripheral lymphocytes of sporadic AD patients. Furthermore, CD2AP loss of function is linked to enhanced Aβ production, Tau-induced neurotoxicity, abnormal neurite structure modulation and reduced blood-brain barrier integrity. This review is to summarize the recent discoveries about the genetics and known functions of CD2AP. The recent evidence concerning the roles of CD2AP in the AD pathogenesis is summarized and CD2AP can be a promising therapeutic target for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing-Qing Tao
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in Second Affiliated Hospital, and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu-Chao Chen
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in Second Affiliated Hospital, and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Ying Wu
- Department of Neurology and Research Center of Neurology in Second Affiliated Hospital, and Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
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22
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Van Acker ZP, Bretou M, Annaert W. Endo-lysosomal dysregulations and late-onset Alzheimer's disease: impact of genetic risk factors. Mol Neurodegener 2019; 14:20. [PMID: 31159836 PMCID: PMC6547588 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-019-0323-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence supports that cellular dysregulations in the degradative routes contribute to the initiation and progression of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease. Autophagy and endolysosomal homeostasis need to be maintained throughout life as they are major cellular mechanisms involved in both the production of toxic amyloid peptides and the clearance of misfolded or aggregated proteins. As such, alterations in endolysosomal and autophagic flux, as a measure of degradation activity in these routes or compartments, may directly impact as well on disease-related mechanisms such as amyloid-β clearance through the blood-brain-barrier and the interneuronal spreading of amyloid-β and/or Tau seeds, affecting synaptic function, plasticity and metabolism. The emerging of several genetic risk factors for late-onset Alzheimer's disease that are functionally related to endocytic transport regulation, including cholesterol metabolism and clearance, supports the notion that in particular the autophagy/lysosomal flux might become more vulnerable during ageing thereby contributing to disease onset. In this review we discuss our current knowledge of the risk genes APOE4, BIN1, CD2AP, PICALM, PLD3 and TREM2 and their impact on endolysosomal (dys)regulations in the light of late-onset Alzheimer's disease pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoë P. Van Acker
- Laboratory for Membrane Trafficking, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Gasthuisberg, O&N4, Rm. 7.159, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marine Bretou
- Laboratory for Membrane Trafficking, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Gasthuisberg, O&N4, Rm. 7.159, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Wim Annaert
- Laboratory for Membrane Trafficking, VIB Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Gasthuisberg, O&N4, Rm. 7.159, Herestraat 49, B-3000 Leuven, Belgium
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23
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Villaseñor R, Lampe J, Schwaninger M, Collin L. Intracellular transport and regulation of transcytosis across the blood-brain barrier. Cell Mol Life Sci 2019; 76:1081-1092. [PMID: 30523362 PMCID: PMC6513804 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2982-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Revised: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier is a dynamic multicellular interface that regulates the transport of molecules between the blood circulation and the brain parenchyma. Proteins and peptides required for brain homeostasis cross the blood-brain barrier via transcellular transport, but the mechanisms that control this pathway are not well characterized. Here, we highlight recent studies on intracellular transport and transcytosis across the blood-brain barrier. Endothelial cells at the blood-brain barrier possess an intricate endosomal network that allows sorting to diverse cellular destinations. Internalization from the plasma membrane, endosomal sorting, and exocytosis all contribute to the regulation of transcytosis. Transmembrane receptors and blood-borne proteins utilize different pathways and mechanisms for transport across brain endothelial cells. Alterations to intracellular transport in brain endothelial cells during diseases of the central nervous system contribute to blood-brain barrier disruption and disease progression. Harnessing the intracellular sorting mechanisms at the blood-brain barrier can help improve delivery of biotherapeutics to the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Villaseñor
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development (pRED), Pharmaceutical Sciences, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Josephine Lampe
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- DZHK (German Research Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Lübeck/Kiel, Germany
| | - Markus Schwaninger
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
- DZHK (German Research Centre for Cardiovascular Research), Partner Site Hamburg/Lübeck/Kiel, Germany
| | - Ludovic Collin
- Roche Pharma Research and Early Development (pRED), Neuro-Immunology, Roche Innovation Center, Basel, Switzerland.
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24
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Mendoza-Topaz C, Yeow I, Riento K, Nichols BJ. BioID identifies proteins involved in the cell biology of caveolae. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0209856. [PMID: 30589899 PMCID: PMC6307745 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms controlling the abundance and sub-cellular distribution of caveolae are not well described. A first step towards determining such mechanisms would be identification of relevant proteins that interact with known components of caveolae. Here, we applied proximity biotinylation (BioID) to identify a list of proteins that may interact with the caveolar protein cavin1. Screening of these candidates using siRNA to reduce their expression revealed that one of them, CSDE1, regulates the levels of mRNAs and protein expression for multiple components of caveolae. A second candidate, CD2AP, co-precipitated with cavin1. Caveolar proteins were observed in characteristic and previously un-described linear arrays adjacent to cell-cell junctions in both MDCK cells, and in HeLa cells overexpressing an active form of the small GTPase Rac1. CD2AP was required for the recruitment of caveolar proteins to these linear arrays. We conclude that BioID will be useful in identification of new proteins involved in the cell biology of caveolae, and that interaction between CD2AP and cavin1 may have an important role in regulating the sub-cellular distribution of caveolae.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - I. Yeow
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - K. Riento
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - B. J. Nichols
- MRC Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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25
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Moustafa AA, Hassan M, Hewedi DH, Hewedi I, Garami JK, Al Ashwal H, Zaki N, Seo SY, Cutsuridis V, Angulo SL, Natesh JY, Herzallah MM, Frydecka D, Misiak B, Salama M, Mohamed W, El Haj M, Hornberger M. Genetic underpinnings in Alzheimer's disease - a review. Rev Neurosci 2018; 29:21-38. [PMID: 28949931 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2017-0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we discuss the genetic etiologies of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Furthermore, we review genetic links to protein signaling pathways as novel pharmacological targets to treat AD. Moreover, we also discuss the clumps of AD-m ediated genes according to their single nucleotide polymorphism mutations. Rigorous data mining approaches justified the significant role of genes in AD prevalence. Pedigree analysis and twin studies suggest that genetic components are part of the etiology, rather than only being risk factors for AD. The first autosomal dominant mutation in the amyloid precursor protein (APP) gene was described in 1991. Later, AD was also associated with mutated early-onset (presenilin 1/2, PSEN1/2 and APP) and late-onset (apolipoprotein E, ApoE) genes. Genome-wide association and linkage analysis studies with identified multiple genomic areas have implications for the treatment of AD. We conclude this review with future directions and clinical implications of genetic research in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed A Moustafa
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, 48 Martin Pl, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia
| | - Mubashir Hassan
- Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Kongju National University, Gongju, Chungcheongnam 32588, Republic of Korea
| | - Doaa H Hewedi
- Psychogeriatric Research Center, Institute of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Iman Hewedi
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Ain Shams University, Cairo 11566, Egypt
| | - Julia K Garami
- School of Social Sciences and Psychology, Western Sydney University, 48 Martin Pl, Sydney, New South Wales 2000, Australia
| | - Hany Al Ashwal
- College of Information Technology, Department of Computer Science and Software Eng-(CIT), United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Nazar Zaki
- College of Information Technology, Department of Computer Science and Software Eng-(CIT), United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain 15551, United Arab Emirates
| | - Sung-Yum Seo
- Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Kongju National University, Gongju, Chungcheongnam 32588, Republic of Korea
| | - Vassilis Cutsuridis
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas, Nikolaou Plastira 100, GR-70013 Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Sergio L Angulo
- Departments of Physiology/Pharmacology, The Robert F. Furchgott Center for Neural and Behavioral Science, SUNY Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, NY 11203, USA
| | - Joman Y Natesh
- Center for Molecular and Behavioural Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Mohammad M Herzallah
- Center for Molecular and Behavioural Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ 07102, USA
| | - Dorota Frydecka
- Wroclaw Medical University, Department and Clinic of Psychiatry, 50-367 Wrocław, Poland
| | - Błażej Misiak
- Wroclaw Medical University, Department of Genetics, 50-368 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Mohamed Salama
- School of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
| | - Wael Mohamed
- International Islamic University Malaysia, Jalan Gombak, Selangor 53100, Malaysia
| | - Mohamad El Haj
- University of Lille, CNRS, CHU Lille, UMR 9193 - SCALab - Sciences Cognitive Sciences Affectives, F-59000 Lille, France
| | - Michael Hornberger
- Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7TJ, UK
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26
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Guimas Almeida C, Sadat Mirfakhar F, Perdigão C, Burrinha T. Impact of late-onset Alzheimer's genetic risk factors on beta-amyloid endocytic production. Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:2577-2589. [PMID: 29704008 PMCID: PMC11105284 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-018-2825-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The increased production of the 42 aminoacids long beta-amyloid (Aβ42) peptide has been established as a causal mechanism of the familial early onset Alzheimer's disease (AD). In contrast, the causal mechanisms of the late-onset AD (LOAD), that affects most AD patients, remain to be established. Indeed, Aβ42 accumulation has been detected more than 30 years before diagnosis. Thus, the mechanisms that control Aβ accumulation in LOAD likely go awry long before pathogenesis becomes detectable. Early on, APOE4 was identified as the biggest genetic risk factor for LOAD. However, since APOE4 is not present in all LOAD patients, genome-wide association studies of thousands of LOAD patients were undertaken to identify other genetic variants that could explain the development of LOAD. PICALM, BIN1, CD2AP, SORL1, and PLD3 are now with APOE4 among the identified genes at highest risk in LOAD that have been implicated in Aβ42 production. Recent evidence indicates that the regulation of the endocytic trafficking of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and/or its secretases to and from sorting endosomes is determinant for Aβ42 production. Thus, here, we will review the described mechanisms, whereby these genetic risk factors can contribute to the enhanced endocytic production of Aβ42. Dissecting causal LOAD mechanisms of Aβ42 accumulation, underlying the contribution of each genetic risk factor, will be required to identify therapeutic targets for novel personalized preventive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cláudia Guimas Almeida
- Neuronal Trafficking in Aging Lab, CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo Mártires da Pátria, 130, 1169-056, Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Farzaneh Sadat Mirfakhar
- Neuronal Trafficking in Aging Lab, CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo Mártires da Pátria, 130, 1169-056, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Catarina Perdigão
- Neuronal Trafficking in Aging Lab, CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo Mártires da Pátria, 130, 1169-056, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Tatiana Burrinha
- Neuronal Trafficking in Aging Lab, CEDOC, Chronic Diseases Research Centre, NOVA Medical School|Faculdade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, Campo Mártires da Pátria, 130, 1169-056, Lisbon, Portugal
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27
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Pimenova AA, Raj T, Goate AM. Untangling Genetic Risk for Alzheimer's Disease. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 83:300-310. [PMID: 28666525 PMCID: PMC5699970 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a genetically heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorder caused by fully penetrant single gene mutations in a minority of cases, while the majority of cases are sporadic or show modest familial clustering. These cases are of late onset and likely result from the interaction of many genes and the environment. More than 30 loci have been implicated in AD by a combination of linkage, genome-wide association, and whole genome/exome sequencing. We have learned from these studies that perturbations in endolysosomal, lipid metabolism, and immune response pathways substantially contribute to sporadic AD pathogenesis. We review here current knowledge about functions of AD susceptibility genes, highlighting cells of the myeloid lineage as drivers of at least part of the genetic component in late-onset AD. Although targeted resequencing utilized for the identification of causal variants has discovered coding mutations in some AD-associated genes, a lot of risk variants lie in noncoding regions. Here we discuss the use of functional genomics approaches that integrate transcriptomic, epigenetic, and endophenotype traits with systems biology to annotate genetic variants, and to facilitate discovery of AD risk genes. Further validation in cell culture and mouse models will be necessary to establish causality for these genes. This knowledge will allow mechanism-based design of novel therapeutic interventions in AD and promises coherent implementation of treatment in a personalized manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna A Pimenova
- Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Towfique Raj
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Alison M Goate
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Department of Neuroscience, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York; Ronald M. Loeb Center for Alzheimer's Disease, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York.
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28
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Carter CJ. Genetic, Transcriptome, Proteomic, and Epidemiological Evidence for Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption and Polymicrobial Brain Invasion as Determinant Factors in Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis Rep 2017; 1:125-157. [PMID: 30480234 PMCID: PMC6159731 DOI: 10.3233/adr-170017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse pathogens are detected in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brains. A bioinformatics survey showed that AD genome-wide association study (GWAS) genes (localized in bone marrow, immune locations and microglia) relate to multiple host/pathogen interactomes (Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Bornavirus, Borrelia burgdorferri, cytomegalovirus, Ebola virus, HSV-1, HERV-W, HIV-1, Epstein-Barr, hepatitis C, influenza, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Porphyrymonas gingivalis, Helicobacter pylori, Toxoplasma gondii, Trypanosoma cruzi). These interactomes also relate to the AD hippocampal transcriptome and to plaque or tangle proteins. Upregulated AD hippocampal genes match those upregulated by multiple bacteria, viruses, fungi, or protozoa in immunocompetent cells. AD genes are enriched in GWAS datasets reflecting pathogen diversity, suggesting selection for pathogen resistance, as supported by the old age of AD patients, implying resistance to earlier infections. APOE4 is concentrated in regions of high parasitic burden and protects against childhood tropical infections and hepatitis C. Immune/inflammatory gain of function applies to APOE4, CR1, and TREM2 variants. AD genes are also expressed in the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which is disrupted by AD risk factors (age, alcohol, aluminum, concussion, cerebral hypoperfusion, diabetes, homocysteine, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, obesity, pesticides, pollution, physical inactivity, sleep disruption, smoking) and by pathogens, directly or via olfactory routes to basal-forebrain BBB control centers. The BBB benefits from statins, NSAIDs, estrogen, melatonin, memantine, and the Mediterranean diet. Polymicrobial involvement is supported by upregulation of bacterial, viral, and fungal sensors/defenders in the AD brain, blood, or cerebrospinal fluid. AD serum amyloid-β autoantibodies may attenuate its antimicrobial effects favoring microbial survival and cerebral invasion leading to activation of neurodestructive immune/inflammatory processes, which may also be augmented by age-related immunosenescence. AD may thus respond to antibiotic, antifungal, or antiviral therapy.
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29
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Stage E, Duran T, Risacher SL, Goukasian N, Do TM, West JD, Wilhalme H, Nho K, Phillips M, Elashoff D, Saykin AJ, Apostolova LG. The effect of the top 20 Alzheimer disease risk genes on gray-matter density and FDG PET brain metabolism. ALZHEIMER'S & DEMENTIA (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 5:53-66. [PMID: 28054028 PMCID: PMC5198883 DOI: 10.1016/j.dadm.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION We analyzed the effects of the top 20 Alzheimer disease (AD) risk genes on gray-matter density (GMD) and metabolism. METHODS We ran stepwise linear regression analysis using posterior cingulate hypometabolism and medial temporal GMD as outcomes and all risk variants as predictors while controlling for age, gender, and APOE ε4 genotype. We explored the results in 3D using Statistical Parametric Mapping 8. RESULTS Significant predictors of brain GMD were SLC24A4/RIN3 in the pooled and mild cognitive impairment (MCI); ZCWPW1 in the MCI; and ABCA7, EPHA1, and INPP5D in the AD groups. Significant predictors of hypometabolism were EPHA1 in the pooled, and SLC24A4/RIN3, NME8, and CD2AP in the normal control group. DISCUSSION Multiple variants showed associations with GMD and brain metabolism. For most genes, the effects were limited to specific stages of the cognitive continuum, indicating that the genetic influences on brain metabolism and GMD in AD are complex and stage dependent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eddie Stage
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Tugce Duran
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Shannon L. Risacher
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Naira Goukasian
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Triet M. Do
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - John D. West
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Holly Wilhalme
- Department of Medicine Statistics Core, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kwangsik Nho
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Meredith Phillips
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - David Elashoff
- Department of Medicine Statistics Core, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Andrew J. Saykin
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Medicine Statistics Core, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Indiana University Network Science Institute, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
| | - Liana G. Apostolova
- Department of Neurology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Center for Neuroimaging, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
- Department of Medical and Molecular Genetics, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, IN, USA
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30
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Kim DY, Reynaud JM, Rasalouskaya A, Akhrymuk I, Mobley JA, Frolov I, Frolova EI. New World and Old World Alphaviruses Have Evolved to Exploit Different Components of Stress Granules, FXR and G3BP Proteins, for Assembly of Viral Replication Complexes. PLoS Pathog 2016; 12:e1005810. [PMID: 27509095 PMCID: PMC4980055 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1005810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The positive-strand RNA viruses initiate their amplification in the cell from a single genome delivered by virion. This single RNA molecule needs to become involved in replication process before it is recognized and degraded by cellular machinery. In this study, we show that distantly related New World and Old World alphaviruses have independently evolved to utilize different cellular stress granule-related proteins for assembly of complexes, which recruit viral genomic RNA and facilitate formation of viral replication complexes (vRCs). Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) utilizes all members of the Fragile X syndrome (FXR) family, while chikungunya and Sindbis viruses exploit both members of the G3BP family. Despite being in different families, these proteins share common characteristics, which determine their role in alphavirus replication, namely, the abilities for RNA-binding and for self-assembly into large structures. Both FXR and G3BP proteins interact with virus-specific, repeating amino acid sequences located in the C-termini of hypervariable, intrinsically disordered domains (HVDs) of viral nonstructural protein nsP3. We demonstrate that these host factors orchestrate assembly of vRCs and play key roles in RNA and virus replication. Only knockout of all of the homologs results in either pronounced or complete inhibition of replication of different alphaviruses. The use of multiple homologous proteins with redundant functions mediates highly efficient recruitment of viral RNA into the replication process. This independently evolved acquisition of different families of cellular proteins by the disordered protein fragment to support alphavirus replication suggests that other RNA viruses may utilize a similar mechanism of host factor recruitment for vRC assembly. The use of different host factors by alphavirus species may be one of the important determinants of their pathogenesis. Many viruses encode proteins containing intrinsically disordered domains, whose functions are as yet unknown. Here we show that such a domain (HVD) in the alphavirus nsP3 protein orchestrates assembly of viral replication complexes through interaction with RNA-binding cellular factors. Surprisingly, geographically isolated viruses have evolved to utilize different cellular proteins: the nsP3 HVD of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) binds all members of the FXR family, while nsP3 HVDs of Sindbis and chikungunya viruses interact with G3BP proteins. Despite being in different families, G3BPs and FXRs have similar domain organization, and assemble into higher order complexes, such as stress granules. Alphaviruses exploit their abilities for complex self-assembly and RNA binding to build RNA-containing pre-replication complexes. Using CRISPR/Cas9 mediated knockouts, we show that deletion of all homologs strongly affects virus replication, while knockout of a single FXR or G3BP homolog has no or mild effect. Our data suggest that an alphavirus HVD serves as a hub to recruit host factors for replication complex assembly and may determine virus adaptation to distinct cellular environments. Notably, the improved understanding of HVD interactions allows alphavirus replication to be switched from an FXR- to G3BP-dependent mode and opens new possibilities for development of antiviral therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dal Young Kim
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Josephine M. Reynaud
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Aliaksandra Rasalouskaya
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Ivan Akhrymuk
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - James A. Mobley
- Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Ilya Frolov
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
| | - Elena I. Frolova
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Alabama, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Sørensen SS, Nygaard AB, Christensen T. miRNA expression profiles in cerebrospinal fluid and blood of patients with Alzheimer's disease and other types of dementia - an exploratory study. Transl Neurodegener 2016; 5:6. [PMID: 26981236 PMCID: PMC4791887 DOI: 10.1186/s40035-016-0053-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that function as posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression. Measurements of miRNAs in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood have just started gaining attention as a novel diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions. The purpose of this exploratory investigation was to analyze the expression of miRNAs in CSF and blood of patients with Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative disorders in order to identify potential miRNA biomarker candidates able to separate AD from other types of dementia. Methods CSF was collected by lumbar puncture performed on 10 patients diagnosed with AD and 10 patients diagnosed with either vascular dementia, frontotemporal dementia or dementia with Lewy bodies. Blood samples were taken immediately after. Total RNA was extracted from cell free fractions of CSF and plasma, and a screening for 372 known miRNA sequences was carried out by real time quantitative polymerase chain reactions (miRCURY LNA™ Universal RT miRNA PCR, Polyadenylation and cDNA synthesis kit, Exiqon). Results Fifty-two miRNAs were detected in CSF in at least nine out of ten patients in both groups. Among these, two miRNAs (let-7i-5p and miR-15a-5p) were found significantly up-regulated and one miRNA (miR-29c-3p) was found significantly down-regulated in patients with AD compared to controls. One hundred and sixty-eight miRNAs were frequently detected in the blood, among which miR-590-5p and miR-142-5p were significantly up-regulated and miR-194-5p was significantly down-regulated in AD patients compared to controls. Conclusions Detection of miRNA expression profiles in blood and in particular CSF of patients diagnosed with different types of dementia is feasible and it seems that several expressional differences between AD and other dementia types do exist when measured in a clinically relevant setup. In this explorative pilot study, the deregulated miRNAs in CSF of AD patients may be associated with relevant target genes related to AD pathology, including APP and BACE1, which suggests that miRNAs are interesting candidates for AD biomarkers in the future. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40035-016-0053-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofie Sølvsten Sørensen
- Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Nordsjællands Hospital, Dyrehavevej 29, 3400 Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Ann-Britt Nygaard
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Copenhagen University Hospital, Nordsjællands Hospital, Dyrehavevej 29, 3400 Hillerød, Denmark
| | - Thomas Christensen
- Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital, Nordsjællands Hospital, Dyrehavevej 29, 3400 Hillerød, Denmark
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