The significance of CP29 reversible phosphorylation in thylakoids of higher plants under environmental stresses

Mechanisms of photoprotection in overwintering evergreen conifers: Sustained quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence

Evergreen conifers growing in high-latitude regions must endure prolonged winters that are characterized by sub-zero temperatures combined with light, conditions that can cause significant photooxidative stress. Understanding overwintering mechanisms is crucial for addressing winter adversity in temperate forest ecosystems and enhancing the ability of conifers to adapt to climate change. This review synthesizes the current understanding of the photoprotective mechanisms that conifers employ to mitigate photooxidative stress, particularly non-photochemical "sustained quenching", the mechanism of which is hypothesized to be a recombination or deformation of the original mechanism employed by conifers in response to short-term low temperature and intense light stress in the past. Based on this hypothesis, scattered studies in this field are assembled and integrated into a complete mechanism of sustained quenching embedded in the adaptation process of plant physiology. It also reveals which parts of the whole system have been verified in conifers and which have only been verified in non-conifers, and proposes specific directions for future research. The functional implications of studies of non-coniferous plant species for the study of coniferous trees are also considered, as a wide range of plant responses lead to sustained quenching, even among different conifer species. In addition, the review highlights the challenges of measuring sustained quenching and discusses the application of ultrafast-time-resolved fluorescence and decay-associated spectra for the elucidation of photosynthetic principles.

Arabidopsis thaliana Early Foliar Proteome Response to Root Exposure to the Rhizobacterium Pseudomonas simiae WCS417

Pseudomonas simiae WCS417 is a plant growth-promoting rhizobacterium that improves plant health and development. In this study, we investigate the early leaf responses of Arabidopsis thaliana to WCS417 exposure and the possible involvement of formate dehydrogenase (FDH) in such responses. In vitro-grown A. thaliana seedlings expressing an FDH::GUS reporter show a significant increase in FDH promoter activity in their roots and shoots after 7 days of indirect exposure (without contact) to WCS417. After root exposure to WCS417, the leaves of FDH::GUS plants grown in the soil also show an increased FDH promoter activity in hydathodes. To elucidate early foliar responses to WCS417 as well as FDH involvement, the roots of A. thaliana wild-type Col and atfdh1-5 knock-out mutant plants grown in soil were exposed to WCS417, and proteins from rosette leaves were subjected to proteomic analysis. The results reveal that chloroplasts, in particular several components of the photosystems PSI and PSII, as well as members of the glutathione S-transferase family, are among the early targets of the metabolic changes induced by WCS417. Taken together, the alterations in the foliar proteome, as observed in the atfdh1-5 mutant, especially after exposure to WCS417 and involving stress-responsive genes, suggest that FDH is a node in the early events triggered by the interactions between A. thaliana and the rhizobacterium WCS417. [Formula: see text] Copyright © 2023 The Author(s). This is an open access article distributed under the CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license.

Studying the effect of light intensity on the photosynthetic mechanism of pepper leaf yellowing mutants by proteomics and phosphoproteomics

The leaf is an important plant organ and is closely related to agricultural yield. Photosynthesis plays a critical role in promoting plant growth and development. Understanding the mechanism of leaf photosynthesis regulation will help improve crop yield. In this study, the pepper yellowing mutant was used as the experimental material, and the photosynthetic changes of pepper leaves (yl1 and 6421) under different light intensities were analyzed by chlorophyll fluorimeter and photosynthesis meter. Changes in proteins and enrichment of phosphopeptides in pepper leaves were determined. The results showed that different light intensities had significant effects on the chlorophyll fluorescence and photosynthetic parameters of pepper leaves. The differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) and differentially expressed phosphorylated proteins (DEPPs) were mainly involved in photosynthesis, photosynthesis-antenna proteins, and carbon fixation in photosynthetic organisms. In yl1 leaves, the phosphorylation levels of photosynthesis and photosynthesis-antenna proteins LHCA2, LHCA3, PsbC, PsbO, and PsbP were lower under low light treatment, but significantly higher under high light intensity compared with wild-type leaves. In addition, many proteins involved in the carbon assimilation pathway, including TKT, Rubisco, and PGK, were phosphorylated, and this modification level was significantly higher in yl1 than in the wild type under high light intensity. These results provide a new perspective for studying the photosynthesis mechanism of pepper under different light intensities.

Structure of Dunaliella photosystem II reveals conformational flexibility of stacked and unstacked supercomplexes

Photosystem II (PSII) generates an oxidant whose redox potential is high enough to enable water oxidation , a substrate so abundant that it assures a practically unlimited electron source for life on earth . Our knowledge on the mechanism of water photooxidation was greatly advanced by high-resolution structures of prokaryotic PSII . Here, we show high-resolution cryogenic electron microscopy (cryo-EM) structures of eukaryotic PSII from the green alga Dunaliella salina at two distinct conformations. The conformers are also present in stacked PSII, exhibiting flexibility that may be relevant to the grana formation in chloroplasts of the green lineage. CP29, one of PSII associated light-harvesting antennae, plays a major role in distinguishing the two conformations of the supercomplex. We also show that the stacked PSII dimer, a form suggested to support the organisation of thylakoid membranes , can appear in many different orientations providing a flexible stacking mechanism for the arrangement of grana stacks in thylakoids. Our findings provide a structural basis for the heterogenous nature of the eukaryotic PSII on multiple levels.

A dynamic phosphoproteomic analysis provides insight into the C4 plant maize (Zea mays L.) response to natural diurnal changes

As sessile organisms, plants need to respond to rapid changes in numerous environmental factors, mainly diurnal changes of light, temperature, and humidity. Maize is the world's most grown crop, and as a C4 plant it exhibits high photosynthesis capacity, reaching the highest rate of net photosynthesis at midday; that is, there is no "midday depression." Revealing the physiological responses to diurnal changes and underlying mechanisms will be of great significance for guiding maize improvement efforts. In this study, we collected maize leaf samples and analyzed the proteome and phosphoproteome at nine time points during a single day/night cycle, quantifying 7424 proteins and 5361 phosphosites. The new phosphosites identified in our study increased the total maize phosphoproteome coverage by 8.5%. Kinase-substrate network analysis indicated that 997 potential substrates were phosphorylated by 20 activated kinases. Through analysis of proteins with significant changes in abundance and phosphorylation, we found that the response to a heat stimulus involves a change in the abundance of numerous proteins. By contrast, the high light at noon and rapidly changing light conditions induced changes in the phosphorylation level of proteins involved in processes such as chloroplast movement, photosynthesis, and C4 pathways. Phosphorylation is involved in regulating the activity of large number of enzymes; for example, phosphorylation of S55 significantly enhanced the activity of maize phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase1 (ZmPEPCK1). Overall, the database of dynamic protein abundance and phosphorylation we have generated provides a resource for the improvement of C4 crop plants.

Thylakoid Protein Phosphorylation in Chloroplasts

Because of their abundance and extensive phosphorylation, numerous thylakoid proteins stand out amongst the phosphoproteins of plants and algae. In particular, subunits of light-harvesting complex II (LHCII) and of photosystem II (PSII) are dynamically phosphorylated and dephosphorylated in response to light conditions and metabolic demands. These phosphorylations are controlled by evolutionarily conserved thylakoid protein kinases and counteracting protein phosphatases, which have distinct but partially overlapping substrate specificities. The best characterized are the kinases STATE TRANSITION 7 (STN7/STT7) and STATE TRANSITION 8 (STN8), and the antagonistic phosphatases PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE 1/THYLAKOID-ASSOCIATED PHOSPHATASE 38 (PPH1/TAP38) and PHOTOSYSTEM II CORE PHOSPHATASE (PBCP). The phosphorylation of LHCII is mainly governed by STN7 and PPH1/TAP38 in plants. LHCII phosphorylation is essential for state transitions, a regulatory feedback mechanism that controls the allocation of this antenna to either PSII or PSI, and thus maintains the redox balance of the electron transfer chain. Phosphorylation of several core subunits of PSII, regulated mainly by STN8 and PBCP, correlates with changes in thylakoid architecture, the repair cycle of PSII after photodamage as well as regulation of light harvesting and of alternative routes of photosynthetic electron transfer. Other kinases, such as the PLASTID CASEIN KINASE II (pCKII), also intervene in thylakoid protein phosphorylation and take part in the chloroplast kinase network. While some features of thylakoid phosphorylation were conserved through the evolution of photosynthetic eukaryotes, others have diverged in different lineages possibly as a result of their adaptation to varied environments.

Adjustment of photosynthetic activity to drought and fluctuating light in wheat

Drought is a major cause of losses in crop yield. Under field conditions, plants exposed to drought are usually also experiencing rapid changes in light intensity. Accordingly, plants need to acclimate to both, drought and light stress. Two crucial mechanisms in plant acclimation to changes in light conditions comprise thylakoid protein phosphorylation and dissipation of light energy as heat by non-photochemical quenching (NPQ). Here, we analyzed the acclimation efficacy of two different wheat varieties, by applying fluctuating light for analysis of plants, which had been subjected to a slowly developing drought stress as it usually occurs in the field. This novel approach allowed us to distinguish four drought phases, which are critical for grain yield, and to discover acclimatory responses which are independent of photodamage. In short-term, under fluctuating light, the slowdown of NPQ relaxation adjusts the photosynthetic activity to the reduced metabolic capacity. In long-term, the photosynthetic machinery acquires a drought-specific configuration by changing the PSII-LHCII phosphorylation pattern together with protein stoichiometry. Therefore, the fine-tuning of NPQ relaxation and PSII-LHCII phosphorylation pattern represent promising traits for future crop breeding strategies.

Chilli leaf curl virus infection downregulates the expression of the genes encoding chloroplast proteins and stress-related proteins

Virus infection alters the expression of several host genes involved in various cellular and biological processes in plants. Most of the studies performed till now have mainly focused on genes which are up-regulated and later projected them as probable stress tolerant/susceptible genes. Nevertheless, genes which are down-regulated during plant-virus interaction could also play a critical role on disease development as well as in combating the virus infection. Hence, to identify such down-regulated genes and pathway, we performed reverse suppression subtractive hybridization in Capsicum annuum var. Punjab Lal following Chilli leaf curl virus (ChiLCV) infection. The screening and further processing suggested that majority of the genes (approximately 35% ESTs) showed homology with the genes encoding chloroplast proteins and 16% genes involved in the biotic and abiotic stress response. Additionally, we identified several genes, functionally known to be involved in metabolic processes, protein synthesis and degradation, ribosomal proteins, energy production, DNA replication and transcription, and transporters. We also found 3% transcripts which did not show homology with any known genes. The redundancy analysis revealed the maximum percentage of chlorophyll a-b binding protein (15/96) and auxin-binding proteins (13/96). We developed a protein interactome network to characterise the relationships between proteins and pathway involved during the ChiLCV infection. We identified that the most of the interaction occurs either among the chloroplast proteins (Arabidopsis proteins interactive map) or biotic and abiotic stress responsive proteins (Solanum lycopersicum interactome). Taken together, our study provides the first transcriptome and protein interactome of the down-regulated genes during C. annuum-ChiLCV interaction. These resources could be exploited in deciphering the steps involved in the process of virus infection.

Involvement of Lhcb6 and Lhcb5 in Photosynthesis Regulation in Physcomitrella patens Response to Abiotic Stress

There are a number of highly conserved photosystem II light-harvesting antenna proteins in moss whose functions are unclear. Here, we investigated the involvement of chlorophyll-binding proteins, Lhcb6 and Lhcb5, in light-harvesting and photosynthesis regulation in Physcomitrella patens. Lhcb6 or Lhcb5 knock-out resulted in a disordered thylakoid arrangement, a decrease in the number of grana membranes, and an increase in the number of starch granule. The absence of Lhcb6 or Lhcb5 did not noticeably alter the electron transport rates. However, the non-photochemical quenching activity in the lhcb5 mutant was dramatically reduced when compared to wild-type or lhcb6 plants under abiotic stress. Lhcb5 plants were more sensitive to photo-inhibition, while lhcb6 plants showed little difference compared to the wild-type plants under high-light stress. Moreover, both mutants showed a growth malformation phenotype with reduced chlorophyll content in the gametophyte. These results suggested that Lhcb6 or Lhcb5 played a unique role in plant development, thylakoid organization, and photoprotection of PSII in Physcomitrella, especially when exposed to high light or osmotic environments.

Structural Insights into Substrate Selectivity, Catalytic Mechanism, and Redox Regulation of Rice Photosystem II Core Phosphatase

Photosystem II (PSII) core phosphatase (PBCP) selectively dephosphorylates PSII core proteins including D1, D2, CP43, and PsbH. PBCP function is required for efficient degradation of the D1 protein in the repair cycle of PSII, a supramolecular machinery highly susceptible to photodamage during oxygenic photosynthesis. Here we present structural and functional studies of PBCP from Oryza sativa (OsPBCP). In a symmetrical homodimer of OsPBCP, each monomer contains a PP2C-type phosphatase core domain, a large motif characteristic of PBCPs, and two small motifs around the active site. The large motif contributes to the formation of a substrate-binding surface groove, and is crucial for the selectivity of PBCP toward PSII core proteins and against the light-harvesting proteins. Remarkably, the phosphatase activity of OsPBCP is strongly inhibited by glutathione and H₂O₂. S-Glutathionylation of cysteine residues may introduce steric hindrance and allosteric effects to the active site. Collectively, these results provide detailed mechanistic insights into the substrate selectivity, redox regulation, and catalytic mechanism of PBCP.

Comparison on Photosynthesis and Antioxidant Defense Systems in Wheat with Different Ploidy Levels and Octoploid Triticale

To investigate the evolutionary differences of wheat with different ploidy levels and octoploid Triticale, photosynthetic capacity, and antioxidant defenses system were compared within and between diploid, tetraploid and hexaploid wheat, and octoploid Triticale seedlings. The results showed that seed germination rate, chlorophyll content, and photochemical activity of photosystems, and the activities of antioxidative enzymes in hexaploid wheat and octoploid Triticale were significantly higher than in diploid and tetraploid wheat. Compared to other two wheat species and octoploid Triticale, hexaploid wheat presented lower levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Furthermore, we found that the levels of photosystem II reaction center protein D1, light-harvesting complex II b4 (CP29), and D subunit of photosystem I (PsaD) in diploid wheat were significantly lower compared with hexaploid wheat and octoploid Triticale. Taken together, we concluded that hexaploid wheat and octoploid Triticale have higher photosynthetic capacities and better antioxidant systems. These findings indicate that different ploidy levels of chromosome probably play an important regulatory role in photosystems and antioxidative systems of plants.

Terrestrial Plants Evolve Highly Assembled Photosystem Complexes in Adaptation to Light Shifts

It has been known that PSI and PSII supercomplexes are involved in the linear and cyclic electron transfer, dynamics of light capture, and the repair cycle of PSII under environmental stresses. However, evolutions of photosystem (PS) complexes from evolutionarily divergent species are largely unknown. Here, we improved the blue native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (BN-PAGE) separation method and successfully separated PS complexes from all terrestrial plants. It is well known that reversible D1 protein phosphorylation is an important protective mechanism against oxidative damages to chloroplasts through the PSII photoinhibition-repair cycle. The results indicate that antibody-detectable phosphorylation of D1 protein is the latest event in the evolution of PS protein phosphorylation and occurs exclusively in seed plants. Compared to angiosperms, other terrestrial plant species presented much lower contents of PS supercomplexes. The amount of light-harvesting complexes II (LHCII) trimers was higher than that of LHCII monomers in angiosperms, whereas it was opposite in gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and bryophytes. LHCII assembly may be one of the evolutionary characteristics of vascular plants. In vivo chloroplast fluorescence measurements indicated that lower plants (bryophytes especially) showed slower changes in state transition and nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) in response to light shifts. Therefore, the evolution of PS supercomplexes may be correlated with their acclimations to environments.

Comparison of phosphorylation and assembly of photosystem complexes and redox homeostasis in two wheat cultivars with different drought resistance

Reversible phosphorylation of proteins and the assembly of thylakoid complexes are the important protective mechanism against environmental stresses in plants. This research was aimed to investigate the different responses of the antioxidant defense system and photosystem II (PSII) to osmotic stress between drought-resistant and drought-susceptible wheat cultivars. Results showed that the decrease in PSII photochemistry and six enzyme activities was observed in drought-susceptible wheat compared with drought-resistant wheat under osmotic stress. In addition, a lower accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell death were found in the resistant wheat compared with the susceptible wheat under osmotic stress. Western blot analysis revealed that osmotic stress led to a remarkable decline in the steady state level of D1 protein in drought-susceptible wheat. However, the CP29 protein was strongly phosphorylated in drought-resistant wheat compared with the susceptible wheat under osmotic stress. Our results also showed that drought-resistant wheat presented higher phosphorylated levels of the light-harvesting complex II (LHCII), D1, and D2 proteins and a more rapid dephosphorylated rate than drought-susceptible wheat under osmotic stress. Furthermore, the PSII-LHCII supercomplexes and LHCII trimers were more rapidly disassembled in drought-susceptible wheat than the drought-resistant wheat under osmotic stress. These findings provide that reversible phosphorylation of thylakoid membrane proteins and assembly of thylakoid membrane complexes play important roles in plant adaptation to environmental stresses.

The STN8 kinase-PBCP phosphatase system is responsible for high-light-induced reversible phosphorylation of the PSII inner antenna subunit CP29 in rice

Reversible phosphorylation of thylakoid light-harvesting proteins is a mechanism to compensate for unbalanced excitation of photosystem I (PSI) versus photosystem II (PSII) under limiting light. In monocots, an additional phosphorylation event on the PSII antenna CP29 occurs upon exposure to excess light, enhancing resistance to light stress. Different from the case of the major LHCII antenna complex, the STN7 kinase and its related PPH1 phosphatase were proven not to be involved in CP29 phosphorylation, indicating that a different set of enzymes act in the high-light (HL) response. Here, we analyze a rice stn8 mutant in which both PSII core proteins and CP29 phosphorylation are suppressed in HL, implying that STN8 is the kinase catalyzing this reaction. In order to identify the phosphatase involved, we produced a recombinant enzyme encoded by the rice ortholog of AtPBCP, antagonist of AtSTN8, which catalyzes the dephosphorylation of PSII core proteins. The recombinant protein was active in dephosphorylating P-CP29. Based on these data, we propose that the activities of the OsSTN8 kinase and the antagonistic OsPBCP phosphatase, in addition to being involved in the repair of photo-damaged PSII, are also responsible for the HL-dependent reversible phosphorylation of the inner antenna CP29.

Different response of photosystem II to short and long-term drought stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Short- and long-term drought stress on photosystem II (PSII) and oxidative stress were studied in Arabidopsis thaliana. Under drought stress, chlorophyll (Chl) content, Chl fluorescence, relative water content and oxygen evolution capacity gradually decreased, and the thylakoid structure was gradually damaged. Short-term drought stress caused a rapid disassembly of the light-harvesting complex II (LHCII). However, PSII dimers kept stable under the short-term drought stress and significantly decreased only after 15 days of drought stress. Immunoblotting analysis of the thylakoid membrane proteins showed that most of the photosystem proteins decreased after the stress, especially for Lhcb5, Lhcb6 and PsbQ proteins. However, surprisingly, PsbS significantly increased after the long-term drought stress, which is consistent with the substantially increased non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) after the stress. Our results suggest that the PSII-LHCII supercomplexes and LHCII assemblies play an important role in preventing photo-damages to PSII under drought stress.

An evolutionary view on thylakoid protein phosphorylation uncovers novel phosphorylation hotspots with potential functional implications

The regulation of photosynthetic light reactions by reversible protein phosphorylation is well established today, but functional studies have so far mostly been restricted to processes affecting light-harvesting complex II and the core proteins of photosystem II. Virtually no functional data are available on regulatory effects at the other photosynthetic complexes despite the identification of multiple phosphorylation sites. Therefore we summarize the available data from 50 published phospho-proteomics studies covering the main complexes involved in photosynthetic light reactions in the 'green lineage' (i.e. green algae and land plants) as well as its cyanobacterial counterparts. In addition, we performed an extensive orthologue search for the major photosynthetic thylakoid proteins in 41 sequenced genomes and generated sequence alignments to survey the phylogenetic distribution of phosphorylation sites and their evolutionary conservation from green algae to higher plants. We observed a number of uncharacterized phosphorylation hotspots at photosystem I and the ATP synthase with potential functional relevance as well as an unexpected divergence of phosphosites. Although technical limitations might account for a number of those differences, we think that many of these phosphosites have important functions. This is particularly important for mono- and dicot plants, where these sites might be involved in regulatory processes such as stress acclimation.

Novel connections in plant organellar signalling link different stress responses and signalling pathways

To coordinate growth, development and responses to environmental stimuli, plant cells need to communicate the metabolic state between different sub-compartments of the cell. This requires signalling pathways, including protein kinases, secondary messengers such as Ca(2+) ions or reactive oxygen species (ROS) as well as metabolites and plant hormones. The signalling networks involved have been intensively studied over recent decades and have been elaborated more or less in detail. However, it has become evident that these signalling networks are also tightly interconnected and often merge at common targets such as a distinct group of transcription factors, most prominently ABI4, which are amenable to regulation by phosphorylation, potentially also in a Ca(2+)- or ROS-dependent fashion. Moreover, the signalling pathways connect several organelles or subcellular compartments, not only in functional but also in physical terms, linking for example chloroplasts to the nucleus or peroxisomes to chloroplasts thereby enabling physical routes for signalling by metabolite exchange or even protein translocation. Here we briefly discuss these novel findings and try to connect them in order to point out the remaining questions and emerging developments in plant organellar signalling.

Protein phosphorylation in chloroplasts - a survey of phosphorylation targets

The development of new software tools, improved mass spectrometry equipment, a suite of optimized scan types, and better-quality phosphopeptide affinity capture have paved the way for an explosion of mass spectrometry data on phosphopeptides. Because phosphoproteomics achieves good sensitivity, most studies use complete cell extracts for phosphopeptide enrichment and identification without prior enrichment of proteins or subcellular compartments. As a consequence, the phosphoproteome of cell organelles often comes as a by-product from large-scale studies and is commonly assembled from these in meta-analyses. This review aims at providing some guidance on the limitations of meta-analyses that combine data from analyses with different scopes, reports on the current status of knowledge on chloroplast phosphorylation targets, provides initial insights into phosphorylation site conservation in different plant species, and highlights emerging information on the integration of gene expression with metabolism and photosynthesis by means of protein phosphorylation.

Biomonitoring heavy metal contaminations by moss visible parameters

Traditional sampling for heavy metal monitoring is a time-consuming and inconvenient method, which also does not indicate contaminants non-invasively and instantaneously. Moss is sensitive to heavy metals and is therefore considered a pollution indicator. However, it is unknown what kind physiological parameters can indicate metal contaminations quickly and non-invasively. Here, we systematically examined the effects of six heavy metals on physiological parameters and photosynthetic activities of two moss species grown in aquatic media or moist soil surface. We suggest that a phenotype with anthocyanin accumulation pattern and chlorosis pattern and two chlorophyll fluorescence parameters with their images can roughly reflect metal species groups, concentrations and differences between the two moss species. In other words, metal contaminations could be roughly estimated visually using the naked eye. Enzymatic and non-enzymatic anti-oxidative abilities and photosynthetic protein contents of Eurhynchium eustegium were higher than those of Taxiphyllum taxirameum, indicating their differential metal tolerance. Neither anti-oxidative abilities nor photosynthetic proteins were found to be ideal indicators. This study provides new ideas to monitor heavy metals rapidly and non-invasively in water or on wetland and moist soil surface.

Surviving metabolic arrest: photosynthesis during desiccation and rehydration in resurrection plants

Photosynthesis is the key process that is affected by dehydration in plants. Desiccation-tolerant resurrection plants can survive conditions of very low relative water content. During desiccation, photosynthesis is not operational, but is recovered within a short period after rehydration. While homoiochlorophyllous resurrection plants retain their photosynthetic apparatus during desiccation, poikilochlorophyllous resurrection species dismantle chloroplasts and degrade chlorophyll but resynthesize them again during rehydration. Dismantling the chloroplasts avoids the photooxidative stress in poikilochlorophyllous resurrection plants, whereas it is minimized in homoiochlorophyllous plants through the synthesis of antioxidant enzymes and protective proteins or metabolites. Although the cellular protection mechanisms in both of these species vary, these mechanisms protect cells from desiccation-induced damage and restore photosynthesis upon rehydration. Several of the proteins synthesized during dehydration are localized in chloroplasts and are believed to play major roles in the protection of photosynthetic structures and in recovery in resurrection species. This review focuses on the strategies of resurrection plants in terms of how they protect their photosynthetic apparatus from oxidative stress during desiccation without membrane damage and with full recovery during rehydration. We review the role of the dehydration-induced protection mechanisms in chloroplasts and how photosynthesis is restored during rehydration.

Exploring potential of pearl millet germplasm association panel for association mapping of drought tolerance traits

A pearl millet inbred germplasm association panel (PMiGAP) comprising 250 inbred lines, representative of cultivated germplasm from Africa and Asia, elite improved open-pollinated cultivars, hybrid parental inbreds and inbred mapping population parents, was recently established. This study presents the first report of genetic diversity in PMiGAP and its exploitation for association mapping of drought tolerance traits. For diversity and genetic structure analysis, PMiGAP was genotyped with 37 SSR and CISP markers representing all seven linkage groups. For association analysis, it was phenotyped for yield and yield components and morpho-physiological traits under both well-watered and drought conditions, and genotyped with SNPs and InDels from seventeen genes underlying a major validated drought tolerance (DT) QTL. The average gene diversity in PMiGAP was 0.54. The STRUCTURE analysis revealed six subpopulations within PMiGAP. Significant associations were obtained for 22 SNPs and 3 InDels from 13 genes under different treatments. Seven SNPs associations from 5 genes were common under irrigated and one of the drought stress treatments. Most significantly, an important SNP in putative acetyl CoA carboxylase gene showed constitutive association with grain yield, grain harvest index and panicle yield under all treatments. An InDel in putative chlorophyll a/b binding protein gene was significantly associated with both stay-green and grain yield traits under drought stress. This can be used as a functional marker for selecting high yielding genotypes with 'stay green' phenotype under drought stress. The present study identified useful marker-trait associations of important agronomics traits under irrigated and drought stress conditions with genes underlying a major validated DT-QTL in pearl millet. Results suggest that PMiGAP is a useful panel for association mapping. Expression patterns of genes also shed light on some physiological mechanisms underlying pearl millet drought tolerance.

High light-dependent phosphorylation of photosystem II inner antenna CP29 in monocots is STN7 independent and enhances nonphotochemical quenching

Phosphorylation of the photosystem II antenna protein CP29 has been reported to be induced by excess light and further enhanced by low temperature, increasing resistance to these stressing factors. Moreover, high light-induced CP29 phosphorylation was specifically found in monocots, both C3 and C4, which include the large majority of food crops. Recently, knockout collections have become available in rice (Oryza sativa), a model organism for monocots. In this work, we have used reverse genetics coupled to biochemical and physiological analysis to elucidate the molecular basis of high light-induced phosphorylation of CP29 and the mechanisms by which it exerts a photoprotective effect. We found that kinases and phosphatases involved in CP29 phosphorylation are distinct from those reported to act in State 1-State 2 transitions. In addition, we elucidated the photoprotective role of CP29 phosphorylation in reducing singlet oxygen production and enhancing excess energy dissipation. We thus established, in monocots, a mechanistic connection between phosphorylation of CP29 and nonphotochemical quenching, two processes so far considered independent from one another.

Exploring the structure of the 100 amino-acid residue long N-terminus of the plant antenna protein CP29

The structure of the unusually long (∼100 amino-acid residues) N-terminal domain of the light-harvesting protein CP29 of plants is not defined in the crystal structure of this membrane protein. We studied the N-terminus using two electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) approaches: the rotational diffusion of spin labels at 55 residues with continuous-wave EPR, and three sets of distances with a pulsed EPR method. The N-terminus is relatively structured. Five regions that differ considerably in their dynamics are identified. Two regions have low rotational diffusion, one of which shows α-helical character suggesting contact with the protein surface. This immobile part is flanked by two highly dynamic, unstructured regions (loops) that cover residues 10-22 and 82-91. These loops may be important for the interaction with other light-harvesting proteins. The region around residue 4 also has low rotational diffusion, presumably because it attaches noncovalently to the protein. This section is close to a phosphorylation site (Thr-6) in related proteins, such as those encoded by the Lhcb4.2 gene. Phosphorylation might influence the interaction with other antenna complexes, thereby regulating the supramolecular organization in the thylakoid membrane.

Reduced glutamine synthetase activity plays a role in control of photosynthetic responses to high light in barley leaves

The chloroplastic glutamine synthetase (GS, EC 6.3.1.2) activity was previously shown to be the limiting step of photorespiratory pathway. In our experiment, we examined the photosynthetic high-light responses of the GS2-mutant of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) with reduced GS activity, in comparison to wild type (WT). The biophysical methods based on slow and fast chlorophyll fluorescence induction, P700 absorbance, and gas exchange measurements were employed. Despite the GS2 plants had high basal fluorescence (F0) and low maximum quantum yield (Fv/Fm), the CO2 assimilation rate, the PSII and PSI actual quantum yields were normal. On the other hand, in high light conditions the GS2 had much higher non-photochemical quenching (NPQ), caused both by enhanced capacity of energy-dependent quenching and disconnection of PSII antennae from reaction centers (RC). GS2 leaves also maintained the PSII redox poise (QA(-)/QA total) at very low level; probably this was reason why the observed photoinhibitory damage was not significantly above WT. The analysis of fast chlorophyll fluorescence induction uncovered in GS2 leaves substantially lower RC to antenna ratio (RC/ABS), low PSII/PSI ratio (confirmed by P700 records) as well as low PSII excitonic connectivity.

Low pH-induced regulation of excitation energy between the two photosystems

Earlier studies have proposed that low pH causes state transitions in spinach thylakoid membranes. Several Arabidopsis mutants (stn7 incapable in phosphorylation of LHC II, stn8 incapable in phosphorylation of PSII core proteins, stn7 stn8 double mutant and npq4 lacking PsbS and hence qE) were used to investigate the mechanisms involved in low pH induced changes in the thylakoid membrane. We propose that protonation of PsbS at low pH is involved in enhancing energy spillover to PS I.

Photosynthetic electron transport and specific photoprotective responses in wheat leaves under drought stress

The photosynthetic responses of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) leaves to different levels of drought stress were analyzed in potted plants cultivated in growth chamber under moderate light. Low-to-medium drought stress was induced by limiting irrigation, maintaining 20 % of soil water holding capacity for 14 days followed by 3 days without water supply to induce severe stress. Measurements of CO2 exchange and photosystem II (PSII) yield (by chlorophyll fluorescence) were followed by simultaneous measurements of yield of PSI (by P700 absorbance changes) and that of PSII. Drought stress gradually decreased PSII electron transport, but the capacity for nonphotochemical quenching increased more slowly until there was a large decrease in leaf relative water content (where the photosynthetic rate had decreased by half or more). We identified a substantial part of PSII electron transport, which was not used by carbon assimilation or by photorespiration, which clearly indicates activities of alternative electron sinks. Decreasing the fraction of light absorbed by PSII and increasing the fraction absorbed by PSI with increasing drought stress (rather than assuming equal absorption by the two photosystems) support a proposed function of PSI cyclic electron flow to generate a proton-motive force to activate nonphotochemical dissipation of energy, and it is consistent with the observed accumulation of oxidized P700 which causes a decrease in PSI electron acceptors. Our results support the roles of alternative electron sinks (either from PSII or PSI) and cyclic electron flow in photoprotection of PSII and PSI in drought stress conditions. In future studies on plant stress, analyses of the partitioning of absorbed energy between photosystems are needed for interpreting flux through linear electron flow, PSI cyclic electron flow, along with alternative electron sinks.

Loss-of-function of OsSTN8 suppresses the photosystem II core protein phosphorylation and interferes with the photosystem II repair mechanism in rice (Oryza sativa)

STN8 kinase is involved in photosystem II (PSII) core protein phosphorylation (PCPP). To examine the role of PCPP in PSII repair during high light (HL) illumination, we characterized a T-DNA insertional knockout mutant of the rice (Oryza sativa) STN8 gene. In this osstn8 mutant, PCPP was significantly suppressed, and the grana were thin and elongated. Upon HL illumination, PSII was strongly inactivated in the mutants, but the D1 protein was degraded more slowly than in wild-type, and mobilization of the PSII supercomplexes from the grana to the stromal lamellae for repair was also suppressed. In addition, higher accumulation of reactive oxygen species and preferential oxidation of PSII reaction center core proteins in thylakoid membranes were observed in the mutants during HL illumination. Taken together, our current data show that the absence of STN8 is sufficient to abolish PCPP in osstn8 mutants and to produce all of the phenotypes observed in the double mutant of Arabidopsis, indicating the essential role of STN8-mediated PCPP in PSII repair.