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Ai Y, Chen Y, Wang N, Li J, Liu J, Shen L, Sun X, Han L, Chao Y. Overexpression of MtIPT gene enhanced drought tolerance and delayed leaf senescence of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 24:734. [PMID: 39085786 PMCID: PMC11293197 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-024-05442-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Isopentenyltransferases (IPT) serve as crucial rate-limiting enzyme in cytokinin synthesis, playing a vital role in plant growth, development, and resistance to abiotic stress. RESULTS Compared to the wild type, transgenic creeping bentgrass exhibited a slower growth rate, heightened drought tolerance, and improved shade tolerance attributed to delayed leaf senescence. Additionally, transgenic plants showed significant increases in antioxidant enzyme levels, chlorophyll content, and soluble sugars. Importantly, this study uncovered that overexpression of the MtIPT gene not only significantly enhanced cytokinin and auxin content but also influenced brassinosteroid level. RNA-seq analysis revealed that differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between transgenic and wild type plants were closely associated with plant hormone signal transduction, steroid biosynthesis, photosynthesis, flavonoid biosynthesis, carotenoid biosynthesis, anthocyanin biosynthesis, oxidation-reduction process, cytokinin metabolism, and wax biosynthesis. And numerous DEGs related to growth, development, and stress tolerance were identified, including cytokinin signal transduction genes (CRE1, B-ARR), antioxidase-related genes (APX2, PEX11, PER1), Photosynthesis-related genes (ATPF1A, PSBQ, PETF), flavonoid synthesis genes (F3H, C12RT1, DFR), wax synthesis gene (MAH1), senescence-associated gene (SAG20), among others. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that the MtIPT gene acts as a negative regulator of plant growth and development, while also playing a crucial role in the plant's response to abiotic stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Ai
- School of Grassland Science of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering and Technology Research Center for Sports Field and Slope Protection Turf, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing, China
- UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Yinglong Chen
- UWA School of Agriculture and Environment, The UWA Institute of Agriculture, The University of Western Australia, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Ning Wang
- Shenzhen Tidyfield System Biotechnology Co., Ltd, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jiaxing Li
- School of Grassland Science of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering and Technology Research Center for Sports Field and Slope Protection Turf, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Jinnan Liu
- School of Grassland Science of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering and Technology Research Center for Sports Field and Slope Protection Turf, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Liangying Shen
- School of Grassland Science of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
- Engineering and Technology Research Center for Sports Field and Slope Protection Turf, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing, China
| | - Xinbo Sun
- College of Agronomy, State Key Laboratory of North China Crop Improvement and Regulation/Key Laboratory of Crop Growth Regulation of Hebei Province, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China
| | - Liebao Han
- School of Grassland Science of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.
- Engineering and Technology Research Center for Sports Field and Slope Protection Turf, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing, China.
| | - Yuehui Chao
- School of Grassland Science of Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China.
- Engineering and Technology Research Center for Sports Field and Slope Protection Turf, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Beijing, China.
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Argueso CT, Kieber JJ. Cytokinin: From autoclaved DNA to two-component signaling. THE PLANT CELL 2024; 36:1429-1450. [PMID: 38163638 PMCID: PMC11062471 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koad327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Since its first identification in the 1950s as a regulator of cell division, cytokinin has been linked to many physiological processes in plants, spanning growth and development and various responses to the environment. Studies from the last two and one-half decades have revealed the pathways underlying the biosynthesis and metabolism of cytokinin and have elucidated the mechanisms of its perception and signaling, which reflects an ancient signaling system evolved from two-component elements in bacteria. Mutants in the genes encoding elements involved in these processes have helped refine our understanding of cytokinin functions in plants. Further, recent advances have provided insight into the mechanisms of intracellular and long-distance cytokinin transport and the identification of several proteins that operate downstream of cytokinin signaling. Here, we review these processes through a historical lens, providing an overview of cytokinin metabolism, transport, signaling, and functions in higher plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristiana T Argueso
- Department of Agricultural Biology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Joseph J Kieber
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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3
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Demko V, Belova T, Messerer M, Hvidsten TR, Perroud PF, Ako AE, Johansen W, Mayer KFX, Olsen OA, Lang D. Regulation of developmental gatekeeping and cell fate transition by the calpain protease DEK1 in Physcomitrium patens. Commun Biol 2024; 7:261. [PMID: 38438476 PMCID: PMC10912778 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-024-05933-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Calpains are cysteine proteases that control cell fate transitions whose loss of function causes severe, pleiotropic phenotypes in eukaryotes. Although mainly considered as modulatory proteases, human calpain targets are directed to the N-end rule degradation pathway. Several such targets are transcription factors, hinting at a gene-regulatory role. Here, we analyze the gene-regulatory networks of the moss Physcomitrium patens and characterize the regulons that are misregulated in mutants of the calpain DEFECTIVE KERNEL1 (DEK1). Predicted cleavage patterns of the regulatory hierarchies in five DEK1-controlled subnetworks are consistent with a pleiotropic and regulatory role during cell fate transitions targeting multiple functions. Network structure suggests DEK1-gated sequential transitions between cell fates in 2D-to-3D development. Our method combines comprehensive phenotyping, transcriptomics and data science to dissect phenotypic traits, and our model explains the protease function as a switch gatekeeping cell fate transitions potentially also beyond plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Demko
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway
- Department of Plant Physiology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Ilkovicova 6, 84104, Bratislava, Slovakia
- Plant Science and Biodiversity Center, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Dubravska cesta 9, 84104, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Tatiana Belova
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Maxim Messerer
- Plant Genome and Systems Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich-Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Torgeir R Hvidsten
- Faculty of Chemistry, Biotechnology and Food Science, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway
| | - Pierre-François Perroud
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Université Paris-Saclay, 78000, Versailles, France
| | - Ako Eugene Ako
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Holsetgata 31, 2318, Hamar, Norway
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Brackenhurst Campus, Southwell, Nottinghamshire, NG25 0QF, UK
| | - Wenche Johansen
- Department of Biotechnology, Inland Norway University of Applied Sciences, Holsetgata 31, 2318, Hamar, Norway
| | - Klaus F X Mayer
- Plant Genome and Systems Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich-Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany
- School of Life Sciences, Technical University Munich, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Odd-Arne Olsen
- Department of Plant Sciences, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås, Norway
| | - Daniel Lang
- Plant Genome and Systems Biology, Helmholtz Center Munich-Research Center for Environmental Health, 85764, Neuherberg, Germany.
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Microbial Genomics and Bioforensics, 80937, Munich, Germany.
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Aoki MM, Kisiala AB, Mathavarajah S, Schincaglia A, Treverton J, Habib E, Dellaire G, Emery RJN, Brunetti CR, Huber RJ. From biosynthesis and beyond-Loss or overexpression of the cytokinin synthesis gene, iptA, alters cytokinesis and mitochondrial and amino acid metabolism in Dictyostelium discoideum. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23366. [PMID: 38102957 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202301936rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are a class of growth-promoting signaling molecules that affect multiple cellular and developmental processes. These phytohormones are well studied in plants, but their presence continues to be uncovered in organisms spanning all kingdoms, which poses new questions about their roles and functions outside of plant systems. Cytokinin production can be initiated by one of two different biosynthetic enzymes, adenylate isopentenyltransfases (IPTs) or tRNA isopentenyltransferases (tRNA-IPTs). In this study, the social amoeba, Dictyostelium discoideum, was used to study the role of CKs by generating deletion and overexpression strains of its single adenylate-IPT gene, iptA. The life cycle of D. discoideum is unique and possesses both single- and multicellular stages. Vegetative amoebae grow and divide while food resources are plentiful, and multicellular development is initiated upon starvation, which includes distinct life cycle stages. CKs are produced in D. discoideum throughout its life cycle and their functions have been well studied during the later stages of multicellular development of D. discoideum. To investigate potential expanded roles of CKs, this study focused on vegetative growth and early developmental stages. We found that iptA-deficiency results in cytokinesis defects, and both iptA-deficiency and overexpression results in dysregulated tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and amino acid metabolism, as well as increased levels of adenosine monophosphate (AMP). Collectively, these findings extend our understanding of CK function in amoebae, indicating that iptA loss and overexpression alter biological processes during vegetative growth that are distinct from those reported during later development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M Aoki
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anna B Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | | | | | - Jared Treverton
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Elias Habib
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Graham Dellaire
- Department of Pathology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - R J Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Craig R Brunetti
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Robert J Huber
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
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5
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Powell AE, Heyl A. The origin and early evolution of cytokinin signaling. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1142748. [PMID: 37457338 PMCID: PMC10338860 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1142748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023]
Abstract
Angiosperms, especially Arabidopsis and rice, have long been at the center of plant research. However, technological advances in sequencing have led to a dramatic increase in genome and transcriptome data availability across land plants and, more recently, among green algae. These data allowed for an in-depth study of the evolution of different protein families - including those involved in the metabolism and signaling of phytohormones. While most early studies on phytohormone evolution were phylogenetic, those studies have started to be complemented by genetic and biochemical studies in recent years. Examples of such functional analyses focused on ethylene, jasmonic acid, abscisic acid, and auxin. These data have been summarized recently. In this review, we will focus on the progress in our understanding of cytokinin biology. We will use these data to synthesize key points about the evolution of cytokinin metabolism and signaling, which might apply to the evolution of other phytohormones as well.
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6
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Biswal DP, Panigrahi KCS. Red Light and Glucose Enhance Cytokinin-Mediated Bud Initial Formation in Physcomitrium patens. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11050707. [PMID: 35270177 PMCID: PMC8912492 DOI: 10.3390/plants11050707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Growth and development of Physcomitrium patens is endogenously regulated by phytohormones such as auxin and cytokinin. Auxin induces the transition of chloronema to caulonema. This transition is also regulated by additional factors such as quantity and quality of light, carbon supply, and other phytohormones such as strigolactones and precursors of gibberrelic acid. On the other hand, cytokinins induce the formation of bud initials following caulonema differentiation. However, the influence of external factors such as light or nutrient supply on cytokinin-mediated bud initial formation has not been demonstrated in Physcomitrium patens. This study deals with the effect of light quality and nutrient supply on cytokinin-mediated bud initial formation. Bud initial formation has been observed in wild type plants in different light conditions such as white, red, and blue light in response to exogenously supplied cytokinin as well as glucose. In addition, budding assay has been demonstrated in the cry1a mutant of Physcomitrium in different light conditions. The results indicate that carbon supply and red light enhance the cytokinin response, while blue light inhibits this process in Physcomitrium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Durga Prasad Biswal
- School of Biological Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), Bhubaneswar 752050, Odisha, India;
- Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI), Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai 400094, Maharashtra, India
| | - Kishore Chandra Sekhar Panigrahi
- School of Biological Sciences, National Institute of Science Education and Research (NISER), Bhubaneswar 752050, Odisha, India;
- Homi Bhabha National Institute (HBNI), Training School Complex, Anushakti Nagar, Mumbai 400094, Maharashtra, India
- Correspondence:
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7
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Bonthala VS, Stich B. Genetic Divergence of Lineage-Specific Tandemly Duplicated Gene Clusters in Four Diploid Potato Genotypes. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:875202. [PMID: 35645998 PMCID: PMC9131075 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.875202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is the most important non-grain food crop. Tandem duplication significantly contributes to genome evolution. The objectives of this study were to (i) identify tandemly duplicated genes and compare their genomic distributions across potato genotypes, (ii) investigate the bias in functional specificities, (iii) explore the relationships among coding sequence, promoter and expression divergences associated with tandemly duplicated genes, (iv) examine the role of tandem duplication in generating and expanding lineage-specific gene families, (v) investigate the evolutionary forces affecting tandemly duplicated genes, and (vi) assess the similarities and differences with respect to above mentioned aspects between cultivated genotypes and their wild-relative. In this study, we used well-annotated and chromosome-scale de novo genome assemblies of multiple potato genotypes. Our results showed that tandemly duplicated genes are abundant and dispersed through the genome. We found that several functional specificities, such as disease resistance, stress-tolerance, and biosynthetic pathways of tandemly duplicated genes were differentially enriched across multiple potato genomes. Our results indicated the existence of a significant correlation among expression, promoter, and protein divergences in tandemly duplicated genes. We found about one fourth of tandemly duplicated gene clusters as lineage-specific among multiple potato genomes, and these tended to localize toward centromeres and revealed distinct selection signatures and expression patterns. Furthermore, our results showed that a majority of duplicated genes were retained through sub-functionalization followed by genetic redundancy, while only a small fraction of duplicated genes was retained though neo-functionalization. The lineage-specific expansion of gene families by tandem duplication coupled with functional bias might have significantly contributed to potato's genotypic diversity, and, thus, to adaption to environmental stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkata Suresh Bonthala
- Institute of Quantitative Genetics and Genomics of Plants, Heinrich Heine University of Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- *Correspondence: Venkata Suresh Bonthala,
| | - Benjamin Stich
- Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, Köln, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, From Complex Traits Towards Synthetic Modules, Düsseldorf, Germany
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8
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Cytokinin Perception in Ancient Plants beyond Angiospermae. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222313077. [PMID: 34884882 PMCID: PMC8657898 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) control many plant developmental processes and responses to environmental cues. Although the CK signaling is well understood, we are only beginning to decipher its evolution. Here, we investigated the CK perception apparatus in early-divergent plant species such as bryophyte Physcomitrium patens, lycophyte Selaginella moellendorffii, and gymnosperm Picea abies. Of the eight CHASE-domain containing histidine kinases (CHKs) examined, two CHKs, PpCHK3 and PpCHK4, did not bind CKs. All other CHK receptors showed high-affinity CK binding (KD of nM range), with a strong preference for isopentenyladenine over other CK nucleobases in the moss and for trans-zeatin over cis-zeatin in the gymnosperm. The pH dependences of CK binding for these six CHKs showed a wide range, which may indicate different subcellular localization of these receptors at either the plasma- or endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Thus, the properties of the whole CK perception apparatuses in early-divergent lineages were demonstrated. Data show that during land plant evolution there was a diversification of the ligand specificity of various CHKs, in particular, the rise in preference for trans-zeatin over cis-zeatin, which indicates a steadily increasing specialization of receptors to various CKs. Finally, this distinct preference of individual receptors to different CK versions culminated in vascular plants, especially angiosperms.
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9
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Nguyen HN, Nguyen TQ, Kisiala AB, Emery RJN. Beyond transport: cytokinin ribosides are translocated and active in regulating the development and environmental responses of plants. PLANTA 2021; 254:45. [PMID: 34365553 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-021-03693-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Riboside type cytokinins are key components in cytokinin metabolism, transport, and sensitivity, making them important functional signals in plant growth and development and environmental stress responses. Cytokinin (CKs) are phytohormones that regulate multiple processes in plants and are critical for agronomy, as they are involved in seed filling and plant responses to biotic and abiotic stress. Among the over 30 identified CKs, there is uncertainty about the roles of many of the individual CK structural forms. Cytokinin free bases (CKFBs), have been studied in great detail, but, by comparison, roles of riboside-type CKs (CKRs) in CK metabolism and associated signaling pathways and their distal impacts on plant physiology remain largely unknown. Here, recent findings on CKR abundance, transport and localization, are summarized, and their importance in planta is discussed. The history of CKR analyses is reviewed, in the context of the determination of CK metabolic pathways, and research on CKR affinity for CK receptors, all of which yield essential insights into their functions. Recent studies suggest that CKR forms are a lot more than a group of transport CKs and, beyond this, they play important roles in plant development and responses to environmental stress. In this context, this review discusses the involvement of CKRs in plant development, and highlight the less anticipated functions of CKRs in abiotic stress tolerance. Based on this, possible mechanisms for CKR modes of action are proposed and experimental approaches to further uncover their roles and future biotechnological applications are suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hai Ngoc Nguyen
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9L 0G2, Canada.
| | - Thien Quoc Nguyen
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9L 0G2, Canada
| | - Anna B Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9L 0G2, Canada
| | - R J Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9L 0G2, Canada
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10
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Nguyen HN, Lai N, Kisiala AB, Emery RJN. Isopentenyltransferases as master regulators of crop performance: their function, manipulation, and genetic potential for stress adaptation and yield improvement. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2021; 19:1297-1313. [PMID: 33934489 PMCID: PMC8313133 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Isopentenyltransferase (IPT) in plants regulates a rate-limiting step of cytokinin (CTK) biosynthesis. IPTs are recognized as key regulators of CTK homeostasis and phytohormone crosstalk in both biotic and abiotic stress responses. Recent research has revealed the regulatory function of IPTs in gene expression and metabolite profiles including source-sink modifications, energy metabolism, nutrient allocation and storage, stress defence and signalling pathways, protein synthesis and transport, and membrane transport. This suggests that IPTs play a crucial role in plant growth and adaptation. In planta studies of IPT-driven modifications indicate that, at a physiological level, IPTs improve stay-green characteristics, delay senescence, reduce stress-induced oxidative damage and protect photosynthetic machinery. Subsequently, these improvements often manifest as enhanced or stabilized crop yields and this is especially apparent under environmental stress. These mechanisms merit consideration of the IPTs as 'master regulators' of core cellular metabolic pathways, thus adjusting plant homeostasis/adaptive responses to altered environmental stresses, to maximize yield potential. If their expression can be adequately controlled, both spatially and temporally, IPTs can be a key driver for seed yield. In this review, we give a comprehensive overview of recent findings on how IPTs influence plant stress physiology and yield, and we highlight areas for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nhan Lai
- School of BiotechnologyVietnam National UniversityHo Chi Minh CityVietnam
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11
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Gibb M, Kisiala AB, Morrison EN, Emery RJN. The Origins and Roles of Methylthiolated Cytokinins: Evidence From Among Life Kingdoms. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:605672. [PMID: 33240900 PMCID: PMC7680852 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.605672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are a group of adenine-derived, small signaling molecules of crucial importance for growth and multiple developmental processes in plants. Biological roles of classical CKs: isopentenyladenine (iP), trans and cis isomers of zeatin (tZ, cZ), and dihydrozeatin, have been studied extensively and their functions are well defined in many aspects of plant physiology. In parallel, extensive knowledge exists for genes involved in tRNA modifications that lead to the production of tRNA-bound methylthiolated CKs, especially in bacterial and mammalian systems. However, not much is known about the origins, fates, and possible functions of the unbound methylthiolated CKs (2MeS-CKs) in biological systems. 2MeS-CKs are the free base or riboside derivatives of iP or Z-type CKs, modified by the addition of a thiol group (–SH) at position 2 of the adenine ring that is subsequently methylated. Based on the evidence to date, these distinctive CK conjugates are derived exclusively via the tRNA degradation pathway. This review summarizes the knowledge on the probable steps involved in the biosynthesis of unbound 2MeS-CKs across diverse kingdoms of life. Furthermore, it provides examples of CK profiles of organisms from which the presence of 2MeS-CKs have been detected and confirms a close association and balance between the production of classical CKs and 2MeS-CKs. Finally, it discusses available reports regarding the possible physiological functions of 2MeS-CKs in different biological systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Gibb
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Anna B Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Erin N Morrison
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - R J Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
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12
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Aoki MM, Emery RJN, Anjard C, Brunetti CR, Huber RJ. Cytokinins in Dictyostelia - A Unique Model for Studying the Functions of Signaling Agents From Species to Kingdoms. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:511. [PMID: 32714926 PMCID: PMC7316887 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are a diverse group of evolutionarily significant growth-regulating molecules. While the CK biosynthesis and signal transduction pathways are the most well-understood in plant systems, these molecules have been identified in all kingdoms of life. This review follows the recent discovery of an expanded CK profile in the social amoeba, Dictyostelium discoideum. A comprehensive review on the present knowledge of CK biosynthesis, signal transduction, and CK-small molecule interactions within members of Dictyostelia will be summarized. In doing so, the utility of social amoebae will be highlighted as a model system for studying the evolution of these hormone-like signaling agents, which will set the stage for future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M Aoki
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - R J Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Christophe Anjard
- Institut Lumière Matière, CNRS UMR 5306, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Craig R Brunetti
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
| | - Robert J Huber
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, Canada
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13
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Savory EA, Weisberg AJ, Stevens DM, Creason AL, Fuller SL, Pearce EM, Chang JH. Phytopathogenic Rhodococcus Have Diverse Plasmids With Few Conserved Virulence Functions. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1022. [PMID: 32523572 PMCID: PMC7261884 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Rhodococcus is a genus of Gram-positive bacteria with species that can cause growth deformations to a large number of plant species. This ability to cause disease is hypothesized to be dependent on a cluster of three gene loci on an almost 200 kb-sized linear plasmid. To reevaluate the roles of some of the genes in pathogenicity, we constructed and characterized deletion mutants of fasR and four fas genes. Findings confirmed that fasR, which encodes a putative transcriptional regulator, is necessary for pathogenesis. However, three of the fas genes, implicated in the metabolism of plant growth promoting cytokinins, are dispensable for the ability of the pathogen to cause disease. We also used long-read sequencing technology to generate high quality genome sequences for two phytopathogenic strains in which virulence genes are diverged in sequence and/or hypothesized to have recombined into the chromosome. Surprisingly, findings showed that the two strains carry extremely diverse virulence plasmids. Ortholog clustering identified only 12 genes present on all three virulence plasmids. Rhodococcus requires a small number of horizontally acquired traits to be pathogenic and the transmission of the corresponding genes, via recombination and conjugation, has the potential to rapidly diversify plasmids and bacterial populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth A Savory
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Alexandra J Weisberg
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Danielle M Stevens
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Allison L Creason
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Skylar L Fuller
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Emma M Pearce
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
| | - Jeff H Chang
- Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States.,Center for Genome Research and Biocomputing, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States
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14
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Dabravolski S. Multi-faceted nature of the tRNA isopentenyltransferase. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2020; 47:475-485. [PMID: 32345433 DOI: 10.1071/fp19255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Transfer RNA isopentenylation an adenine 37 position (A37) is a universal modification known in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. A set of highly homologous enzymes catalyse a series of reactions, leading to tRNA modifications, aimed to increase adaptation to environmental condition through the control of translation efficiency and reading frame maintenance. Transfer RNA-isopentenylation-related (TI-related) functions are well studied in bacteria, mitochondria of yeast and human, but completely unexplored in plants. Transfer RNA-isopentenylation-unrelated (TI-unrelated) functions participate in adaptation to environmental stresses via the regulation of sterol metabolism, gene silencing/suppression and amyloid fibrils formation. TI-unrelated functions are mostly studied in yeast. Finally, the degradation of A37-modified tRNA releases a set of bioactive compounds known as cis-cytokinins. Although all organisms are able to produce cis-cytokinins, its physiological role is still a matter of debates. For several species of bacteria and fungi, cis-cytokinins are known to play a crucial role in pathogenesis. In mammalian and human models cis-cytokinins have tumour-suppressing and anti-inflammation effects. This review aims to summarise current knowledge of the TI-related and TI-unrelated functions and main bioactive by-products of isopentenylated tRNA degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siarhei Dabravolski
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Šlechtitelu 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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Wang X, Ding J, Lin S, Liu D, Gu T, Wu H, Trigiano RN, McAvoy R, Huang J, Li Y. Evolution and roles of cytokinin genes in angiosperms 2: Do ancient CKXs play housekeeping roles while non-ancient CKXs play regulatory roles? HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2020; 7:29. [PMID: 32140238 PMCID: PMC7049301 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-020-0246-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX) is a key enzyme responsible for the degradation of endogenous cytokinins. However, the origins and roles of CKX genes in angiosperm evolution remain unclear. Based on comprehensive bioinformatic and transgenic plant analyses, we demonstrate that the CKXs of land plants most likely originated from an ancient chlamydial endosymbiont during primary endosymbiosis. We refer to the CKXs retaining evolutionarily ancient characteristics as "ancient CKXs" and those that have expanded and functionally diverged in angiosperms as "non-ancient CKXs". We show that the expression of some non-ancient CKXs is rapidly inducible within 15 min upon the dehydration of Arabidopsis, while the ancient CKX (AtCKX7) is not drought responsive. Tobacco plants overexpressing a non-ancient CKX display improved oxidative and drought tolerance and root growth. Previous mutant studies have shown that non-ancient CKXs regulate organ development, particularly that of flowers. Furthermore, ancient CKXs preferentially degrade cis-zeatin (cZ)-type cytokinins, while non-ancient CKXs preferentially target N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl) adenines (iPs) and trans-zeatins (tZs). Based on the results of this work, an accompanying study (Wang et al. 10.1038/s41438-019-0211-x) and previous studies, we hypothesize that non-ancient CKXs and their preferred substrates of iP/tZ-type cytokinins regulate angiosperm organ development and environmental stress responses, while ancient CKXs and their preferred substrates of cZs play a housekeeping role, which echoes the conclusions and hypothesis described in the accompanying report (Wang, X. et al. Evolution and roles of cytokinin genes in angiosperms 1: Doancient IPTs play housekeeping while non-ancient IPTs play regulatory roles? Hortic Res7, (2020). 10.1038/s41438-019-0211-x).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Jing Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Shanshan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Decai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Tingting Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Han Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Robert N. Trigiano
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-4560 USA
| | - Richard McAvoy
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269 USA
| | - Jinling Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, Key Laboratory of Plant Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC 27858 USA
| | - Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269 USA
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16
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Wang X, Lin S, Liu D, Gan L, McAvoy R, Ding J, Li Y. Evolution and roles of cytokinin genes in angiosperms 1: Do ancient IPTs play housekeeping while non-ancient IPTs play regulatory roles? HORTICULTURE RESEARCH 2020; 7:28. [PMID: 32140237 PMCID: PMC7049300 DOI: 10.1038/s41438-019-0211-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Isopentenyltransferase (IPT) genes, including those encoding ATP/ADP-IPTs and tRNA-IPTs, control the rate-limiting steps of the biosynthesis of N 6-(Δ2-isopentenyl)adenine (iP)-type and trans-zeatin (tZ)-type cytokinins and cis-zeatin (cZ)-type cytokinins, respectively. However, the evolution and roles of these IPTs in angiosperms are not well understood. Here, we report comprehensive analyses of the origins, evolution, expression patterns, and possible roles of ATP/ADP-IPTs and tRNA-IPTs in angiosperms. We found that Class I and II tRNA-IPTs likely coexisted in the last common ancestor of eukaryotes, while ATP/ADP-IPTs likely originated from a Class II tRNA-IPT before the divergence of angiosperms. tRNA-IPTs are conservatively retained as 2-3 copies, but ATP/ADP-IPTs exhibit considerable expansion and diversification. Additionally, tRNA-IPTs are constitutively expressed throughout the plant, whereas the expression of ATP/ADP-IPTs is tissue-specific and rapidly downregulated by abiotic stresses. Furthermore, previous studies and our present study indicate that ATP/ADP-IPTs and their products, iPs/tZs, may regulate responses to environmental stresses and organ development in angiosperms. We therefore hypothesize that tRNA-IPTs and the associated cZs play a housekeeping role, whereas ATP/ADP-IPTs and the associated iP/tZ-type cytokinins play regulatory roles in organ development and stress responses in angiosperms, which echoes the conclusions and hypothesis presented in the accompanying study by Wang, X. et al Evolution and roles of cytokinin genes in angiosperms 2: Do ancient CKXs play housekeeping roles while non-ancient CKXs play regulatory roles? Hortic Res 10.1038/s41438-020-0246-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and the College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Shanshan Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and the College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Decai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and the College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Lijun Gan
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Richard McAvoy
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269 USA
| | - Jing Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and the College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
| | - Yi Li
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement and the College of Horticulture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, P. R. China
- Department of Plant Science and Landscape Architecture, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT 06269 USA
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17
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Hyoung S, Cho SH, Chung JH, So WM, Cui MH, Shin JS. Cytokinin oxidase PpCKX1 plays regulatory roles in development and enhances dehydration and salt tolerance in Physcomitrella patens. PLANT CELL REPORTS 2020; 39:419-430. [PMID: 31863135 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-019-02500-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
PpCKX1 localizes to vacuoles and is dominantly expressed in the stem cells. PpCKX1 regulates developmental changes with increased growth of the rhizoid and enhances dehydration and salt tolerance. Cytokinins (CKs) are plant hormones that regulate plant development as well as many physiological processes, such as cell division, leaf senescence, control of shoot/root ratio, and reproductive competence. Cytokinin oxidases/dehydrogenases (CKXs) control CK concentrations by degradation, and thereby influence plant growth and development. In the moss Physcomitrella patens, an evolutionarily early divergent plant, we identified six putative CKXs that, by phylogenetic analysis, form a monophyletic clade. We also observed that ProPpCKX1:GUS is expressed specifically in the stem cells and surrounding cells and that CKX1 localizes to vacuoles, as indicated by Pro35S:PpCKX1-smGFP. Under normal growth conditions, overexpression of PpCKX1 caused many phenotypic changes at different developmental stages, and we suspected that increased growth of the rhizoid could affect those changes. In addition, we present evidence that the PpCKX1-overexpressor plants show enhanced dehydration and salt stress tolerance. Taken together, we suggest that PpCKX1 plays regulatory roles in development and adaptation to abiotic stresses in this evolutionarily early land plant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujin Hyoung
- Division of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Sung Hyun Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Joo Hee Chung
- Seoul Center, Korea Basic Science Institute, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Won Mi So
- Division of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Korea
| | - Mei Hua Cui
- Shanghai Institute for Advanced Immunochemical Studies (SIAIS), Shanghai Tech University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jeong Sheop Shin
- Division of Life Sciences, Korea University, Seoul, 02841, Korea.
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18
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Andreas P, Kisiala A, Emery RJN, De Clerck-Floate R, Tooker JF, Price PW, Miller III DG, Chen MS, Connor EF. Cytokinins Are Abundant and Widespread Among Insect Species. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2020; 9:E208. [PMID: 32041320 PMCID: PMC7076654 DOI: 10.3390/plants9020208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are a class of compounds that have long been thought to be exclusively plant growth regulators. Interestingly, some species of phytopathogenic bacteria and fungi have been shown to, and gall-inducing insects have been hypothesized to, produce CKs and use them to manipulate their host plants. We used high performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) to examine concentrations of a wide range of CKs in 17 species of phytophagous insects, including gall- and non-gall-inducing species from all six orders of Insecta that contain species known to induce galls: Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera. We found CKs in all six orders of insects, and they were not associated exclusively with gall-inducing species. We detected 24 different CK analytes, varying in their chemical structure and biological activity. Isoprenoid precursor nucleotide and riboside forms of trans-zeatin (tZ) and isopentenyladenine (iP) were most abundant and widespread across the surveyed insect species. Notably, the observed concentrations of CKs often markedly exceeded those reported in plants suggesting that insects are synthesizing CKs rather than obtaining them from the host plant via tissue consumption, compound sequestration, and bioaccumulation. These findings support insect-derived CKs as means for gall-inducing insects to manipulate their host plant to facilitate cell proliferation, and for both gall- and non-gall-inducing insects to modify nutrient flux and plant defenses during herbivory. Furthermore, wide distribution of CKs across phytophagous insects, including non-gall-inducing species, suggests that insect-borne CKs could be involved in manipulation of source-sink mechanisms of nutrient allocation to sustain the feeding site and altering plant defensive responses, rather than solely gall induction. Given the absence of any evidence for genes in the de novo CK biosynthesis pathway in insects, we postulate that the tRNA-ipt pathway is responsible for CK production. However, the unusually high concentrations of CKs in insects, and the tendency toward dominance of their CK profiles by tZ and iP suggest that the tRNA-ipt pathway functions differently and substantially more efficiently in insects than in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Andreas
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Anna Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - R. J. Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9J 7B8, Canada; (P.A.); (A.K.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | | | - John F. Tooker
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA;
| | - Peter W. Price
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA;
| | - Donald G. Miller III
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Chico, CA 95929, USA;
| | - Ming-Shun Chen
- USDA-ARS and Department of Entomology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA;
| | - Edward F. Connor
- Department of Biology, San Francisco State University, San Francisco, CA 94132, USA
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19
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He DH, Chen JX, Fu X, Guo DL, Xia B, Liu GH, Ding KY, Fang DM, Zhou Y. A 6/5/5/7 heterotetracyclic indole derivative alkaloid isolated from Typhonium giganteum. Tetrahedron Lett 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2019.151497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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20
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Aoki MM, Kisiala AB, Li S, Stock NL, Brunetti CR, Huber RJ, Emery RJN. Cytokinin Detection during the Dictyostelium discoideum Life Cycle: Profiles Are Dynamic and Affect Cell Growth and Spore Germination. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E702. [PMID: 31694277 PMCID: PMC6920973 DOI: 10.3390/biom9110702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 11/01/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are a family of evolutionarily conserved growth regulating hormones. While CKs are well-characterized in plant systems, these N6-substituted adenine derivatives are found in a variety of organisms beyond plants, including bacteria, fungi, mammals, and the social amoeba, Dictyostelium discoideum. Within Dictyostelium, CKs have only been studied in the late developmental stages of the life cycle, where they promote spore encapsulation and dormancy. In this study, we used ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-positive electrospray ionization-high resolution tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-(ESI+)-HRMS/MS) to profile CKs during the Dictyostelium life cycle: growth, aggregation, mound, slug, fruiting body, and germination. Comprehensive profiling revealed that Dictyostelium produces 6 CK forms (cis-Zeatin (cZ), discadenine (DA), N6-isopentenyladenine (iP), N6-isopentenyladenine-9-riboside (iPR), N6-isopentenyladenine-9-riboside-5' phosphate (iPRP), and 2-methylthio-N6-isopentenyladenine (2MeSiP)) in varying abundance across the sampled life cycle stages, thus laying the foundation for the CK biosynthesis pathway to be defined in this organism. Interestingly, iP-type CKs were the most dominant CK analytes detected during growth and aggregation. Exogenous treatment of AX3 cells with various CK types revealed that iP was the only CK to promote the proliferation of cells in culture. In support of previous studies, metabolomics data revealed that DA is one of the most significantly upregulated small molecules during Dictyostelium development, and our data indicates that total CK levels are highest during germination. While much remains to be explored in Dictyostelium, this research offers new insight into the nature of CK biosynthesis, secretion, and function during Dictyostelium growth, development, and spore germination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan M. Aoki
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2 Canada; (A.B.K.); (C.R.B.); (R.J.H.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Anna B. Kisiala
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2 Canada; (A.B.K.); (C.R.B.); (R.J.H.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Shaojun Li
- Noblegen, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2, Canada;
| | - Naomi L. Stock
- Water Quality Centre, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2, Canada;
| | - Craig R. Brunetti
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2 Canada; (A.B.K.); (C.R.B.); (R.J.H.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - Robert J. Huber
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2 Canada; (A.B.K.); (C.R.B.); (R.J.H.); (R.J.N.E.)
| | - R. J. Neil Emery
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, ON K9L 0G2 Canada; (A.B.K.); (C.R.B.); (R.J.H.); (R.J.N.E.)
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21
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A KNOX-Cytokinin Regulatory Module Predates the Origin of Indeterminate Vascular Plants. Curr Biol 2019; 29:2743-2750.e5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.06.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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22
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Bowman JL, Briginshaw LN, Fisher TJ, Flores-Sandoval E. Something ancient and something neofunctionalized-evolution of land plant hormone signaling pathways. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 47:64-72. [PMID: 30339930 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2018.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 09/13/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of land plants from a charophycean algal ancestor was accompanied by an increased diversity of regulatory networks, including signaling pathways mediating cellular communication within plants and between plants and the environment. Canonical land plant hormone signaling pathways were originally identified in angiosperms, and comparative studies in basal taxa show that they have been assembled from both ancient and newly evolved components, both before and during land plant evolution. In this review we present our current understanding, and highlight several uncertainties, of the evolution of hormone signaling pathways, focusing on the biosynthetic pathways generating putative ligands and the downstream perception and signaling pathways often leading to transcriptional responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- John L Bowman
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Liam N Briginshaw
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Tom J Fisher
- School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Melbourne, VIC 3800, Australia
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23
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The initial deficiency of protein processing and flavonoids biosynthesis were the main mechanisms for the male sterility induced by SX-1 in Brassica napus. BMC Genomics 2018; 19:806. [PMID: 30404610 PMCID: PMC6223035 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-018-5203-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rapeseed (Brassica napus) is an important oil seed crop in the Brassicaceae family. Chemical induced male sterility (CIMS) is one of the widely used method to produce the hybrids in B. napus. Identification of the key genes and pathways that involved in CIMS were important to understand the underlying molecular mechanism. In the present report, a multi-omics integrative analysis, including of the proteomic, transcriptomic and miRNAs, combined with morphological and physiological analysis were conducted. Results Earlier degeneration of the tapetosomes and elaioplasts, aberrantly stacking in tapetal cells and incompletely deposition in tryphine of pollen wall were observed in chemical hybridization agent (CHA) of SX-1 treated B. napus through SEM and TEM analysis. It was revealed that the deficiencies in protein processing in endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and flavonoids biosynthesis were occurred at early stage in the SX-1 treated materials. Subsequently, plant hormone signal transduction, biosynthesis of amino acids, fatty acids and steroid in anther at later stages were identified down-regulated after SX-1 treatment. 144 transcript factors (TFs) were also indentified to down-regulated at early stage, which suggested the early regulation in anther and pollen wall development were disordered in CHA treated B. napus. In addition, 7 important miRNAs were identified and 2 of the predicted target genes of miRNAs were Rf-like genes. Conclusions Taken together, an interaction network of candidate genes and the putative metabolism pathways were constructed based on the multi-omics integrative analysis, it provided a new insight into the male sterility induced by CHA of SX-1 in B. napus. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12864-018-5203-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Buček J, Zatloukal M, Havlíček L, Plíhalová L, Pospíšil T, Novák O, Doležal K, Strnad M. Total synthesis of [ 15N]-labelled C6-substituted purines from [ 15N]-formamide-easy preparation of isotopically labelled cytokinins and derivatives. ROYAL SOCIETY OPEN SCIENCE 2018; 5:181322. [PMID: 30564417 PMCID: PMC6281904 DOI: 10.1098/rsos.181322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) and their metabolites and derivatives are essential for cell division, plant growth regulation and development. They are typically found at minute concentrations in plant tissues containing very complicated biological matrices. Therefore, defined standards labelled with stable isotopes are required for precise metabolic profiling and quantification of CKs, as well as in vivo elucidation of CK biosynthesis in various plant species. In this work, 11 [15N]-labelled C6-purine derivatives were prepared, among them 5 aromatic (4, 5, 6, 7, 8) and 3 isoprenoid (9, 10, 11) CKs. Compared to current methods, optimized syntheses of 6-amino-9H-[15N5]-purine (adenine) and 6-chloro-9H-[15N4]-purine (6-chloropurine) were performed to achieve more effective, selective and generally easier approaches. The chemical identity and purity of prepared compounds were confirmed by physico-chemical analyses (TLC; HRMS; HPLC-MS; 1H, 13C, 15N NMR). The presented approach is applicable for the synthesis of any other desired [15N4]-labelled C6-substituted purine derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Buček
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Marek Zatloukal
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Libor Havlíček
- Isotope Laboratory, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Vídeňská 1083, 14220 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lucie Plíhalová
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Pospíšil
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Doležal
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, 78371 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
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Nishii K, Wright F, Chen YY, Möller M. Tangled history of a multigene family: The evolution of ISOPENTENYLTRANSFERASE genes. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0201198. [PMID: 30070990 PMCID: PMC6071968 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ISOPENTENYLTRANSFERASE (IPT) genes play important roles in the initial steps of cytokinin synthesis, exist in plant and pathogenic bacteria, and form a multigene family in plants. Protein domain searches revealed that bacteria and plant IPT proteins were to assigned to different protein domains families in the Pfam database, namely Pfam IPT (IPTPfam) and Pfam IPPT (IPPTPfam) families, both are closely related in the P-loop NTPase clan. To understand the origin and evolution of the genes, a species matrix was assembled across the tree of life and intensively in plant lineages. The IPTPfam domain was only found in few bacteria lineages, whereas IPPTPfam is common except in Archaea and Mycoplasma bacteria. The bacterial IPPTPfam domain miaA genes were shown as ancestral of eukaryotic IPPTPfam domain genes. Plant IPTs diversified into class I, class II tRNA-IPTs, and Adenosine-phosphate IPTs; the class I tRNA-IPTs appeared to represent direct successors of miaA genes were found in all plant genomes, whereas class II tRNA-IPTs originated from eukaryotic genes, and were found in prasinophyte algae and in euphyllophytes. Adenosine-phosphate IPTs were only found in angiosperms. Gene duplications resulted in gene redundancies with ubiquitous expression or diversification in expression. In conclusion, it is shown that IPT genes have a complex history prior to the protein family split, and might have experienced losses or HGTs, and gene duplications that are to be likely correlated with the rise in morphological complexity involved in fine tuning cytokinin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanae Nishii
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail: (KN); (MM)
| | - Frank Wright
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Yun-Yu Chen
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Michael Möller
- Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (KN); (MM)
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Govender N, Senan S, Mohamed-Hussein ZA, Wickneswari R. A gene co-expression network model identifies yield-related vicinity networks in Jatropha curcas shoot system. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9211. [PMID: 29907786 PMCID: PMC6003958 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27493-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The plant shoot system consists of reproductive organs such as inflorescences, buds and fruits, and the vegetative leaves and stems. In this study, the reproductive part of the Jatropha curcas shoot system, which includes the aerial shoots, shoots bearing the inflorescence and inflorescence were investigated in regard to gene-to-gene interactions underpinning yield-related biological processes. An RNA-seq based sequencing of shoot tissues performed on an Illumina HiSeq. 2500 platform generated 18 transcriptomes. Using the reference genome-based mapping approach, a total of 64 361 genes was identified in all samples and the data was annotated against the non-redundant database by the BLAST2GO Pro. Suite. After removing the outlier genes and samples, a total of 12 734 genes across 17 samples were subjected to gene co-expression network construction using petal, an R library. A gene co-expression network model built with scale-free and small-world properties extracted four vicinity networks (VNs) with putative involvement in yield-related biological processes as follow; heat stress tolerance, floral and shoot meristem differentiation, biosynthesis of chlorophyll molecules and laticifers, cell wall metabolism and epigenetic regulations. Our VNs revealed putative key players that could be adapted in breeding strategies for J. curcas shoot system improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Govender
- School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
- Center for Bioinformatics Research, Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Siju Senan
- School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Zeti-Azura Mohamed-Hussein
- Center for Bioinformatics Research, Institute of Systems Biology (INBIOSIS), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- School of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Ratnam Wickneswari
- School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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Li S, Zhao Q, Zhu D, Yu J. A DREB-Like Transcription Factor From Maize ( Zea mays), ZmDREB4.1, Plays a Negative Role in Plant Growth and Development. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:395. [PMID: 29670637 PMCID: PMC5893645 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The DREB (dehydration-responsive element binding)-type transcription factors are classified into six subgroups, named A-1 to A-6. The members of DREB A-1 and A-2 subgroups have been reported to be involved in response to various abiotic stresses. However, there were only a few genes belonging to A-3 to A-6 subgroups to be reported. In this study, we cloned a DREB A-4 subgroup gene from maize (Zea mays), ZmDREB4.1, and analyzed its characteristics and functions. ZmDREB4.1 was expressed in roots, stems, and leaves at very low levels. It was not induced by any biotic or abiotic treatment. ZmDREB4.1 was located in the nucleus, could directly bind to the DRE element and functioned as a transcriptional activator. The constitutive expression of ZmDREB4.1 in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L.) repressed leaf extension and hypocotyl, petiole and stem elongation. In maize, overexpression of ZmDREB4.1 repressed calli growth and regeneration. Further analysis showed that the smaller leaves of transgenic tobacco resulted from inhibition of cell division. The contents of cytokinin and auxin in transgenic leaves were severely decreased. The shorter hypocotyls, stems and petioles of transgenic tobacco were caused by inhibition of cell elongation. The transgenic hypocotyls, stems and petioles contained reduced gibberellin levels. Application of exogenous GA3 rescued the shorter hypocotyls, stems and petioles, but not the smaller leaves. These results demonstrated that ZmDREB4.1 plays an important role in the negative regulation of plant growth and development.
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Trdá L, Barešová M, Šašek V, Nováková M, Zahajská L, Dobrev PI, Motyka V, Burketová L. Cytokinin Metabolism of Pathogenic Fungus Leptosphaeria maculans Involves Isopentenyltransferase, Adenosine Kinase and Cytokinin Oxidase/Dehydrogenase. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1374. [PMID: 28785249 PMCID: PMC5521058 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Among phytohormones, cytokinins (CKs) play an important role in controlling crucial aspects of plant development. Not only plants but also diverse microorganisms are able to produce phytohormones, including CKs, though knowledge concerning their biosynthesis and metabolism is still limited. In this work we demonstrate that the fungus Leptosphaeria maculans, a hemi-biotrophic pathogen of oilseed rape (Brassica napus), causing one of the most damaging diseases of this crop, is able to modify the CK profile in infected B. napus tissues, as well as produce a wide range of CKs in vitro, with the cis-zeatin derivatives predominating. The endogenous CK spectrum of L. maculans in vitro consists mainly of free CK bases, as opposed to plants, where other CK forms are mostly more abundant. Using functional genomics, enzymatic and feeding assays with CK bases supplied to culture media, we show that L. maculans contains a functional: (i) isopentenyltransferase (IPT) involved in cZ production; (ii) adenosine kinase (AK) involved in phosphorylation of CK ribosides to nucleotides; and (iii) CK-degradation enzyme cytokinin oxidase/dehydrogenase (CKX). Our data further indicate the presence of cis-trans isomerase, zeatin O-glucosyltransferase(s) and N6-(Δ2-isopentenyl)adenine hydroxylating enzyme. Besides, we report on a crucial role of LmAK for L. maculans fitness and virulence. Altogether, in this study we characterize in detail the CK metabolism of the filamentous fungi L. maculans and report its two novel components, the CKX and CK-related AK activities, according to our knowledge for the first time in the fungal kingdom. Based on these findings, we propose a model illustrating CK metabolism pathways in L. maculans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Trdá
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
| | - Monika Barešová
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Institute of Chemical TechnologyPrague, Czechia
| | - Vladimír Šašek
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
| | - Miroslava Nováková
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
| | - Lenka Zahajská
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
| | - Petre I. Dobrev
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
| | - Václav Motyka
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
| | - Lenka Burketová
- Institute of Experimental Botany, The Czech Academy of SciencesPrague, Czechia
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Hluska T, Šebela M, Lenobel R, Frébort I, Galuszka P. Purification of Maize Nucleotide Pyrophosphatase/Phosphodiesterase Casts Doubt on the Existence of Zeatin Cis- Trans Isomerase in Plants. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:1473. [PMID: 28878803 PMCID: PMC5572937 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.01473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Almost 25 years ago, an enzyme named zeatin cis-trans isomerase from common bean has been described by Bassil et al. (1993). The partially purified enzyme required an external addition of FAD and dithiothreitol for the conversion of cis-zeatin to its trans- isomer that occurred only under light. Although an existence of this important enzyme involved in the metabolism of plant hormones cytokinins was generally accepted by plant biologists, the corresponding protein and encoding gene have not been identified to date. Based on the original paper, we purified and identified an enzyme from maize, which shows the described zeatin cis-trans isomerase activity. The enzyme belongs to nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase family, which is well characterized in mammals, but less known in plants. Further experiments with the recombinant maize enzyme obtained from yeast expression system showed that rather than the catalytic activity of the enzyme itself, a non-enzymatic flavin induced photoisomerization is responsible for the observed zeatin cis-trans interconversion in vitro. An overexpression of the maize nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase gene led to decreased FAD and increased FMN and riboflavin contents in transgenic Arabidopsis plants. However, neither contents nor the ratio of zeatin isomers was altered suggesting that the enzyme is unlikely to catalyze the interconversion of zeatin isomers in vivo. Using enhanced expression of a homologous gene, functional nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase was also identified in rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Hluska
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University OlomoucOlomouc, Czechia
| | - Marek Šebela
- Department of Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University OlomoucOlomouc, Czechia
| | - René Lenobel
- Department of Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University OlomoucOlomouc, Czechia
| | - Ivo Frébort
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University OlomoucOlomouc, Czechia
| | - Petr Galuszka
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University OlomoucOlomouc, Czechia
- *Correspondence: Petr Galuszka,
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Hinsch J, Galuszka P, Tudzynski P. Functional characterization of the first filamentous fungal tRNA-isopentenyltransferase and its role in the virulence of Claviceps purpurea. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 211:980-992. [PMID: 27074411 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/01/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In plants, cytokinins (CKs) are synthesized de novo or by the degradation of modified tRNAs. Recently, the first fungal de novo pathway was identified within the plant pathogen Claviceps purpurea. As the deletion of the de novo pathway did not lead to a complete loss of CKs, this work focuses on the tRNA-modifying protein tRNA-isopentenyltransferase (CptRNA-IPT). The contribution of this enzyme to the CK pool of Claviceps and the role of CKs in the host-pathogen interaction are emphasized. The effects of the deletion of cptRNA-ipt and the double deletion of cptRNA-ipt and the key gene of de novo biosynthesis cpipt-log on growth, CK biosynthesis and virulence were analyzed. In addition, the sites of action of CptRNA-IPT were visualized using reporter gene fusions. In addition to CK-independent functions, CptRNA-IPT was essential for the biosynthesis of cis-zeatin (cZ) and contributed to the formation of isopentenyladenine (iP) and trans-zeatin (tZ). Although ΔcptRNA-ipt was reduced in virulence, the 'CK-free' double deletion mutant was nearly apathogenic. The results prove a redundancy of the CK biosynthesis pathway in C. purpurea for iP and tZ formation. Moreover, we show, for the first time, that CKs are required for the successful establishment of a host-fungus interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Hinsch
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Petr Galuszka
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Paul Tudzynski
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
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Hluska T, Dobrev PI, Tarkowská D, Frébortová J, Zalabák D, Kopečný D, Plíhal O, Kokáš F, Briozzo P, Zatloukal M, Motyka V, Galuszka P. Cytokinin metabolism in maize: Novel evidence of cytokinin abundance, interconversions and formation of a new trans-zeatin metabolic product with a weak anticytokinin activity. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 247:127-37. [PMID: 27095406 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2016] [Revised: 03/25/2016] [Accepted: 03/28/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are an important group of phytohormones. Their tightly regulated and balanced levels are essential for proper cell division and plant organ development. Here we report precise quantification of CK metabolites and other phytohormones in maize reproductive organs in the course of pollination and kernel maturation. A novel enzymatic activity dependent on NADP(+) converting trans-zeatin (tZ) to 6-(3-methylpyrrol-1-yl)purine (MPP) was detected. MPP shows weak anticytokinin properties and inhibition of CK dehydrogenases due to their ability to bind to an active site in the opposite orientation than substrates. Although the physiological significance of tZ side-chain cyclization is not anticipated as the MPP occurrence in maize tissue is very low, properties of the novel CK metabolite indicate its potential for utilization in plant in vitro tissue culture. Furthermore, feeding experiments with different isoprenoid CKs revealed distinct preferences in glycosylation of tZ and cis-zeatin (cZ). While tZ is preferentially glucosylated at the N9 position, cZ forms mainly O-glucosides. Since O-glucosides, in contrast to N9-glucosides, are resistant to irreversible cleavage catalyzed by CK dehydrogenases, the observed preference of maize CK glycosyltransferases to O-glycosylate zeatin in the cis-position might be a reason why cZ derivatives are over-accumulated in different maize tissues and organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomáš Hluska
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Petre I Dobrev
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 263, 165 02 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Dana Tarkowská
- Department of Metabolomics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Jitka Frébortová
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - David Zalabák
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - David Kopečný
- Department of Protein Biochemistry and Proteomics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Plíhal
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Filip Kokáš
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Pierre Briozzo
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, Route de Saint-Cyr, F-78026, Versailles, France
| | - Marek Zatloukal
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 78371 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Václav Motyka
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Rozvojová 263, 165 02 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Galuszka
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, Šlechtitelů 27, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic.
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von Schwartzenberg K, Lindner AC, Gruhn N, Šimura J, Novák O, Strnad M, Gonneau M, Nogué F, Heyl A. CHASE domain-containing receptors play an essential role in the cytokinin response of the moss Physcomitrella patens. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:667-79. [PMID: 26596764 PMCID: PMC4737067 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
While the molecular basis for cytokinin action is quite well understood in flowering plants, little is known about the cytokinin signal transduction in early diverging land plants. The genome of the bryophyte Physcomitrella patens (Hedw.) B.S. encodes three classical cytokinin receptors, the CHASE domain-containing histidine kinases, CHK1, CHK2, and CHK3. In a complementation assay with protoplasts of receptor-deficient Arabidopsis thaliana as well as in cytokinin binding assays, we found evidence that CHK1 and CHK2 receptors can function in cytokinin perception. Using gene targeting, we generated a collection of CHK knockout mutants comprising single (Δchk1, Δchk2, Δchk3), double (Δchk1,2, Δchk1,3, Δchk2,3), and triple (Δchk1,2,3) mutants. Mutants were characterized for their cytokinin response and differentiation capacities. While the wild type did not grow on high doses of cytokinin (1 µM benzyladenine), the Δchk1,2,3 mutant exhibited normal protonema growth. Bud induction assays showed that all three cytokinin receptors contribute to the triggering of budding, albeit to different extents. Furthermore, while the triple mutant showed no response in this bioassay, the remaining mutants displayed budding responses in a diverse manner to different types and concentrations of cytokinins. Determination of cytokinin levels in mutants showed no drastic changes for any of the cytokinins; thus, in contrast to Arabidopsis, revealing only small impacts of cytokinin signaling on homeostasis. In summary, our study provides a first insight into the molecular action of cytokinin in an early diverging land plant and demonstrates that CHK receptors play an essential role in bud induction and gametophore development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ann-Cathrin Lindner
- Biozentrum Klein Flottbek, Universität Hamburg, Ohnhorststr. 18, D-22609 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Njuscha Gruhn
- Institute for Biology/ Applied Genetics, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jan Šimura
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators & Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators & Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators & Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR, Šlechtitelů 27, CZ-783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Martine Gonneau
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, Route de St-Cyr, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Fabien Nogué
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR1318 INRA-AgroParisTech, INRA Centre de Versailles-Grignon, Route de St-Cyr, 78026 Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Alexander Heyl
- Institute for Biology/ Applied Genetics, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, Albrecht-Thaer-Weg 6, D-14195 Berlin, Germany Biology Department, Adelphi University, Science 116, 1 South Avenue, PO Box 701, Garden City, NY 11530-070, USA
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A parasitic nematode releases cytokinin that controls cell division and orchestrates feeding site formation in host plants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:12669-74. [PMID: 26417108 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1503657112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sedentary plant-parasitic cyst nematodes are biotrophs that cause significant losses in agriculture. Parasitism is based on modifications of host root cells that lead to the formation of a hypermetabolic feeding site (a syncytium) from which nematodes withdraw nutrients. The host cell cycle is activated in an initial cell selected by the nematode for feeding, followed by activation of neighboring cells and subsequent expansion of feeding site through fusion of hundreds of cells. It is generally assumed that nematodes manipulate production and signaling of the plant hormone cytokinin to activate cell division. In fact, nematodes have been shown to produce cytokinin in vitro; however, whether the hormone is secreted into host plants and plays a role in parasitism remained unknown. Here, we analyzed the spatiotemporal activation of cytokinin signaling during interaction between the cyst nematode, Heterodera schachtii, and Arabidopsis using cytokinin-responsive promoter:reporter lines. Our results showed that cytokinin signaling is activated not only in the syncytium but also in neighboring cells to be incorporated into syncytium. An analysis of nematode infection on mutants that are deficient in cytokinin or cytokinin signaling revealed a significant decrease in susceptibility of these plants to nematodes. Further, we identified a cytokinin-synthesizing isopentenyltransferase gene in H. schachtii and show that silencing of this gene in nematodes leads to a significant decrease in virulence due to a reduced expansion of feeding sites. Our findings demonstrate the ability of a plant-parasitic nematode to synthesize a functional plant hormone to manipulate the host system and establish a long-term parasitic interaction.
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Frébortová J, Greplová M, Seidl MF, Heyl A, Frébort I. Biochemical Characterization of Putative Adenylate Dimethylallyltransferase and Cytokinin Dehydrogenase from Nostoc sp. PCC 7120. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138468. [PMID: 26376297 PMCID: PMC4574047 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytokinins, a class of phytohormones, are adenine derivatives common to many different organisms. In plants, these play a crucial role as regulators of plant development and the reaction to abiotic and biotic stress. Key enzymes in the cytokinin synthesis and degradation in modern land plants are the isopentyl transferases and the cytokinin dehydrogenases, respectively. Their encoding genes have been probably introduced into the plant lineage during the primary endosymbiosis. To shed light on the evolution of these proteins, the genes homologous to plant adenylate isopentenyl transferase and cytokinin dehydrogenase were amplified from the genomic DNA of cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. PCC 7120 and expressed in Escherichia coli. The putative isopentenyl transferase was shown to be functional in a biochemical assay. In contrast, no enzymatic activity was detected for the putative cytokinin dehydrogenase, even though the principal domains necessary for its function are present. Several mutant variants, in which conserved amino acids in land plant cytokinin dehydrogenases had been restored, were inactive. A combination of experimental data with phylogenetic analysis indicates that adenylate-type isopentenyl transferases might have evolved several times independently. While the Nostoc genome contains a gene coding for protein with characteristics of cytokinin dehydrogenase, the organism is not able to break down cytokinins in the way shown for land plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitka Frébortová
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Marta Greplová
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Michael F. Seidl
- Laboratory of Phytopathology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Heyl
- Institute of Biology/Applied Genetics, Dahlem Centre of Plant Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ivo Frébort
- Department of Molecular Biology, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic
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Schäfer M, Brütting C, Canales IM, Großkinsky DK, Vankova R, Baldwin IT, Meldau S. The role of cis-zeatin-type cytokinins in plant growth regulation and mediating responses to environmental interactions. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2015; 66:4873-84. [PMID: 25998904 PMCID: PMC5147713 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erv214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Cytokinins (CKs) are well-established as important phytohormonal regulators of plant growth and development. An increasing number of studies have also revealed the function of these hormones in plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. While the function of certain CK classes, including trans-zeatin and isopentenyladenine-type CKs, have been studied in detail, the role of cis-zeatin-type CKs (cZs) in plant development and in mediating environmental interactions is less well defined. Here we provide a comprehensive summary of the current knowledge about abundance, metabolism and activities of cZs in plants. We outline the history of their analysis and the metabolic routes comprising cZ biosynthesis and degradation. Further we provide an overview of changes in the pools of cZs during plant development and environmental interactions. We summarize studies that investigate the role of cZs in regulating plant development and defence responses to pathogen and herbivore attack and highlight their potential role as 'novel' stress-response markers. Since the functional roles of cZs remain largely based on correlative data and genetic manipulations of their biosynthesis, inactivation and degradation are few, we suggest experimental approaches using transgenic plants altered in cZ levels to further uncover their roles in plant growth and environmental interactions and their potential for crop improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Schäfer
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str.8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christoph Brütting
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str.8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Ivan Meza Canales
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str.8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Dominik K. Großkinsky
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Copenhagen Plant Science Centre, University of Copenhagen, Højbakkegård Allé 13, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark
| | - Radomira Vankova
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, v. v. i., Rozvojová 263, 165 02 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Ian T. Baldwin
- Department of Molecular Ecology, Max-Planck-Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str.8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Stefan Meldau
- KWS SAAT AG, Molecular Physiology (RD-ME-MP), Grimsehlstrasse 31, 37555 Einbeck, Germany, Phone: +49 (0) 5561-311-1391, Fax: +49 (0) 5561-311-1090
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The Plasmodiophora brassicae genome reveals insights in its life cycle and ancestry of chitin synthases. Sci Rep 2015; 5:11153. [PMID: 26084520 PMCID: PMC4471660 DOI: 10.1038/srep11153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodiophora brassicae causes clubroot, a major disease of Brassica oil and vegetable crops worldwide. P. brassicae is a Plasmodiophorid, obligate biotrophic protist in the eukaryotic kingdom of Rhizaria. Here we present the 25.5 Mb genome draft of P. brassicae, developmental stage-specific transcriptomes and a transcriptome of Spongospora subterranea, the Plasmodiophorid causing powdery scab on potato. Like other biotrophic pathogens both Plasmodiophorids are reduced in metabolic pathways. Phytohormones contribute to the gall phenotypes of infected roots. We report a protein (PbGH3) that can modify auxin and jasmonic acid. Plasmodiophorids contain chitin in cell walls of the resilient resting spores. If recognized, chitin can trigger defense responses in plants. Interestingly, chitin-related enzymes of Plasmodiophorids built specific families and the carbohydrate/chitin binding (CBM18) domain is enriched in the Plasmodiophorid secretome. Plasmodiophorids chitin synthases belong to two families, which were present before the split of the eukaryotic Stramenopiles/Alveolates/Rhizaria/Plantae and Metazoa/Fungi/Amoebozoa megagroups, suggesting chitin synthesis to be an ancient feature of eukaryotes. This exemplifies the importance of genomic data from unexplored eukaryotic groups, such as the Plasmodiophorids, to decipher evolutionary relationships and gene diversification of early eukaryotes.
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Záveská Drábková L, Dobrev PI, Motyka V. Phytohormone Profiling across the Bryophytes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125411. [PMID: 25974061 PMCID: PMC4431756 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Accepted: 03/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bryophytes represent a very diverse group of non-vascular plants such as mosses, liverworts and hornworts and the oldest extant lineage of land plants. Determination of endogenous phytohormone profiles in bryophytes can provide substantial information about early land plant evolution. In this study, we screened thirty bryophyte species including six liverworts and twenty-four mosses for their phytohormone profiles in order to relate the hormonome with phylogeny in the plant kingdom. METHODOLOGY Samples belonging to nine orders (Pelliales, Jungermanniales, Porellales, Sphagnales, Tetraphidales, Polytrichales, Dicranales, Bryales, Hypnales) were collected in Central and Northern Bohemia. The phytohormone content was analysed with a high performance liquid chromatography electrospray tandem-mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS). PRINCIPAL FINDINGS As revealed for growth hormones, some common traits such as weak conjugation of both cytokinins and auxins, intensive production of cisZ-type cytokinins and strong oxidative degradation of auxins with abundance of a major primary catabolite 2-oxindole-3-acetic acid were pronounced in all bryophytes. Whereas apparent dissimilarities in growth hormones profiles between liverworts and mosses were evident, no obvious trends in stress hormone levels (abscisic acid, jasmonic acid, salicylic acid) were found with respect to the phylogeny. CONCLUSION The apparent differences in conjugation and/or degradation strategies of growth hormones between liverworts and mosses might potentially show a hidden link between vascular plants and liverworts. On the other hand, the complement of stress hormones in bryophytes probably correlate rather with prevailing environmental conditions and plant survival strategy than with plant evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Záveská Drábková
- Department of Taxonomy, Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Průhonice, Czech Republic
| | - Petre I. Dobrev
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Václav Motyka
- Laboratory of Hormonal Regulations in Plants, Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
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Hinsch J, Vrabka J, Oeser B, Novák O, Galuszka P, Tudzynski P. De novo biosynthesis of cytokinins in the biotrophic fungus Claviceps purpurea. Environ Microbiol 2015; 17:2935-51. [PMID: 25753486 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Disease symptoms of some phytopathogenic fungi are associated with changes in cytokinin (CK) levels. Here, we show that the CK profile of ergot-infected rye plants is also altered, although no pronounced changes occur in the expression of the host plant's CK biosynthesis genes. Instead, we demonstrate a clearly different mechanism: we report on the first fungal de novo CK biosynthesis genes, prove their functions and constitute a biosynthetic pathway. The ergot fungus Claviceps purpurea produces substantial quantities of CKs in culture and, like plants, expresses enzymes containing the isopentenyltransferase and lonely guy domains necessary for de novo isopentenyladenine production. Uniquely, two of these domains are combined in one bifunctional enzyme, CpIPT-LOG, depicting a novel and potent mechanism for CK production. The fungus also forms trans-zeatin, a reaction catalysed by a CK-specific cytochrome P450 monooxygenase, which is encoded by cpp450 forming a small cluster with cpipt-log. Deletion of cpipt-log and cpp450 did not affect virulence of the fungus, but Δcpp450 mutants exhibit a hyper-sporulating phenotype, implying that CKs are environmental factors influencing fungal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janine Hinsch
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Josef Vrabka
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Birgitt Oeser
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
| | - Ondřej Novák
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Galuszka
- Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Palacký University & Institute of Experimental Botany AS CR, Šlechtitelů 11, 78371, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Paul Tudzynski
- Institute of Plant Biology and Biotechnology, Westfälische Wilhelms-University Münster, Schlossplatz 8, 48143, Münster, Germany
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