Phosphorylation of the inward-rectifying potassium channel KAT1 by ABR kinase in Vicia guard cells

Role of methylglyoxal and glyoxalase in the regulation of plant response to heavy metal stress

KEY MESSAGE

Methylglyoxal and glyoxalase function a significant role in plant response to heavy metal stress. We update and discuss the most recent developments of methylglyoxal and glyoxalase in regulating plant response to heavy metal stress. Methylglyoxal (MG), a by-product of several metabolic processes, is created by both enzymatic and non-enzymatic mechanisms. It plays an important role in plant growth and development, signal transduction, and response to heavy metal stress (HMS). Changes in MG content and glyoxalase (GLY) activity under HMS imply that they may be potential biomarkers of plant stress resistance. In this review, we summarize recent advances in research on the mechanisms of MG and GLY in the regulation of plant responses to HMS. It has been discovered that appropriate concentrations of MG assist plants in maintaining a balance between growth and development and survival defense, therefore shielding them from heavy metal harm. MG and GLY regulate plant physiological processes by remodeling cellular redox homeostasis, regulating stomatal movement, and crosstalking with other signaling molecules (including abscisic acid, gibberellic acid, jasmonic acid, cytokinin, salicylic acid, melatonin, ethylene, hydrogen sulfide, and nitric oxide). We also discuss the involvement of MG and GLY in the regulation of plant responses to HMS at the transcriptional, translational, and metabolic levels. Lastly, considering the current state of research, we present a perspective on the future direction of MG research to elucidate the MG anti-stress mechanism and offer a theoretical foundation and useful advice for the remediation of heavy metal-contaminated environments in the future.

Wheat TaSnRK2.10 phosphorylates TaERD15 and TaENO1 and confers drought tolerance when overexpressed in rice

Wheat (Triticum aestivum) is particularly susceptible to water deficit at the jointing stage of its development. Sucrose non-fermenting 1-related protein kinase 2 (SnRK2) acts as a signaling hub in the response to drought stress, but whether SnRK2 helps plants cope with water deficit via other mechanisms is largely unknown. Here, we cloned and characterized TaSnRK2.10, which was induced by multiple abiotic stresses and phytohormones. Ectopic expression of TaSnRK2.10 in rice (Oryza sativa) conferred drought tolerance, manifested by multiple improved physiological indices, including increased water content, cell membrane stability, and survival rates, as well as decreased water loss and accumulation of H2O2 and malonaldehyde. TaSnRK2.10 interacted with and phosphorylated early responsive to dehydration 15 (TaERD15) and enolase 1 (TaENO1) in vivo and in vitro. TaERD15 phosphorylated by TaSnRK2.10 was prone to degradation by the 26S proteasome, thereby mitigating its negative effects on drought tolerance. Phosphorylation of TaENO1 by TaSnRK2.10 may account for the substantially increased levels of phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a key metabolite of primary and secondary metabolism, in TaSnRK2.10-overexpressing rice, thereby enhancing its viability under drought stress. Our results demonstrate that TaSnRK2.10 not only regulated stomatal aperture and the expression of drought-responsive genes, but also enhanced PEP supply and promoted the degradation of TaERD15, all of which enhanced drought tolerance.

Brassinosteroid-Insensitive 1-Associated Receptor Kinase 1 Modulates Abscisic Acid Signaling by Inducing PYR1 Monomerization and Association With ABI1 in Arabidopsis

Brassinosteroid-Insensitive 1-Associated Receptor Kinase 1 (BAK1) is a versatile kinase involved in many different plant developmental responses. Previously, we showed that BAK1 interacts with open stomata 1 (OST1), a cytoplasmic kinase, to promote abscisic acid (ABA)-induced stomatal closure. ABA is a plant hormone that primarily regulates stress responses and is recognized by the PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE1 (PYR1)/PYR1-LIKE (PYL)/REGULATORY COMPONENT OF ABA RECEPTORS (RCAR), which activates ABA signaling. Here, we demonstrated that BAK1 interacts with PYR1 and phosphorylates PYR1 in response to ABA in plants. We identified T137 and S142 of PYR1 as the phosphosites targeted by BAK1. Using phosphomimetic (PYR1DD) and phospho-dead (PYR1AA) PYR1 compared with wild-type PYR1, we showed that transgenic plants overexpressing a phosphomimetic PYR1 exhibited hypersensitivity to the inhibition of ABA-induced root growth and seed germination and increased ABA-induced stomatal closure and ABA-inducible gene expression. As underlying reasons for these phenomena, we further demonstrated that phosphorylated PYR1 existed in a monomeric form, in which ABA binding was increased, and the degree of complex formation with ABI1 was also increased. These results suggest that BAK1 positively modulates ABA signaling through interaction with PYR1, in addition to OST1.

Identification of Shaker K+ channel family members in sweetpotato and functional exploration of IbAKT1

The Shaker K⁺ channel family plays a vital role in potassium absorption and stress resistance in plants. However little information on the genes family is available about sweetpotato. In the present study, eleven sweetpotato Shaker K⁺ channel genes were identified and classified into five groups based on phylogenetic relationships, conserved motifs, and gene structure analyses. Based on synteny analysis, four duplicated gene pairs were identified, derived from both ancient and recent duplication, whereas only one resulted from tandem duplication events. Different expression pattern of Shaker K⁺ channel genes in roots of Xu32 and NZ1 resulted in different K⁺ deficiency tolerances, suggesting there is different mechanism of K⁺ uptake in sweetpotato cultivars with different K⁺-tolerance levels. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that the shaker K⁺ channel genes responded to drought and high salt stresses. Higher K⁺ influx under normal condition and lower K⁺ efflux under K⁺ deficiency stress were observed in IbAKT1 overexpressing transgenic roots than in adventitious roots, which indicated that IbAKT1 may play an important role in the regulation of K⁺ deficiency tolerance in sweetpotato. This is the first genome-wide analysis of Shaker K⁺ channel genes and the first functional analysis of IbAKT1 in sweetpotato. Our results provide valuable information on the gene structure, evolution, expression and functions of the Shaker K⁺ channel gene family in sweetpotato.

The Complex Fine-Tuning of K⁺ Fluxes in Plants in Relation to Osmotic and Ionic Abiotic Stresses

As the main cation in plant cells, potassium plays an essential role in adaptive responses, especially through its involvement in osmotic pressure and membrane potential adjustments. K⁺ homeostasis must, therefore, be finely controlled. As a result of different abiotic stresses, especially those resulting from global warming, K⁺ fluxes and plant distribution of this ion are disturbed. The hormone abscisic acid (ABA) is a key player in responses to these climate stresses. It triggers signaling cascades that ultimately lead to modulation of the activities of K⁺ channels and transporters. After a brief overview of transcriptional changes induced by abiotic stresses, this review deals with the post-translational molecular mechanisms in different plant organs, in Arabidopsis and species of agronomical interest, triggering changes in K⁺ uptake from the soil, K⁺ transport and accumulation throughout the plant, and stomatal regulation. These modifications involve phosphorylation/dephosphorylation mechanisms, modifications of targeting, and interactions with regulatory partner proteins. Interestingly, many signaling pathways are common to K⁺ and Cl^-/NO3^- counter-ion transport systems. These cross-talks are also addressed.

Brassinosteroids modulate ABA-induced stomatal closure in Arabidopsis

Stomatal movement in response to water availability is an important physiological process in the survival of land plants. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) and brassinosteroids (BRs) regulate stomatal closure. The physiological functions of ABA and BRs, including germination, cell elongation and stomatal movement, are generally known to be antagonistic. Here, we investigated how BRs affect stomatal movement alone and in combination with ABA. We demonstrate that brassinoslide (BL), the most active BR, promotes stomatal closure in an ABA-independent manner. Interestingly, BL also inhibited ABA-induced stomatal closure when a high concentration of BL was added to ABA. Furthermore, we found that the induction of some genes for reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation by ABA (AtrbohD, NIA1 and NIA2) and subsequent ROS production were repressed by BL treatment. The BR signaling mutant bri1-301 failed to inhibit ABA-induced stomatal closure upon BL treatment. However, BRI1-overexpressing transgenic plants were hypersensitive to ABA during stomatal closure, and BL reversed ABA-induced stomatal closure more completely than in wild type plants. Taken together, these results suggest that BRs can positively and negatively modulate ABA-induced stomatal closure. Therefore, interactions between ABA and BR signaling are important for the regulation of stomatal closure.

BRI1-Associated Receptor Kinase 1 Regulates Guard Cell ABA Signaling Mediated by Open Stomata 1 in Arabidopsis

Stomatal movements are critical in regulating gas exchange for photosynthesis and water balance between plant tissues and the atmosphere. The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays key roles in regulating stomatal closure under various abiotic stresses. In this study, we revealed a novel role of BAK1 in guard cell ABA signaling. We found that the brassinosteroid (BR) signaling mutant bak1 lost more water than wild-type plants and showed ABA insensitivity in stomatal closure. ABA-induced OST1 expression and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were also impaired in bak1. Unlike direct treatment with H2O2, overexpression of OST1 did not completely rescue the insensitivity of bak1 to ABA. We demonstrated that BAK1 forms a complex with OST1 near the plasma membrane and that the BAK1/OST1 complex is increased in response to ABA in planta. Brassinolide, the most active BR, exerted a negative effect on ABA-induced formation of the BAK1/OST1 complex and OST1 expression. Moreover, we found that BAK1 and ABI1 oppositely regulate OST1 phosphorylation in vitro, and that ABI1 interacts with BAK1 and inhibits the interaction of BAK1 and OST1. Taken together, our results suggest that BAK1 regulates ABA-induced stomatal closure in guard cells.

Assessing Kinase Activity in Plants with In-Gel Kinase Assays

The in-gel protein kinase assay is a powerful method to measure the protein phosphorylation activity of specific protein kinases. Any protein substrate can be embedded in polyacrylamide gels where they can be phosphorylated by protein kinases that are separated in the gel under denaturing conditions and then renatured. The kinase activity can be visualized in situ in the gels by autoradiography. This method has been used to compare the activities of protein kinases in parallel samples or to identify their potential substrates. Here, we describe in detail an in-gel kinase assay to measure the activity of some protein kinases in plants.

Protein phosphorylation in stomatal movement

As research progresses on how guard cells perceive and transduce environmental cues to regulate stomatal movement, plant biologists are discovering key roles of protein phosphorylation. Early research efforts focused on characterization of ion channels and transporters in guard cell hormonal signaling. Subsequent genetic studies identified mutants of kinases and phosphatases that are defective in regulating guard cell ion channel activities, and recently proteins regulated by phosphorylation have been identified. Here we review the essential role of protein phosphorylation in ABA-induced stomatal closure and in blue light-induced stomatal opening. We also highlight evidence for the cross-talk between different pathways, which is mediated by protein phosphorylation.

Open Stomata 1 (OST1) is limiting in abscisic acid responses of Arabidopsis guard cells

Open Stomata 1 (OST1) (SnRK2.6 or SRK2E), a serine/threonine protein kinase, is a positive regulator in abscisic acid (ABA)-mediated stomatal response, but OST1-regulation of K(+) and Ca(2+) currents has not been studied directly in guard cells and it is unknown whether OST1 activity is limiting in ABA-mediated stomatal responses. We employed loss-of-function and gain-of-function approaches to study native ABA responses of Arabidopsis guard cells. We performed stomatal aperture bioassays, patch clamp analyses and reactive oxygen species (ROS) measurements. ABA inhibition of inward K(+) channels and light-induced stomatal opening are reduced in ost1 mutants while transgenic plants overexpressing OST1 show ABA hypersensitivity in these responses. ost1 mutants are insensitive to ABA-induced stomatal closure, regulation of slow anion currents, Ca(2+) -permeable channel activation and ROS production while OST1 overexpressing lines are hypersensitive for these responses, resulting in accelerated stomatal closure in response to ABA. Overexpression of OST1 in planta in the absence of ABA application does not affect basal apertures or ion currents. Moreover, we demonstrate the physical interaction of OST1 with the inward K(+) channel KAT1, the anion channel SLAC1, and the NADPH oxidases AtrbohD and AtrbohF. Our findings support OST1 as a critical limiting component in ABA regulation of stomatal apertures, ion channels and NADPH oxidases in Arabidopsis guard cells.

Difference in abscisic acid perception mechanisms between closure induction and opening inhibition of stomata

Abscisic acid (ABA) induces stomatal closure and inhibits light-induced stomatal opening. The mechanisms in these two processes are not necessarily the same. It has been postulated that the ABA receptors involved in opening inhibition are different from those involved in closure induction. Here, we provide evidence that four recently identified ABA receptors (PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE1 [PYR1], PYRABACTIN RESISTANCE-LIKE1 [PYL1], PYL2, and PYL4) are not sufficient for opening inhibition in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). ABA-induced stomatal closure was impaired in the pyr1/pyl1/pyl2/pyl4 quadruple ABA receptor mutant. ABA inhibition of the opening of the mutant's stomata remained intact. ABA did not induce either the production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide or the alkalization of the cytosol in the quadruple mutant, in accordance with the closure phenotype. Whole cell patch-clamp analysis of inward-rectifying K(+) current in guard cells showed a partial inhibition by ABA, indicating that the ABA sensitivity of the mutant was not fully impaired. ABA substantially inhibited blue light-induced phosphorylation of H(+)-ATPase in guard cells in both the mutant and the wild type. On the other hand, in a knockout mutant of the SNF1-related protein kinase, srk2e, stomatal opening and closure, reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide production, cytosolic alkalization, inward-rectifying K(+) current inactivation, and H(+)-ATPase phosphorylation were not sensitive to ABA.

FIA functions as an early signal component of abscisic acid signal cascade in Vicia faba guard cells

An abscisic acid (ABA)-insensitive Vicia faba mutant, fia (fava bean impaired in ABA-induced stomatal closure) had previously been isolated. In this study, it was investigated how FIA functions in ABA signalling in guard cells of Vicia faba. Unlike ABA, methyl jasmonate (MeJA), H(2)O(2), and nitric oxide (NO) induced stomatal closure in the fia mutant. ABA did not induce production of either reactive oxygen species or NO in the mutant. Moreover, ABA did not suppress inward-rectifying K(+) (K(in)) currents or activate ABA-activated protein kinase (AAPK) in mutant guard cells. These results suggest that FIA functions as an early signal component upstream of AAPK activation in ABA signalling but does not function in MeJA signalling in guard cells of Vicia faba.

Potassium channels in plant cells

Potassium (K(+) ) is the most abundant inorganic cation in plant cells. Unlike animals, plants lack sodium/potassium exchangers. Instead, plant cells have developed unique transport systems for K(+) accumulation and release. An essential role in potassium uptake and efflux is played by potassium channels. Since the first molecular characterization of K(+) channels from Arabidopsis thaliana in 1992, a large number of studies on plant potassium channels have been conducted. Potassium channels are considered to be one of the best characterized class of membrane proteins in plants. Nevertheless, knowledge on plant potassium channels is still incomplete. This minireview focuses on recent developments in the research of potassium transport in plants with a strong focus on voltage-gated potassium channels.

ABA signaling in stomatal guard cells: lessons from Commelina and Vicia

Abscisic acid (ABA) signaling mechanisms have been studied in a broad variety of plant species using complementary analyses, taking advantage of different methodologies suitable for each plant species. Early studies on ABA biosynthesis using Solanum lycopersicum mutants suggested an importance of ABA synthesis in stomatal closure. To understand ABA signaling in guard cells, cellular, biochemical and electrophysiological studies in Vicia faba and Commelina communis have been conducted, providing fundamental knowledge that was further reconfirmed by molecular genetic studies of Arabidopsis. In this article, examples of stomatal studies in several plants and prospects in ABA research are discussed.

Abscisic acid receptors: past, present and future

Jin-Gui Chen (Corresponding author) Abscisic acid (ABA) is the key plant stress hormone. Consistent with the earlier studies in support of the presence of both membrane- and cytoplasm-localized ABA receptors, recent studies have identified multiple ABA receptors located in various subcellular locations. These include a chloroplast envelope-localized receptor (the H subunit of Chloroplast Mg(2+) -chelatase/ABA Receptor), two plasma membrane-localized receptors (G-protein Coupled Receptor 2 and GPCR-type G proteins), and one cytosol/nucleus-localized Pyrabactin Resistant (PYR)/PYR-Like (PYL)/Regulatory Component of ABA Receptor 1 (RCAR). Although the downstream molecular events for most of the identified ABA receptors are currently unknown, one of them, PYR/PYL/RCAR was found to directly bind and regulate the activity of a long-known central regulator of ABA signaling, the A-group protein phosphatase 2C (PP2C). Together with the Sucrose Non-fermentation Kinase Subfamily 2 (SnRK2s) protein kinases, a central signaling complex (ABA-PYR-PP2Cs-SnRK2s) that is responsible for ABA signal perception and transduction is supported by abundant genetic, physiological, biochemical and structural evidence. The identification of multiple ABA receptors has advanced our understanding of ABA signal perception and transduction while adding an extra layer of complexity.

Early abscisic acid signal transduction mechanisms: newly discovered components and newly emerging questions

The plant hormone abscisic acid (ABA) regulates many key processes in plants, including seed germination and development and abiotic stress tolerance, particularly drought resistance. Understanding early events in ABA signal transduction has been a major goal of plant research. The recent identification of the PYRABACTIN (4-bromo-N-[pyridin-2-yl methyl]naphthalene-1-sulfonamide) RESISTANCE (PYR)/REGULATORY COMPONENT OF ABA RECEPTOR (RCAR) family of ABA receptors and their biochemical mode of action represents a major breakthrough in the field. The solving of PYR/RCAR structures provides a context for resolving mechanisms mediating ABA control of protein-protein interactions for downstream signaling. Recent studies show that a pathway based on PYR/RCAR ABA receptors, PROTEIN PHOSPHATASE 2Cs (PP2Cs), and SNF1-RELATED PROTEIN KINASE 2s (SnRK2s) forms the primary basis of an early ABA signaling module. This pathway interfaces with ion channels, transcription factors, and other targets, thus providing a mechanistic connection between the phytohormone and ABA-induced responses. This emerging PYR/RCAR-PP2C-SnRK2 model of ABA signal transduction is reviewed here, and provides an opportunity for testing novel hypotheses concerning ABA signaling. We address newly emerging questions, including the potential roles of different PYR/RCAR isoforms, and the significance of ABA-induced versus constitutive PYR/RCAR-PP2C interactions. We also consider how the PYR/RCAR-PP2C-SnRK2 pathway interfaces with ABA-dependent gene expression, ion channel regulation, and control of small molecule signaling. These exciting developments provide researchers with a framework through which early ABA signaling can be understood, and allow novel questions about the hormone response pathway and possible applications in stress resistance engineering of plants to be addressed.

Threonine at position 306 of the KAT1 potassium channel is essential for channel activity and is a target site for ABA-activated SnRK2/OST1/SnRK2.6 protein kinase

The Arabidopsis thaliana K+ channel KAT1 has been suggested to have a key role in mediating the aperture of stomata pores on the surface of plant leaves. Although the activity of KAT1 is thought to be regulated by phosphorylation, the endogenous pathway and the primary target site for this modification remained unknown. In the present study, we have demonstrated that the C-terminal region of KAT1 acts as a phosphorylation target for the Arabidopsis calcium-independent ABA (abscisic acid)-activated protein kinase SnRK2.6 (Snf1-related protein kinase 2.6). This was confirmed by LC-MS/MS (liquid chromatography tandem MS) analysis, which showed that Thr306 and Thr308 of KAT1 were modified by phosphorylation. The role of these specific residues was examined by single point mutations and measurement of KAT1 channel activities in Xenopus oocyte and yeast systems. Modification of Thr308 had minimal effect on KAT1 activity. On the other hand, modification of Thr306 reduced the K+ transport uptake activity of KAT1 in both systems, indicating that Thr306 is responsible for the functional regulation of KAT1. These results suggest that negative regulation of KAT1 activity, required for stomatal closure, probably occurs by phosphorylation of KAT1 Thr306 by the stress-activated endogenous SnRK2.6 protein kinase.

Electrical signalling and cytokinins mediate effects of light and root cutting on ion uptake in intact plants

Nutrient acquisition in the mature root zone is under systemic control by the shoot and the root tip. In maize, exposure of the shoot to light induces short-term (within 1-2 min) effects on net K+ and H+ transport at the root surface. H+ efflux decreased (from -18 to -12 nmol m(-2) s(-1)) and K+ uptake (approximately 2 nmol m(-2) s(-1)) reverted to efflux (approximately -3 nmol m(-2) s(-1)). Xylem probing revealed that the trans-root (electrical) potential drop between xylem vessels and an external electrode responded within seconds to a stepwise increase in light intensity; xylem pressure started to decrease after a approximately 3 min delay, favouring electrical as opposed to hydraulic signalling. Cutting of maize and barley roots at the base reduced H+ efflux and stopped K+ influx in low-salt medium; xylem pressure rapidly increased to atmospheric levels. With 100 mm NaCl added to the bath, the pressure jump upon cutting was more dramatic, but fluxes remained unaffected, providing further evidence against hydraulic regulation of ion uptake. Following excision of the apical part of barley roots, influx changed to large efflux (-50 nmol m(-2) s(-1)). Kinetin (2-4 microM), a synthetic cytokinin, reversed this effect. Regulation of ion transport by root-tip-synthesized cytokinins is discussed.

The guard cell as a single-cell model towards understanding drought tolerance and abscisic acid action

Stomatal guard cells are functionally specialized epidermal cells usually arranged in pairs surrounding a pore. Changes in ion fluxes, and more specifically osmolytes, within the guard cells drive opening/closing of the pore, allowing gas exchange while limiting water loss through evapo-transpiration. Adjustments of the pore aperture to optimize these conflicting needs are thus centrally important for land plants to survive, especially with the rise in CO(2) associated with global warming and increasing water scarcity this century. The basic biophysical events in modulating membrane transport have been gradually delineated over two decades. Genetics and molecular approaches in recent years have complemented and extended these earlier studies to identify major regulatory nodes. In Arabidopsis, the reference for guard cell genetics, stomatal opening driven by K(+) entry is mainly through KAT1 and KAT2, two voltage-gated K(+) inward-rectifying channels that are activated on hyperpolarization of the plasma membrane principally by the OST2 H(+)-ATPase (proton pump coupled to ATP hydrolysis). By contrast, stomatal closing is caused by K(+) efflux mainly through GORK, the outward-rectifying channel activated by membrane depolarization. The depolarization is most likely initiated by SLAC1, an anion channel distantly related to the dicarboxylate/malic acid transport protein found in fungi and bacteria. Beyond this established framework, there is also burgeoning evidence for the involvement of additional transporters, such as homologues to the multi-drug resistance proteins (or ABC transporters) as intimated by several pharmacological and reverse genetics studies. General inhibitors of protein kinases and protein phosphatases have been shown to profoundly affect guard cell membrane transport properties. Indeed, the first regulatory enzymes underpinning these transport processes revealed genetically were several protein phosphatases of the 2C class and the OST1 kinase, a member of the SnRK2 family. Taken together, these results are providing the first glimpses of an emerging signalling complex critical for modulating the stomatal aperture in response to environmental stimuli.

Roles of RCN1, regulatory A subunit of protein phosphatase 2A, in methyl jasmonate signaling and signal crosstalk between methyl jasmonate and abscisic acid

Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) as well as abscisic acid (ABA) induces stomatal closure with their signal crosstalk. We investigated the function of a regulatory A subunit of protein phosphatase 2A, RCN1, in MeJA signaling. Both MeJA and ABA failed to induce stomatal closure in Arabidopsis rcn1 knockout mutants unlike in wild-type plants. Neither MeJA nor ABA induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and suppressed inward-rectifying potassium channel activities in rcn1 mutants but not in wild-type plants. These results suggest that RCN1 functions upstream of ROS production and downstream of the branch point of MeJA signaling and ABA signaling in Arabidopsis guard cells.

K+ channel activity in plants: genes, regulations and functions

Potassium (K(+)) is the most abundant cation in the cytosol, and plant growth requires that large amounts of K(+) are transported from the soil to the growing organs. K(+) uptake and fluxes within the plant are mediated by several families of transporters and channels. Here, we describe the different families of K(+)-selective channels that have been identified in plants, the so-called Shaker, TPK and Kir-like channels, and what is known so far on their regulations and physiological functions in the plant.

A protein kinase, interacting with two calcineurin B-like proteins, regulates K+ transporter AKT1 in Arabidopsis

Potassium is an essential mineral element for plant growth and development. Although it is known that plants absorb and transport K+ through membrane transporters, it remains unclear how these transporters are regulated. Here we show that the protein kinase CIPK23, encoded by the LKS1 gene, regulates K+ uptake under low-K+ conditions. Lesion of LKS1 significantly reduced K+ uptake and caused leaf chlorosis and growth inhibition, whereas overexpression of LKS1 significantly enhanced K+ uptake and tolerance to low K+. We demonstrate that CIPK23 directly phosphorylates the K+ transporter AKT1 and further find that CIPK23 is activated by the binding of two calcineurin B-like proteins, CBL1 and CBL9. We propose a model in which the CBL1/9-CIPK23 pathway ensures activation of AKT1 and enhanced K+ uptake under low-K+ conditions.

Properties of shaker-type potassium channels in higher plants

Potassium (K(+)), the most abundant cation in biological organisms, plays a crucial role in the survival and development of plant cells, modulation of basic mechanisms such as enzyme activity, electrical membrane potentials, plant turgor and cellular homeostasis. Due to the absence of a Na(+)/K(+) exchanger, which widely exists in animal cells, K(+) channels and some type of K(+) transporters function as K(+) uptake systems in plants. Plant voltage-dependent K(+) channels, which display striking topological and functional similarities with the voltage-dependent six-transmembrane segment animal Shaker-type K(+) channels, have been found to play an important role in the plasma membrane of a variety of tissues and organs in higher plants. Outward-rectifying, inward-rectifying and weakly-rectifying K(+) channels have been identified and play a crucial role in K(+) homeostasis in plant cells. To adapt to the environmental conditions, plants must take advantage of the large variety of Shaker-type K(+) channels naturally present in the plant kingdom. This review summarizes the extensive data on the structure, function, membrane topogenesis, heteromerization, expression, localization, physiological roles and modulation of Shaker-type K(+) channels from various plant species. The accumulated results also help in understanding the similarities and differences in the properties of Shaker-type K(+) channels in plants in comparison to those of Shaker channels in animals and bacteria.

A unique voltage sensor sensitizes the potassium channel AKT2 to phosphoregulation

Among all voltage-gated K⁺ channels from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the weakly rectifying K⁺ channel (K_weak channel) AKT2 displays unique gating properties. AKT2 is exceptionally regulated by phosphorylation: when nonphosphorylated AKT2 behaves as an inward-rectifying potassium channel; phosphorylation of AKT2 abolishes inward rectification by shifting its activation threshold far positive (>200 mV) so that it closes only at voltages positive of +100 mV. In its phosphorylated form, AKT2 is thus locked in the open state in the entire physiological voltage range. To understand the molecular grounds of this unique gating behavior, we generated chimeras between AKT2 and the conventional inward-rectifying channel KAT1. The transfer of the pore from KAT1 to AKT2 altered the permeation properties of the channel. However, the gating properties were unaffected, suggesting that the pore region of AKT2 is not responsible for the unique K_weak gating. Instead, a lysine residue in S4, highly conserved among all K_weak channels but absent from other plant K⁺ channels, was pinpointed in a site-directed mutagenesis approach. Substitution of the lysine by serine or aspartate abolished the “open-lock” characteristic and converted AKT2 into an inward-rectifying channel. Interestingly, phosphoregulation of the mutant AKT2-K197S appeared to be similar to that of the K_in channel KAT1: as suggested by mimicking the phosphorylated and dephosphorylated states, phosphorylation induced a shift of the activation threshold of AKT2-K197S by about +50 mV. We conclude that the lysine residue K197 sensitizes AKT2 to phosphoregulation. The phosphorylation-induced reduction of the activation energy in AKT2 is ∼6 kT larger than in the K197S mutant. It is discussed that this hypersensitive response of AKT2 to phosphorylation equips a cell with the versatility to establish a potassium gradient and to make efficient use of it.

Phosphorylation of SPICK2, an AKT2 channel homologue from Samanea motor cells

SPICK2, a homologue of the weakly-inward-rectifying Shaker-like Arabidopsis K channel, AKT2, is a candidate K+-influx channel participating in light- and clock-regulated leaf movements of the legume, Samanea saman. Light and the biological clock regulate the in situ K+-influx channel activity differentially in extensor and flexor halves of the pulvinus (the S. saman leaf motor organ), and also-though differently-the transcript level of SPICK2 in the pulvinus. This disparity between the in situ channel activity versus its candidate transcript, along with the sequence analysis of SPICK2, suggest an in situ regulation of the activity of SPICK2, possibly by phosphorylation and/or by interaction with cAMP. Consistent with this (i) the activity of the voltage-dependent K+-selective fraction of the inward current in extensor and flexor cells was affected differentially in whole-cell patch-clamp assays promoting phosphorylation (using the protein phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid); (ii) several proteins in isolated plasma membrane-enriched vesicles of the motor cells underwent phosphorylation without an added kinase in conditions similar to patch-clamp; and (iii) the SPICK2 protein was phosphorylated in vitro by the catalytic subunit of the broad-range cAMP-dependent protein kinase. All of these results are consistent with the notion that SPICK2 is the K+-influx channel, and is regulated in vivo directly by phosphorylation.

Inward rectification of the AKT2 channel abolished by voltage-dependent phosphorylation

The Arabidopsis K(+) channel AKT2 possesses the remarkable property that its voltage threshold for activation can be either within the physiological range (gating mode 1), or shifted towards considerably more positive voltages (gating mode 2). Gating mode 1 AKT2 channels behave as delayed K(+)-selective inward rectifiers; while gating mode 2 AKT2 channels are K(+)-selective 'open leaks' in the physiological range of membrane potential. In the present study we have investigated modulation of AKT2 current by effectors of phosphatases/kinases in COS cells and Xenopus oocytes. These experiments show that (i) dephosphorylation can result in AKT2 channel silencing; and (ii) phosphorylation by protein kinase A (PKA) favors both recruitment of silenced AKT2 channels and transition from gating mode 1 to gating mode 2. Interestingly, phosphorylation of AKT2 by PKA in COS cells and Xenopus oocytes is favored by hyperpolarization. Two PKA phosphorylation sites (S210 and S329) were pinpointed in the region of the pore inner mouth. The role of these phosphorylation sites in the switch between the two gating modes was assessed by electrophysiological characterization of mutant channels. The molecular aspects of AKT2 regulation by phosphorylation, and the possible physiological meaning of such regulation in the plant context, are discussed.

Nucleotides and Mg2+ ions differentially regulate K+ channels and non-selective cation channels present in cells forming the stomatal complex

Voltage-dependent inward-rectifying (K(in)) and outward-rectifying (K(out)) K(+) channels are capable of mediating K(+) fluxes across the plasma membrane. Previous studies on guard cells or heterologously expressed K(+) channels provided evidence for the requirement of ATP to maintain K(+) channel activity. Here, the nucleotide and Mg(2+) dependencies of time-dependent K(in) and K(out) channels from maize subsidiary cells were examined, showing that MgATP as well as MgADP function as channel activators. In addition to K(out) channels, these studies revealed the presence of another outward-rectifying channel type (MgC) in the plasma membrane that however gates in a nucleotide-independent manner. MgC represents a new channel type distinguished from K(out) channels by fast activation kinetics, inhibition by elevated intracellular Mg(2+) concentration, permeability for K(+) as well as for Na(+) and insensitivity towards TEA(+). Similar observations made for guard cells from Zea mays and Vicia faba suggest a conserved regulation of channel-mediated K(+) and Na(+) transport in both cell types and species.

Regulation of K+ channel activities in plants: from physiological to molecular aspects

Plant voltage-gated channels belonging to the Shaker family participate in sustained K+ transport processes at the cell and whole plant levels, such as K+ uptake from the soil solution, long-distance K+ transport in the xylem and phloem, and K+ fluxes in guard cells during stomatal movements. The attention here is focused on the regulation of these transport systems by protein-protein interactions. Clues to the identity of the regulatory mechanisms have been provided by electrophysiological approaches in planta or in heterologous systems, and through analogies with their animal counterparts. It has been shown that, like their animal homologues, plant voltage-gated channels can assemble as homo- or heterotetramers associating polypeptides encoded by different Shaker genes, and that they can bind auxiliary subunits homologous to those identified in mammals. Furthermore, several regulatory processes (involving, for example, protein kinases and phosphatases, G proteins, 14-3-3s, or syntaxins) might be common to plant and animal Shakers. However, the molecular identification of plant channel partners is still at its beginning. This paper reviews current knowledge on plant K+ channel regulation at the physiological and molecular levels, in the light of the corresponding knowledge in animal cells, and discusses perspectives for the deciphering of regulatory networks in the future.

Molecular mechanisms and regulation of K+ transport in higher plants

Potassium (K+) plays a number of important roles in plant growth and development. Over the past few years, molecular approaches associated with electrophysiological analyses have greatly advanced our understanding of K+ transport in plants. A large number of genes encoding K+ transport systems have been identified, revealing a high level of complexity. Characterization of some transport systems is providing exciting information at the molecular level on functions such as root K+ uptake and secretion into the xylem sap, K+ transport in guard cells, or K+ influx into growing pollen tubes. In this review, we take stock of this recent molecular information. The main families of plant K+ transport systems (Shaker and KCO channels, KUP/HAK/KT and HKT transporters) are described, along with molecular data on how these systems are regulated. Finally, we discuss a few physiological questions on which molecular studies have shed new light.

Cross-talk in abscisic acid signaling

"Cross-talk" in hormone signaling reflects an organism's ability to integrate different inputs and respond appropriately, a crucial function at the heart of signaling network operation. Abscisic acid (ABA) is a plant hormone involved in bud and seed dormancy, growth regulation, leaf senescence and abscission, stomatal opening, and a variety of plant stress responses. This review summarizes what is known about ABA signaling in the control of stomatal opening and seed dormancy and provides an overview of emerging knowledge about connections between ABA, ethylene, sugar, and auxin synthesis and signaling.

AtKC1, a silent Arabidopsis potassium channel alpha -subunit modulates root hair K+ influx

Ion channels in roots allow the plant to gain access to nutrients. The composition of the individual ion channels and the functional contribution of different alpha-subunits is largely unknown. Focusing on K(+)-selective ion channels, we have characterized AtKC1, a new alpha-subunit from the Arabidopsis shaker-like ion channel family. Promoter-beta-glucuronidase (GUS) studies identified AtKC1 expression predominantly in root hairs and root endodermis. Specific antibodies recognized AtKC1 at the plasma membrane. To analyze further the abundance and the functional contribution of the different K(+) channels alpha-subunits in root cells, we performed real-time reverse transcription-PCR and patch-clamp experiments on isolated root hair protoplasts. Studying all shaker-like ion channel alpha-subunits, we only found the K(+) inward rectifier AtKC1 and AKT1 and the K(+) outward rectifier GORK to be expressed in this cell type. Akt1 knockout plants essentially lacked inward rectifying K(+) currents. In contrast, inward rectifying K(+) currents were present in AtKC1 knockout plants, but fundamentally altered with respect to gating and cation sensitivity. This indicates that the AtKC1 alpha-subunit represents an integral component of functional root hair K(+) uptake channels.

The carboxyl tail forms a discrete functional domain that blocks closure of the yeast K+ channel

Non-targeted mutagenesis studies of the yeast K(+) channel, TOK1, have led to identification of functional domains common to other cation channels as well as those so far not found in other channels. Among the latter is the ability of the carboxyl tail to prevent channel closure. Here, we show that the tail can fulfill this function in trans. Coexpression of the carboxyl tail with the tail-deleted channel core restores normal channel behavior A Ser/Thr-rich region at its amino end and an acidic stretch at its carboxyl end delineate the minimal region required for tail function. This region of 160 aa apparently forms a discrete functional domain. Interaction of this domain with the channel core is strong, being recalcitrant to removal from excised membrane patches by both high salt and reducing agents. Although the use of a cytoplasmic domain to regulate channel is common among animal channels, by using it as a "foot-in-the-door" to maintain open state appears unique to TOK1, the first fungal K(+) channel studied in depth.