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Mutnal MB, Schachtele SJ, Hu S, Lokensgard JR. T-cell reconstitution during murine acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (MAIDS) produces neuroinflammation and mortality in animals harboring opportunistic viral brain infection. J Neuroinflammation 2013; 10:98. [PMID: 23902750 PMCID: PMC3735417 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-10-98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/16/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) restores inflammatory immune responses in AIDS patients which may unmask previous subclinical infections or paradoxically exacerbate symptoms of opportunistic infections. In resource-poor settings, 25% of patients receiving HAART may develop CNS-related immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome (IRIS). Here we describe a reliable mouse model to study underlying immunopathological mechanisms of CNS-IRIS. METHODS Utilizing our HSV brain infection model and mice with MAIDS, we investigated the effect of immune reconstitution on MAIDS mice harboring opportunistic viral brain infection. Using multi-color flow cytometry, we quantitatively measured the cellular infiltrate and microglial activation. RESULTS Infection with the LP-BM5 retroviral mixture was found to confer susceptibility to herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1 brain infection to normally-resistant C57BL/6 mice. Increased susceptibility to brain infection was due to severe immunodeficiency at 8 wks p.i. and a marked increase in programmed death-1 (PD-1) expression on CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells. Both T-cell loss and opportunistic brain infection were associated with high level PD-1 expression because PD-1-knockout mice infected with LP-BM5 did not exhibit lymphopenia and retained resistance to HSV-1. In addition, HSV-infection of MAIDS mice stimulated peripheral immune cell infiltration into the brain and its ensuing microglial activation. Interestingly, while opportunistic herpes virus brain infection of C57BL/6 MAIDS mice was not itself lethal, when T-cell immunity was reconstituted through adoptive transfer of virus-specific CD3+ T-cells, it resulted in significant mortality among recipients. This immune reconstitution-induced mortality was associated with exacerbated neuroinflammation, as determined by MHC class II expression on resident microglia and elevated levels of Th1 cytokines in the brain. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, these results indicate development of an immune reconstitution disease within the central nervous system (CNS-IRD). Experimental immune reconstitution disease of the CNS using T-cell repopulation of lymphopenic murine hosts harboring opportunistic brain infections may help elucidate neuroimmunoregulatory networks that produce CNS-IRIS in patients initiating HAART.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manohar B Mutnal
- Neuroimmunology Laboratory, Center for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology Translational Research, Department of Medicine, University of Minnesota, 3-220 LRB/MTRF, 2001 6th Street S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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2
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Fredrickson TN, Hartley JW, Morse HC. Citrobacter-induced colitis in mice with murine acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Vet Pathol 2010; 47:312-7. [PMID: 20118320 DOI: 10.1177/0300985809358605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Over the period of a year, colitis was observed in 44 mice raised in a conventional nonspecific pathogen-free colony, 41 of these having concomitant retrovirus-induced murine acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (MAIDS). The lesions varied from bacterial colonization to hyperplasia of colonic mucosa to severe, often fatal, ulceration. Citrobacter rodentium was isolated from the colon and/or liver of 2 mice with colitis. When C57BL/6 mice with or without MAIDS were given graded doses of the bacterium, only those with MAIDS developed colitis, and C rodentium was reisolated from their livers. Thus, mice with MAIDS can develop severe disease following opportunistic infection with an environmental contaminant of the colony that is nonpathogenic for normal adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- T N Fredrickson
- Laboratory of Immunopathology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
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3
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Lopez MC, Watson RR. Alterations in mesenteric lymph node T cell phenotype and cytokine secretion are associated with changes in thymocyte phenotype after LP-BM5 retrovirus infection. Clin Dev Immunol 2006; 12:249-57. [PMID: 16584110 PMCID: PMC2270737 DOI: 10.1080/17402520500303339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In this study, mouse MLN cells and thymocytes from advanced stages of LP-BM5 retrovirus infection were studied. A decrease in the percentage of IL-7(+) cells and an increase in the percentage of IL-16(+) cells in the MLN indicated that secretion of these cytokines was also altered after LP-BM5 infection. The percentage of MLN T cells expressing IL-7 receptors was significantly reduced, while the percentage of MLN T cells expressing TNFR-p75 and of B cells expressing TNFR-p55 increased. Simultaneous analysis of surface markers and cytokine secretion was done in an attempt to understand whether the deregulation of IFN-gamma secretion could be ascribed to a defined cell phenotype, concluding that all T cell subsets studied increased IFN-gamma secretion after retrovirus infection. Finally, thymocyte phenotype was further analyzed trying to correlate changes in thymocyte phenotype with MLN cell phenotype. The results indicated that the increase in single positive either CD4(+)CD8(-) or CD4(-)CD8(+) cells was due to accumulation of both immature (CD3(-)) and mature (CD3(+)) single positive thymocytes. Moreover, single positive mature thymocytes presented a phenotype similar to the phenotype previously seen on MLN T cells. In summary, we can conclude that LP-BM5 uses the immune system to reach the thymus where it interferes with the generation of functionally mature T cells, favoring the development of T cells with an abnormal phenotype. These new T cells are activated to secrete several cytokines that in turn will favor retrovirus replication and inhibit any attempt of the immune system to control infection.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Biomarkers, Tumor/biosynthesis
- Biomarkers, Tumor/genetics
- Cytokines/metabolism
- Female
- Immunophenotyping
- Leukemia Virus, Murine/immunology
- Leukemia, Experimental/immunology
- Leukemia, Experimental/metabolism
- Lymph Nodes/cytology
- Lymph Nodes/immunology
- Lymph Nodes/metabolism
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Interleukin-7/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type I/genetics
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Tumor Necrosis Factor, Type II/genetics
- Retroviridae Infections/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/immunology
- T-Lymphocyte Subsets/metabolism
- Thymus Gland/cytology
- Thymus Gland/immunology
- Thymus Gland/metabolism
- Tumor Virus Infections/immunology
- Tumor Virus Infections/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Lopez
- Health Promotion Sciences, Enid and Mel Zuckerman College of Public Health, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85724, USA
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4
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Derouin F, Lacroix C, Brun-Pascaud M, Chau F, Sinet M, Maslo C, Girard PM. Animal models of co-infection. Clin Microbiol Infect 2002; 4:559-562. [PMID: 11864243 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-0691.1998.tb00037.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Francis Derouin
- Laboratoire de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Hôpital Saint-Louis, 1, Avenue Claude Vellefaux, 75475, Paris Cedex 10, France
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Abstract
Concomitant infections are common in nature and often involve parasites. A number of examples of the interactions between protozoa and viruses, protozoa and bacteria, protozoa and other protozoa, protozoa and helminths, helminths and viruses, helminths and bacteria, and helminths and other helminths are described. In mixed infections the burden of one or both the infectious agents may be increased, one or both may be suppressed or one may be increased and the other suppressed. It is now possible to explain many of these interactions in terms of the effects parasites have on the immune system, particularly parasite-induced immunodepression, and the effects of cytokines controlling polarization to the Th1 or Th2 arms of the immune response. In addition, parasites may be affected, directly or indirectly, by cytokines and other immune effector molecules and parasites may themselves produce factors that affect the cells of the immune system. Parasites are, therefore, affected when they themselves, or other organisms, interact with the immune response and, in particular, the cytokine network. The importance of such interactions is discussed in relation to clinical disease and the development and use of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- F E Cox
- Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, UK.
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Umemura M, Hirose K, Wajjwalku W, Nishimura H, Matsuguchi T, Gotoh Y, Takahashi M, Makino M, Yoshikai Y. Impaired IL‐15 production associated with susceptibility of murine AIDS to mycobacterial infection. J Leukoc Biol 2001. [DOI: 10.1189/jlb.69.1.138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Umemura
- Laboratory of Host Defense, Research Institute for Disease Mechanism and Control, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Tokyo
| | - Kenji Hirose
- Department of Bacteriology, National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo
| | - Worawidh Wajjwalku
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Nakhonpathom, Thailand
| | - Hitoshi Nishimura
- Laboratory of Host Defense, Research Institute for Disease Mechanism and Control, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Tokyo
| | - Tetsuya Matsuguchi
- Laboratory of Host Defense, Research Institute for Disease Mechanism and Control, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Tokyo
| | - Yoshitaka Gotoh
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Miyazaki University, Japan
| | - Masahide Takahashi
- Center of Excellence, Department of Pathology II, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Masahiko Makino
- Division of Human Retrovirus, Center for Chronic Viral Diseases, Faculty of Medicine, Kagoshima University, Japan
| | - Yasunobu Yoshikai
- Laboratory of Host Defense, Research Institute for Disease Mechanism and Control, Nagoya University School of Medicine, Tokyo
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Adjei AA, Shrestha AK, Castro M, Enriquez FJ. Adoptive transfer of immunity with intraepithelial lymphocytes in Cryptosporidium parvum-infected severe combined immunodeficient mice. Am J Med Sci 2000; 320:304-9. [PMID: 11093682 DOI: 10.1097/00000441-200011000-00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Intestinal infections with the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum are prevalent in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised hosts. Although C parvum is an important cause of outbreaks and opportunistic infections worldwide, little is known about protective mucosal immune responses. This is in part because animal models of infection are limited to those with genetic or induced immunodeficiencies. METHOD In this report, we isolated immune (primed) or nonimmune (unprimed) intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) from BALB/cJ mouse intestines, adoptively transferred them into C parvum-infected severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice, and evaluated infection and cell phenotype responses. RESULTS Control SCID mice that received no IEL shed large numbers of oocysts throughout the experimental period (day 18 to day 72). Transfer of primed IEL significantly reduced fecal oocyst shedding in recipient SCID mice compared with SCID mice that received unprimed IEL or no IEL. SCID mice transferred with unprimed IEL shed variable numbers of fecal oocysts that increased and decreased in bursts until day 57 after infection. SCID mice transferred with primed IEL exhibited significantly higher proportions of T-cell receptor (TCR) alphabeta+, CD8+, and CD8alphabeta+ EL compared with inoculated SCID mice that received unprimed or no IEL. CONCLUSION We conclude that primed IEL from immunocompetent mice may influence protective mucosal response against cryptosporidiosis when transferred into SCID mice. In addition, the increased percentage of TCR alphabeta+, CD8+, CD8alphabeta+ IEL in recipient SCID mice may reflect mucosal cell populations involved in these responses during chronic C parvum infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- A A Adjei
- Department of Veterinary Science and Microbiology, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721, USA.
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8
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Lacroix C, Chau F, Carbon C, Sinet M, Derouin F. Cryptococcus neoformans infection in mice previously infected with LP-BM5 MuLV, the agent of murine AIDS (MAIDS). Clin Exp Immunol 1997; 110:196-202. [PMID: 9367402 PMCID: PMC2265516 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1997.tb08317.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
We studied susceptibility to experimental systemic cryptococcosis in mice previously infected with the retroviral complex LP-BM5 (responsible for murine AIDS). LP-BM5 was inoculated to C57B1/6 mice by intravenous (i.v.) injection 8 weeks before an i.v. challenge with 4 x 10(3) CFU of Cryptococcus neoformans. Uninfected and singly infected mice were used as controls. LP-BM5 infection did not result in a significant increase in fungal burdens in the lungs or brains of co-infected animals compared to mice infected with C. neoformans alone. However, mortality was enhanced in the co-infected animals. The kinetics of splenocyte subsets differed in co-infected mice and LP-BM5-infected mice; the increase in CD4+, CD8+ and Ly5+ cells was only moderate in the former. Cytokine production by concanavalin A (Con A)-stimulated splenocytes from co-infected mice showed a marked decrease in the Th1 response (IFN-gamma, IL-2) and an increase in the Th2 response (IL-4, IL-10). Furthermore, cryptococcosis altered the course of MAIDS, inhibiting splenomegaly. This effect was not related to a decrease in ecotropic virus titres in the spleen or to improved in vitro responsiveness of spleen cells to Con A. The marked decrease in IFN-gamma production in co-infected animals could partly explain the inhibition of LP-BM5-induced splenomegaly. This model of murine retroviral infection does not seem to be suitable for studying cryptococcosis in immunosuppressed animals, but remains valuable for investigating in vivo interactions between two pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lacroix
- INSERM Unité 13, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Paris, France
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9
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Liang B, Marchalonis JJ, Watson RR. 1Prevention of immune dysfunction, vitamin E deficiency, and loss of Cryptosporidium resistance during murine retrovirus infection by T cell receptor peptide immunization. Nutr Res 1997. [DOI: 10.1016/s0271-5317(97)00037-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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10
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Usami J, Hiromatsu K, Aoki Y, Kobayashi N, Makino M, Yagita H, Matsumoto Y, Maeda K, Yoshikai Y. Apoptosis by CD95 (Fas)-dependent and -independent mechanisms in Peyer's patch lymphocytes in murine retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency syndrome. J Virol 1996; 70:8917-25. [PMID: 8971021 PMCID: PMC190989 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.70.12.8917-8925.1996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
CD95 (Fas)/CD95 ligand (CD95 L)-mediated apoptosis is thought to be involved in the delayed progression of murine AIDS (MAIDS) induced by LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus (MuLV). We show evidence of apoptosis in lymphocytes of Peyer's patches (PP) at the early stage of MAIDS. Both T and B cells in PP expressed CD95 at the early stage of MAIDS and decreased in number thereafter. The decrease in T cells was not evident in CD95-mutated lpr mice with MAIDS, suggesting that CD95/CD95 L interaction is involved in the apoptosis of T cells in PP during the course of MAIDS. On the other hand, the number of B cells was also decreased in PP of lpr mice with MAIDS. The proliferative ability of B cells in PP of MAIDS mice in response to immunoglobulin M cross-linking or lipopolysaccharide was severely impaired, while the B cells normally proliferated in response to anti-CD40 monoclonal antibody. These findings imply that aberrantly activated B cells in PP undergo apoptosis independently of the CD95/CD95 L system during the course of infection with MAIDS virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Usami
- Department of Internal Medicine, Nagoya University Branch Hospital, Japan
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11
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Lacroix C, Brun-Pascaud M, Maslo C, Chau F, Romand S, Derouin F. Co-infection of Toxoplasma gondii with other pathogens: pathogenicity and chemotherapy in animal models. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1996; 219:223-33. [PMID: 8791703 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-51014-4_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- C Lacroix
- INSERM Unité 13, Hôpital Bichat-Claude Bernard, Paris, France
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12
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Affiliation(s)
- H Cantor
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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13
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Affiliation(s)
- P J O'Donoghue
- Parasitology Section, VETLAB, Department of Primary Industries, Adelaide, Australia
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14
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Lacroix C, Levacher-Clergeot M, Chau F, Sumuyen MH, Sinet M, Pocidalo JJ, Derouin F. Interactions between murine AIDS (MAIDS) and toxoplasmosis in co-infected mice. Clin Exp Immunol 1994; 98:190-5. [PMID: 7955521 PMCID: PMC1534418 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.1994.tb06124.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
We coinfected C57B1/6 mice with LP-BM5 murine leukaemia viruses, responsible for murine AIDS (MAIDS), and an avirulent strain of Toxoplasma gondii. Virus-infected mice were infected perorally on day 30 with 10 cysts of T. gondii, and T. gondii-infected mice were challenged with LP-BM5 on day 20, 30 or 60 after parasite inoculation. Uninfected and singly infected mice were used as controls. The kinetics of parasite burden in blood, lungs and brain, together with blood lymphocyte subsets, and spleen and lymph node weights, were serially determined in each group of mice. The kinetics of parasite counts in mice infected by LP-BM5 then by T. gondii were similar to those in mice infected by T. gondii only, except for lung counts, which reached higher values than in animals infected with T. gondii alone, then fell and re-increased until the end of the experiment. The only significant change in parasite burdens when mice were first infected by T. gondii and then by LP-BM5, compared with T. gondii controls, was an increase in lung counts in mice challenged with LP-BM5 20 days after T. gondii inoculation. Whatever the schedule of co-infection, the kinetics of lymphocyte subsets in co-infected mice differed from those in T. gondii- or LP-BM5-infected mice; in dually infected mice CD4+ and CD8+ cell counts were intermediate between values in mice singly infected by the parasite or the virus. Enlargement of spleen and lymph nodes, which is a major criterion of MAIDS progression, was significantly less marked in co-infected mice than in mice infected with LP-BM5 alone. These data point to cross-regulation of T. gondii and LP-BM5 infections, which results in increased susceptibility to T. gondii, and may alter the progression of MAIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Lacroix
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 13, Paris, France
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15
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Eckwalanga M, Marussig M, Tavares MD, Bouanga JC, Hulier E, Pavlovitch JH, Minoprio P, Portnoï D, Rénia L, Mazier D. Murine AIDS protects mice against experimental cerebral malaria: down-regulation by interleukin 10 of a T-helper type 1 CD4+ cell-mediated pathology. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1994; 91:8097-101. [PMID: 8058763 PMCID: PMC44552 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.91.17.8097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The retrovirus LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus induces murine AIDS in C57BL/6 mice that has many similarities with human AIDS; Plasmodium berghei ANKA causes experimental cerebral malaria in the same strain of mice. The outcome of malaria infection was studied in mice concurrently infected with the two pathogens. The retrovirus significantly reduced the gravity of the neurological manifestations associated with Plasmodium berghei ANKA infection. The protection against experimental cerebral malaria induced by murine AIDS increased with duration of viral infection and, hence, with the severity of the immunodeficiency. Interleukin 10, principally from splenic T cells, was shown to play a crucial role in this protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Eckwalanga
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale, Unité 313, Département de Parasitologie, Paris, France
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Abstract
As alcohol (ETOH) abusers and AIDS patients have nutritional disorders, the influence of chronic ETOH consumption (5% v/v for 10 weeks) on levels of immunomodulatory nutrients (vitamins A and E, Zn, and Cu) in the serum, liver, small intestine, spleen, and thymus was determined during murine AIDS. The hepatic levels of vitamins A and E and Zn in both normal and LP-BM5 retrovirus-infected female C56BL/6 mice fed ETOH were significantly reduced compared to controls, whereas the level of Cu in the liver was not affected. Intestinal levels of vitamin A and Cu were not affected by ETOH, whereas vitamin E and Zn were significantly reduced in both normal mice and those with AIDS fed ETOH. The splenic levels of vitamin A and Zn in the normal mice were significantly reduced by ETOH compared to controls, but vitamin E and Cu were not. All splenic levels of nutrients measured were reduced in ETOH-fed mice with AIDS. The levels of vitamins A and E, Zn, and Cu in the thymus in murine AIDS were also significantly affected by ETOH consumption. The serum levels of vitamins A and E in both normal mice and murine AIDS were significantly decreased by dietary ETOH. These data produced evidence that chronic ETOH can directly aggravate undernutrition initiated by retrovirus infection. Such ETOH-induced malnutrition in AIDS may be a cofactor, accelerating development of AIDS via immunosuppression secondary to nutritional deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Wang
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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18
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Lopez MC, Watson RR. Effect of cocaine and murine AIDS on lamina propria T and B cells in normal mice. Life Sci 1994; 54:PL147-51. [PMID: 8114610 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(94)00874-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
We developed an experimental model to study the effect of daily cocaine administration on the mucosal immune system during murine acquired immune deficiency syndrome (MAIDS). Mice were infected with LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus, a retrovirus which causes immunosuppression with development of functional murine AIDS. Mice were given cocaine by daily intraperitoneal injection for 11 weeks. Our objective was to investigate if cocaine treatment could alter the mucosal immune system at the level of the intestinal lamina propria (ILP) and if it could further modify the already altered mucosal immunity when it was administered to MAIDS-mice. Daily cocaine administration induced a significant decrease in the number of IgA+ cells with a concomitant increase in the number of CD8+ cells per villi in the ILP. Murine retrovirus infection alone decreased the number of IgA+ and CD4+ cells in the ILP, and this decreased was even more marked when MAIDS mice also received cocaine. These data indicate that cocaine administration could potentiate the dramatic effect that MAIDS infection has in the mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Lopez
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arizona Health Sciences Center, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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Lopez MC, Chen GJ, Colombo LL, Huang DS, Darban HR, Watzl B, Watson RR. Spleen and thymus cell subsets modified by long-term morphine administration and murine AIDS--II. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF IMMUNOPHARMACOLOGY 1993; 15:909-18. [PMID: 8253541 DOI: 10.1016/0192-0561(93)90008-m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Intravenous heroin abusers suffer a great variety of infections, including AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome). We developed an experimental mouse model to evaluate the long-term effect of in vivo morphine administration during retrovirus-induced immune dysfunction. Mice were treated daily for 11 weeks with increasing doses of morphine. Morphine treatment produced a decrease in body weight and spleen cell number. Murine retrovirus infection provoked an increase in body weight due to enlargement of lymphoid organs, and an increase in the percentage and absolute number of CD4+ and Mac 1+ cells. Interestingly, retrovirus-infected mice that were also morphine-treated did not show the increase in the relative proportion of Mac 1+ cells. Moreover, under the experimental conditions of protein-malnutrition and morphine treatment potentiation of immune dysfunction by murine retrovirus infection was investigated. Retrovirus infection-induced splenocyte proliferation was partially regulated by morphine treatment. Splenocytes from retrovirus-infected mice presented a higher percentage of IL-2R+ cells and, lower levels of sIL-2R in splenocyte supernatants. Mitogen-stimulated splenocytes had a lower production of interferon-gamma as well as an increase in the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-alpha. Thus morphine altered the immune system by down-regulating splenocyte proliferation, because retrovirus infection-induced splenocyte proliferation was partially regulated by morphine treatment. We also evaluated the effects of joint murine retrovirus infection and protein undernutrition on the thymus cell subsets. Retrovirus infection was associated with a decrease in the absolute number of Thy 1+, CD4+ and CD8+ cells per thymus with the CD8+ cell subset being the most affected. Moreover, retrovirus-infected mice presented a dramatic decrease in the percentage of double-positive (CD4+ CD8+) cells in the thymus as well as changes in its immunoarchitecture. While protein undernutrition alone did not produce further differences between infected versus non-infected, protein-undernourished, morphine treatment induced a greater decrease in thymocyte number than that seen in retrovirus- or morphine-treated animals alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Lopez
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arizona Health Sciences Center, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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20
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Alak JI, Shahbazian M, Huang DS, Wang Y, Darban H, Jenkins EM, Watson RR. Alcohol and murine acquired immunodeficiency syndrome suppression of resistance to Cryptosporidium parvum infection during modulation of cytokine production. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1993; 17:539-44. [PMID: 8333581 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1993.tb00795.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The effects of inoculation of LP-BM5 murine leukemia retrovirus and chronic ethanol (5% v/v) ingestion on immunomodulation and Cryptosporidium parvum infection in C57BL/6 female mice were evaluated. The intestinal mucosae of retrovirally immunosuppressed animals were heavily colonized by Cryptosporidium parasites, and oocysts shedding in the feces persisted throughout the duration of the study. Mortality was exacerbated by murine retrovirus infection alone and exacerbated with concomitant chronic alcohol feeding (42.8 and 69.4%). Chronic ethanol ingestion decreased production of interferon-gamma and soluble interleukin-2 receptor released in supernatants of splenocytes when stimulated with concanavalin A, compared with the control group. Decreased production of interferon-gamma and interleukin-2 receptor was further exacerbated due to retrovirus infection. Tumor necrosis factor production by splenocytes stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, however, was significantly increased because of retrovirus infection. LP-BM5 retrovirus infection alone as well as with concomitant ethanol feeding altered cytokine production, which might have led to immunodeficiency. These changes may help explain the enhanced persistence of Cryptosporidiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- J I Alak
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arizona Health Sciences Center, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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Watson RR. Resistance to intestinal parasites during murine AIDS: role of alcohol and nutrition in immune dysfunction. Parasitology 1993; 107 Suppl:S69-74. [PMID: 8115187 DOI: 10.1017/s003118200007551x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
A murine AIDS model with many similarities to human AIDS, LP-BM5 Murine Leukaemia, suppresses T and B cell numbers and functions in the intestine. This permits chronic colonization by Giardia and Cryptosporidium. Cocaine and the nutrient alcohol, which are immunosuppressive, further reduce resistance to intestinal parasites and intestinal lymphocyte numbers. Protein undernutrition, vitamin E supplementation, and alcohol use further modify immune dysfunction induced by the murine retrovirus infection. This suggests that both undernutrition and nutrient supplementation could affect parasite resistance during AIDS. Thus this murine model of human AIDS has great potential to accelerate studies of the role of nutrients in immune dysfunction and resistance to intestinal parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Watson
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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Darban H, Watson RR, Alak J, Thomas N. Cocaine facilitation of cryptosporidiosis by murine AIDS in male and female C57/BL/6 mice. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1993; 335:143-51. [PMID: 8237589 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-2980-4_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
As cocaine may affect progression of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection to Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), we used a murine model of AIDS (MAIDS) induced by LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus to examine cocaine's possible role as a cofactor for secondary parasitic infections. Dissimilarities between the sexes were observed both in the absence and presence of the cocaine. The retrovirus-infected female mice had a much higher rate of Cryptosporidiosis than the retrovirus-infected male mice. Female, but not male, retrovirus-infected mice showed approximately 20-fold more Cryptosporidium per villus section than controls. Compared to respective gender controls, male and female animals infected with the retrovirus infection manifested a heightened Cryptosporidium oocysts count regardless of cocaine treatment. Overall, female groups incurred a higher incidence of infection compared to respective male groups. To determine the role of cocaine, groups of male and female C57BL-6 mice of similar age were treated with cocaine for 4 weeks followed by termination. Cocaine synergized with retrovirus infection in female mice to cause a 30-fold increase in the number of oocyst present. The spleen size and weight of female mice was significantly greater than uninfected controls or male mice. However, due to the very slow progression to murine AIDS in the males, parasite resistance was retained, including in cocaine treated C57BL-6 mice. Thymus cell number in the retrovirus-infected female mice decreased significantly in comparison to uninfected female controls. Continued resistance to the parasite in male mice and its loss in female mice was due to the rate of immunosuppression and thus development of retrovirus-induced murine AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Darban
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, NIAAA Specialized Alcohol Research Center, Tucson, AZ 85724
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Alak JI, Shahbazian M, Huang D, Wang Y, Darban H, Watson RR, Jenkins EM. Suppression by dietary alcohol of resistance to Cryptosporidium during murine acquired immune deficiency syndrome. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 1993; 335:175-9. [PMID: 8237593 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-2980-4_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Significant immunological changes occur following LP-BM5 murine leukemia retrovirus infection as well as chronic alcohol consumption. Retrovirus infection which has proceeded to murine AIDS permitted persistent Cryptosporidium infection, while non-retrovirus infected mice were resistant. Dietary alcohol provided until the day before parasite challenge did not affect resistance in controls, but increased the numbers of oocysts in the feces of retrovirus suppressed mice. Mortality was significant in retrovirus infected mice, and exacerbated slightly by dietary ethanol, while all controls survived parasite challenge. The retrovirus infected mice had greatly reduced numbers of intestinal CD4+ T helper cells and IgA+ B cells, which may explain their loss of intestinal resistance. Clearly, the severely immunosuppressed animals with murine AIDS were more sensitive to alcohol consumption than uninfected controls. This suggests that alcohol can synergize with murine retrovirus infection to exacerbate loss of resistance to an opportunistic pathogen common in human AIDS patients.
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Watson RR, Odeleye OE, Eskelson CD, Mufti SI. Alcohol stimulation of lipid peroxidation and esophageal tumor growth in mice immunocompromised by retrovirus infection. Alcohol 1992; 9:495-500. [PMID: 1335272 DOI: 10.1016/0741-8329(92)90086-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tumor appearance can be accelerated in the immunodeficient and immunosuppressed animal. The role of lipid peroxidation and immune dysfunction induced by retrovirus and ethanol treatments on cancer promotion were investigated. Following the initiation of esophageal cancer by methylbenzylnitrosamine, ethanol consumption and retrovirus infection individually and concomitantly increased growth of esophageal tumors. Dietary supplementation with vitamin E reduced the size and frequency of the developed tumors. Tumor growth modifications in the vitamin E supplemented animals may be due to changes in T-cell numbers and functions stimulated by vitamin E. In addition, increased production of free radicals following ethanol treatment and retrovirus infection, and the suppression of these formations lipid peroxide by vitamin E is accompanied by lower incidence and size of tumors. Thus, the mechanisms of tumor enhancement observed in immunocompromised animals may include a combination of immunomodulation and modification of oxidant production by ethanol consumption and retrovirus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R R Watson
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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Lopez MC, Colombo LL, Huang DS, Wang Y, Watson RR. Modification of thymic cell subsets induced by long-term cocaine administration during a murine retroviral infection producing AIDS. CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY AND IMMUNOPATHOLOGY 1992; 65:45-52. [PMID: 1395123 DOI: 10.1016/0090-1229(92)90246-k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
LP-BM5 murine leukemia virus (MuLV) infection and cocaine administration are known to impair the murine immune system. We have developed a murine model to study the effect of daily cocaine administration and retrovirus infection on the lymphoid cell populations of the thymus. C57BL/6 female mice were studied following chronic cocaine administration for 11 weeks with simultaneous LP-BM5 MuLV infection. Cocaine administration reduced body and thymus weight, significantly reduced the number of CD8+ cells in the thymus, and partially prevented thymus enlargement due to lymphoid cell proliferation induced by LP-BM5 MuLV infection. Retrovirus infection was associated with a decrease in the percentage and absolute number of Thy 1.2+, CD4+, and CD8+ cells in the thymus, an effect potentiated by cocaine administration. Therefore cocaine impairs thymic function by altering the number of cells expressing T cell differentiation markers in MAIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Lopez
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, Arizona Health Sciences Center, University of Arizona, Tucson 85724
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Darban H, Watson RR, Darban JR, Shahbazian LM. Modification of resistance to Streptococcus pneumoniae by dietary ethanol, immunization, and murine retroviral infection. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1992; 16:846-51. [PMID: 1443419 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.1992.tb01880.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Hallmarks of the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are immunologic alterations, frequently associated with opportunistic infections. To study such associations, LP-BM5 murine retrovirus infection was used as a murine model of AIDS. Retrovirally infected and uninfected mice were fed a 5% (v/v) ethanol diet for 55 days and then fed a 7% v/v ethanol diet for the final 7 days to assert the role of ethanol as a cofactor in development of murine AIDS. There was a reduction in polymorphonuclear neutrophils count in ethanol-fed groups. Neutrophils increased in retrovirus-infected groups, except those vaccinated 10 days before challenge with live bacteria. The percentage of splenic lymphocytes in the retrovirus-infected group was reduced in comparison with controls. Survival of the mice challenged intraperitoneally with Streptococcus pneumoniae was increased by vaccination and suppressed by dietary alcohol. Retrovirus infection caused a much faster death rate after bacterial challenge than nonretrovirus infected controls. Vaccination played an important role in delaying the death rate in all treated groups. Transferring spleen cells from healthy, unimmunized mice also enabled the retrovirally infected mice to survive the bacterial infection longer. Enhancement of resistance to S. pneumoniae by vaccination and transfer of immunocompetent cells to mice immunosuppressed by retroviral infection show the potential to use immunomodulation to affect disease resistance in AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Darban
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, University Medical Center, Tucson, Arizona
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Gazzinelli RT, Hartley JW, Fredrickson TN, Chattopadhyay SK, Sher A, Morse HC. Opportunistic infections and retrovirus-induced immunodeficiency: studies of acute and chronic infections with Toxoplasma gondii in mice infected with LP-BM5 murine leukemia viruses. Infect Immun 1992; 60:4394-401. [PMID: 1328058 PMCID: PMC257477 DOI: 10.1128/iai.60.10.4394-4401.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Mice infected with LP-BM5 murine leukemia viruses develop a syndrome, termed mouse AIDS (MAIDS), characterized by increasingly severe immunodeficiency and progressive lymphoproliferation. Virus-infected mice were examined for the ability to resist acute infection and to control chronic infection with the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, a major opportunistic pathogen of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus. Mice infected with the retroviruses for 2 or 4 weeks responded normally to challenge with the parasite, but mice inoculated with the protozoan 8 or 12 weeks after viral infection died with acute disease due to T. gondii. Increased sensitivity to acute infection was associated with a reduced ability to produce gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) and with established changes in CD4+ T-cell function. Mice latently infected with T. gondii and then inoculated with the retrovirus mixture were found to reactivate the parasite infection, with 30 to 40% of dually infected animals dying between 5 and 16 weeks after viral infection. Reactivation was associated with reduced proliferation and impaired production of IFN-gamma in response to stimulation with soluble T. gondii antigens or to concanavalin A. Continuing resistance to lethal reactivation in the remaining mice was shown to require CD8+ T cells and expression of IFN-gamma. In addition, it was found that chronic infection with T. gondii altered the course of MAIDS by inhibiting the progression of splenomegaly and immunodeficiency and reducing the expression of both the helper and etiologic defective viruses. These results support previous studies which indicate that infection with T. gondii is controlled by synergistic interactions between CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, the functions of which are progressively impaired during the course of MAIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- R T Gazzinelli
- Immunology and Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland 20892
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Sher A, Gazzinelli RT, Oswald IP, Clerici M, Kullberg M, Pearce EJ, Berzofsky JA, Mosmann TR, James SL, Morse HC. Role of T-cell derived cytokines in the downregulation of immune responses in parasitic and retroviral infection. Immunol Rev 1992; 127:183-204. [PMID: 1354651 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-065x.1992.tb01414.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 339] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Parasitic infection is frequently accompanied by a downregulation in host cell-mediated immunity. Recent studies suggest that this modulation of helper T cells and effector cell function can at least in part be attributed to the action of a set of inhibitory cytokines produced by T lymphocytes as well as by a number of other cell types. The best characterized of these inhibitory lymphokines are IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-beta. Interestingly, both IL-4 and IL-10 are produced by the Th2 but not the Th1 subset of CD4+ helper cells. The former subset dominates in many situations of chronic or exacerbated parasitic infection and is thought to suppress Th1 function as a consequence of the cross-regulatory activity of these two cytokines. The latter hypothesis is supported by recent experiments demonstrating that mAb-mediated neutralization of IL-10 reverses suppressed IFN-gamma responses and/or disease susceptibility in mice with parasitic infections. In vivo neutralization of TGF-beta has also been reported to increase host resistance to parasite challenge. In addition to suppressing T-cell differentiation, function or proliferation, IL-4, IL-10 and TGF-beta each inhibit the ability of IFN-gamma to activate macrophages for killing of both intracellular and extracellular parasites. Moreover, the three cytokines are able to synergize with each other in downregulating these parasiticidal effects. Interestingly, each of the cytokines inhibits the production of reactive nitrogen oxides, an effector mechanism previously demonstrated to play a major role in parasite killing by activated macrophages. In the case of IL-10, this suppression of nitrogen oxide production appears to result from an inhibition of TNF-alpha synthesis leading to defective macrophage stimulation. While distant from parasites in their biology and phylogeny, some retroviruses also appear to induce an over-production in downregulatory cytokines which is closely associated with the onset of immunodeficiency. Thus, in an animal model involving infection of mice with LP-BM5 MuLV and in human HIV infection, Th2 (IL-10 and/or IL-4) cytokine synthesis is increased while Th1 (IFN-gamma and/or IL-2) cytokine production is suppressed. These observations suggest that cytokine-mediated cross-regulation may play a role in the pathogenesis of acquired immune deficiency disease, contributing both to the progression of retroviral infection and the increase in susceptibility to opportunistic infections and malignancy. Observations of similar cytokine cross-regulatory activities in organisms as diverse as helminths, protozoa and retroviruses predict that comparable mechanisms may operate in a wide variety of infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Sher
- Immunology and Cell Biology Section, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland
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