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Zhong S, Zhao P, Peng X, Li HJ, Duan Q, Cheung AY. From gametes to zygote: Mechanistic advances and emerging possibilities in plant reproduction. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 195:4-35. [PMID: 38431529 PMCID: PMC11060694 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiae125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Sheng Zhong
- State Key Laboratory for Protein and Plant Gene Research, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, New Cornerstone Science Laboratory, College of Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Peng Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiongbo Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Hong-Ju Li
- Key Laboratory of Seed Innovation, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Center for Molecular Agrobiology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Qiaohong Duan
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, Shandong 271018, China
| | - Alice Y Cheung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Molecular and Cellular Biology Program, Plant Biology Graduate Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA
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2
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Yu B, Chao DY, Zhao Y. How plants sense and respond to osmotic stress. JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE PLANT BIOLOGY 2024; 66:394-423. [PMID: 38329193 DOI: 10.1111/jipb.13622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Drought is one of the most serious abiotic stresses to land plants. Plants sense and respond to drought stress to survive under water deficiency. Scientists have studied how plants sense drought stress, or osmotic stress caused by drought, ever since Charles Darwin, and gradually obtained clues about osmotic stress sensing and signaling in plants. Osmotic stress is a physical stimulus that triggers many physiological changes at the cellular level, including changes in turgor, cell wall stiffness and integrity, membrane tension, and cell fluid volume, and plants may sense some of these stimuli and trigger downstream responses. In this review, we emphasized water potential and movements in organisms, compared putative signal inputs in cell wall-containing and cell wall-free organisms, prospected how plants sense changes in turgor, membrane tension, and cell fluid volume under osmotic stress according to advances in plants, animals, yeasts, and bacteria, summarized multilevel biochemical and physiological signal outputs, such as plasma membrane nanodomain formation, membrane water permeability, root hydrotropism, root halotropism, Casparian strip and suberin lamellae, and finally proposed a hypothesis that osmotic stress responses are likely to be a cocktail of signaling mediated by multiple osmosensors. We also discussed the core scientific questions, provided perspective about the future directions in this field, and highlighted the importance of robust and smart root systems and efficient source-sink allocations for generating future high-yield stress-resistant crops and plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yu
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Key Laboratory of Plant Carbon Capture, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Dai-Yin Chao
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yang Zhao
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Key Laboratory of Plant Carbon Capture, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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3
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Kang X, Zhao L, Liu X. Calcium Signaling and the Response to Heat Shock in Crop Plants. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 25:324. [PMID: 38203495 PMCID: PMC10778685 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25010324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Climate change and the increasing frequency of high temperature (HT) events are significant threats to global crop yields. To address this, a comprehensive understanding of how plants respond to heat shock (HS) is essential. Signaling pathways involving calcium (Ca2+), a versatile second messenger in plants, encode information through temporal and spatial variations in ion concentration. Ca2+ is detected by Ca2+-sensing effectors, including channels and binding proteins, which trigger specific cellular responses. At elevated temperatures, the cytosolic concentration of Ca2+ in plant cells increases rapidly, making Ca2+ signals the earliest response to HS. In this review, we discuss the crucial role of Ca2+ signaling in raising plant thermotolerance, and we explore its multifaceted contributions to various aspects of the plant HS response (HSR).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Liqun Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline of Cell Biology, Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China;
| | - Xiaotong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of Ministry of Education, Hebei Research Center of the Basic Discipline of Cell Biology, Hebei Collaboration Innovation Center for Cell Signaling, Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China;
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4
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Zhang Z, Ye F, Xiong T, Chen J, Cao J, Chen Y, Liu S. Origin, evolution and diversification of plant mechanosensitive channel of small conductance-like (MSL) proteins. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2023; 23:462. [PMID: 37794319 PMCID: PMC10552396 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-023-04479-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels provide efficient molecular mechanism for transducing mechanical forces into intracellular ion fluxes in all kingdoms of life. The mechanosensitive channel of small conductance (MscS) was one of the best-studied MS channels and its homologs (MSL, MscS-like) were widely distributed in cell-walled organisms. However, the origin, evolution and expansion of MSL proteins in plants are still not clear. Here, we identified more than 2100 MSL proteins from 176 plants and conducted a broad-scale phylogenetic analysis. The phylogenetic tree showed that plant MSL proteins were divided into three groups (I, II and III) prior to the emergence of chlorophytae algae, consistent with their specific subcellular localization. MSL proteins were distributed unevenly into each of plant species, and four parallel expansion was identified in angiosperms. In Brassicaceae, most MSL duplicates were derived by whole-genome duplication (WGD)/segmental duplications. Finally, a hypothetical evolutionary model of MSL proteins in plants was proposed based on phylogeny. Our studies illustrate the evolutionary history of the MSL proteins and provide a guide for future functional diversity analyses of these proteins in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zaibao Zhang
- School of Life and Health Science, Huzhou College, Huzhou, Zhejiang, China.
| | - Fan Ye
- College of International Education, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan, China
| | - Tao Xiong
- College of Life Science, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan, China
| | - Jiahui Chen
- College of International Education, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan, China
| | - Jiajia Cao
- College of International Education, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan, China
| | - Yurui Chen
- College of International Education, Xinyang Normal University, Xinyang, Henan, China
| | - Sushuang Liu
- School of Life and Health Science, Huzhou College, Huzhou, Zhejiang, China
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5
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Zhao W, Hou Q, Qi Y, Wu S, Wan X. Structural and molecular basis of pollen germination. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2023; 203:108042. [PMID: 37738868 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.108042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 08/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Pollen germination is a prerequisite for double fertilization of flowering plants. A comprehensive understanding of the structural and molecular basis of pollen germination holds great potential for crop yield improvement. The pollen aperture serves as the foundation for most plant pollen germination and pollen aperture formation involves the establishment of cellular polarity, the formation of distinct membrane domains, and the precise deposition of extracellular substances. Successful pollen germination requires precise material exchange and signal transduction between the pollen grain and the stigma. Recent cytological and mutant analysis of pollen germination process in Arabidopsis and rice has expanded our understanding of this biological process. However, the overall changes in germination site structure and energy-related metabolites during pollen germination remain to be further explored. This review summarizes and compares the recent advances in the processes of pollen aperture formation, pollen adhesion, hydration, and germination between eudicot Arabidopsis and monocot rice, and provides insights into the structural basis and molecular mechanisms underlying pollen germination process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhao
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, Shunde Innovation School, University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Quancan Hou
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, Shunde Innovation School, University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), Beijing, 100083, China; Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Yuchen Qi
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, Shunde Innovation School, University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), Beijing, 100083, China
| | - Suowei Wu
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, Shunde Innovation School, University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), Beijing, 100083, China; Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Beijing, 100083, China; Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing Solidwill Sci-Tech Co. Ltd., Beijing, 100192, China.
| | - Xiangyuan Wan
- Research Institute of Biology and Agriculture, Shunde Innovation School, University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), Beijing, 100083, China; Zhongzhi International Institute of Agricultural Biosciences, Beijing, 100083, China; Beijing Engineering Laboratory of Main Crop Bio-Tech Breeding, Beijing Solidwill Sci-Tech Co. Ltd., Beijing, 100192, China.
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Li M, Jiang F, Huang L, Wang H, Song W, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Niu L. Optimization of In Vitro Germination, Viability Tests and Storage of Paeonia ostii Pollen. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:2460. [PMID: 37447022 DOI: 10.3390/plants12132460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Paeonia ostii is an important woody oil crop mainly cross-pollinated. However, the low yield has become an important factor restricting the industrial development of P. ostii. Cross-pollination has become one of the important measures to increase the seed yield. Therefore, conservation of pollen with high vitality is crucial to ensure successful pollination of P. ostii. In this study, we found an effective methodological system to assess the viability, ability to germinate, and optimal storage conditions of P. ostii pollen grains. The optimal medium in vitro was 50 g/L sucrose, 100 mg/L boric acid, 50 g/L PEG6000, 100 mg/L potassium nitrate, 300 mg/L calcium nitrate, and 200 mg/L magnesium sulfate at pH 5.4. Optimal germination condition in vitro was achieved at 25 °C for 120 min, allowing easy observation of the germination percentage and length of the pollen tubes. In addition, the viability of pollen grains was assessed by comparing nine staining methods. Among them, MTT, TTC, benzidine-H2O2, and FDA were effective to distinguish between viable and non-viable pollen, and the results of the FDA staining method were similar to the pollen germination percentage in vitro. After evaluation of pollen storage, thawing and rehydration experiments showed that thawing at 4 °C for 30 min and rehydration at 25 °C for 30 min increased the germination percentage of pollen grains stored at low temperatures. The low-temperature storage experiments showed that 4 °C was suitable for short-term storage of P. ostii pollen grains, while -80 °C was suitable for long-term storage. This is the first report on the in vitro germination, viability tests, and storage of P. ostii pollen grains, which will provide useful information for P. ostii germplasm conservation and artificial pollination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengchen Li
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Fengfei Jiang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Linbo Huang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Hui Wang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Wenqing Song
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Zhang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Yanlong Zhang
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Lixin Niu
- College of Landscape Architecture and Arts, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, China
- Oil Peony Engineering Technology Research Center of National Forestry Administration, Yangling 712100, China
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Robinson R, Sprott D, Couroux P, Routly E, Labbé N, Xing T, Robert LS. The triticale mature pollen and stigma proteomes - assembling the proteins for a productive encounter. J Proteomics 2023; 278:104867. [PMID: 36870675 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2023.104867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Triticeae crops are major contributors to global food production and ensuring their capacity to reproduce and generate seeds is critical. However, despite their importance our knowledge of the proteins underlying Triticeae reproduction is severely lacking and this is not only true of pollen and stigma development, but also of their pivotal interaction. When the pollen grain and stigma are brought together they have each accumulated the proteins required for their intended meeting and accordingly studying their mature proteomes is bound to reveal proteins involved in their diverse and complex interactions. Using triticale as a Triticeae representative, gel-free shotgun proteomics was used to identify 11,533 and 2977 mature stigma and pollen proteins respectively. These datasets, by far the largest to date, provide unprecedented insights into the proteins participating in Triticeae pollen and stigma development and interactions. The study of the Triticeae stigma has been particularly neglected. To begin filling this knowledge gap, a developmental iTRAQ analysis was performed revealing 647 proteins displaying differential abundance as the stigma matures in preparation for pollination. An in-depth comparison to an equivalent Brassicaceae analysis divulged both conservation and diversification in the makeup and function of proteins involved in the pollen and stigma encounter. SIGNIFICANCE: Successful pollination brings together the mature pollen and stigma thus initiating an intricate series of molecular processes vital to crop reproduction. In the Triticeae crops (e.g. wheat, barley, rye, triticale) there persists a vast deficit in our knowledge of the proteins involved which needs to be addressed if we are to face the many upcoming challenges to crop production such as those associated with climate change. At maturity, both the pollen and stigma have acquired the protein complement necessary for their forthcoming encounter and investigating their proteomes will inevitably provide unprecedented insights into the proteins enabling their interactions. By combining the analysis of the most comprehensive Triticeae pollen and stigma global proteome datasets to date with developmental iTRAQ investigations, proteins implicated in the different phases of pollen-stigma interaction enabling pollen adhesion, recognition, hydration, germination and tube growth, as well as those underlying stigma development were revealed. Extensive comparisons between equivalent Triticeae and Brassiceae datasets highlighted both the conservation of biological processes in line with the shared goal of activating the pollen grain and promoting pollen tube invasion of the pistil to effect fertilization, as well as the significant distinctions in their proteomes consistent with the considerable differences in their biochemistry, physiology and morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reneé Robinson
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada; Carleton University, Department of Biology, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - David Sprott
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Philippe Couroux
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Routly
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Natalie Labbé
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Tim Xing
- Carleton University, Department of Biology, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Laurian S Robert
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0C6, Canada.
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8
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Huang Q, Zhu W, Gao X, Liu X, Zhang Z, Xing B. Nanoparticles-mediated ion channels manipulation: From their membrane interactions to bioapplications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2023; 195:114763. [PMID: 36841331 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2023.114763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
Ion channels are transmembrane proteins ubiquitously expressed in all cells that control various ions (e.g. Na+, K+, Ca2+ and Cl- etc) crossing cellular plasma membrane, which play critical roles in physiological processes including regulating signal transduction, cell proliferation as well as excitatory cell excitation and conduction. Abnormal ion channel function is usually associated with dysfunctions and many diseases, such as neurodegenerative disorders, ophthalmic diseases, pulmonary diseases and even cancers. The precise regulation of ion channels not only helps to decipher physiological and pathological processes, but also is expected to become cutting-edge means for disease treatment. Recently, nanoparticles-mediated ion channel manipulation emerges as a highly promising way to meet the increasing requirements with respect to their simple, efficient, precise, spatiotemporally controllable and non-invasive regulation in biomedicine and other research frontiers. Thanks the advantages of their unique properties, nanoparticles can not only directly block the pore sites or kinetics of ion channels through their tiny size effect, and perturb active voltage-gated ion channel by their charged surface, but they can also act as antennas to conduct or enhance external physical stimuli to achieve spatiotemporal, precise and efficient regulation of various ion channel activities (e.g. light-, mechanical-, and temperature-gated ion channels etc). So far, nanoparticles-mediated ion channel regulation has shown potential prospects in many biomedical fields at the interfaces of neuro- and cardiovascular modulation, physiological function regeneration and tumor therapy et al. Towards such important fields, in this typical review, we specifically outline the latest studies of different types of ion channels and their activities relevant to the diseases. In addition, the different types of stimulation responsive nanoparticles, their interaction modes and targeting strategies towards the plasma membrane ion channels will be systematically summarized. More importantly, the ion channel regulatory methods mediated by functional nanoparticles and their bioapplications associated with physiological modulation and therapeutic development will be discussed. Last but not least, current challenges and future perspectives in this field will be covered as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiwen Huang
- Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Surface & Interface Science of Polymer Materials of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Weisheng Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Surface & Interface Science of Polymer Materials of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xiaoyin Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Surface & Interface Science of Polymer Materials of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Xinping Liu
- School of Pharmaceutical Science, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China
| | - Zhijun Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Surface & Interface Science of Polymer Materials of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China.
| | - Bengang Xing
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering & Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, 637371, Singapore.
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Bhar A, Chakraborty A, Roy A. The captivating role of calcium in plant-microbe interaction. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1138252. [PMID: 36938033 PMCID: PMC10020633 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1138252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant immune response is fascinating due to the complete absence of a humoral system. The adaptive immune response in plants relies on the intracellular orchestration of signalling molecules or intermediates associated with transcriptional reprogramming. Plant disease response phenomena largely depend on pathogen recognition, signal perception, and intracellular signal transduction. The pathogens possess specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMP) or microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMP), which are first identified by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of host plants for successful infection. After successful pathogen recognition, the defence response is initiated within plants. The first line of non-specific defence response is called PAMP-triggered immunity (PTI), followed by the specific robust signalling is called effector-triggered immunity (ETI). Calcium plays a crucial role in both PTI and ETI. The biphasic induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is inevitable in any plant-microbe interaction. Calcium ions play crucial roles in the initial oxidative burst and ROS induction. Different pathogens can induce calcium accumulation in the cytosol ([Ca2+]Cyt), called calcium signatures. These calcium signatures further control the diverse defence-responsive proteins in the intracellular milieu. These calcium signatures then activate calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs), calcium calmodulins (CaMs), calcineurin B-like proteins (CBLs), etc., to impart intricate defence signalling within the cell. Decoding this calcium ionic map is imperative to unveil any plant microbe interplay and modulate defence-responsive pathways. Hence, the present review is unique in developing concepts of calcium signature in plants and their subsequent decoding mechanism. This review also intends to articulate early sensing of calcium oscillation, signalling events, and comprehensive mechanistic roles of calcium within plants during pathogenic ingression. This will accumulate and summarize the exciting roles of calcium ions in plant immunity and provide the foundation for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anirban Bhar
- Post Graduate Department of Botany, Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College, Kolkata, India
| | - Amrita Chakraborty
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Amit Roy
- Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
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Çetinbaş-Genç A, Conti V, Cai G. Let's shape again: the concerted molecular action that builds the pollen tube. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2022; 35:77-103. [PMID: 35041045 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-022-00437-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The pollen tube is being subjected to control by a complex network of communication that regulates its shape and the misfunction of a single component causes specific deformations. In flowering plants, the pollen tube is a tubular extension of the pollen grain required for successful sexual reproduction. Indeed, maintaining the unique shape of the pollen tube is essential for the pollen tube to approach the embryo sac. Many processes and molecules (such as GTPase activity, phosphoinositides, Ca2+ gradient, distribution of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide, nonuniform pH values, organization of the cytoskeleton, balance between exocytosis and endocytosis, and cell wall structure) play key and coordinated roles in maintaining the cylindrical shape of pollen tubes. In addition, the above factors must also interact with each other so that the cell shape is maintained while the pollen tube follows chemical signals in the pistil that guide it to the embryo sac. Any intrinsic changes (such as erroneous signals) or extrinsic changes (such as environmental stresses) can affect the above factors and thus fertilization by altering the tube morphology. In this review, the processes and molecules that enable the development and maintenance of the unique shape of pollen tubes in angiosperms are presented emphasizing their interaction with specific tube shape. Thus, the purpose of the review is to investigate whether specific deformations in pollen tubes can help us to better understand the mechanism underlying pollen tube shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aslıhan Çetinbaş-Genç
- Department of Biology, Marmara University, Göztepe Campus, 34722, Kadıköy, Istanbul, Turkey.
| | - Veronica Conti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, via Mattioli 4, 53100, Siena, Italy
| | - Giampiero Cai
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Siena, via Mattioli 4, 53100, Siena, Italy
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Miller K, Strychalski W, Nickaeen M, Carlsson A, Haswell ES. In vitro experiments and kinetic models of Arabidopsis pollen hydration mechanics show that MSL8 is not a simple tension-gated osmoregulator. Curr Biol 2022; 32:2921-2934.e3. [PMID: 35660140 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2022.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/12/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Pollen, a neighbor-less cell containing the male gametes, undergoes mechanical challenges during plant sexual reproduction, including desiccation and rehydration. It was previously shown that the pollen-specific mechanosensitive ion channel MscS-like (MSL)8 is essential for pollen survival during hydration and proposed that it functions as a tension-gated osmoregulator. Here, we test this hypothesis with a combination of mathematical modeling and laboratory experiments. Time-lapse imaging revealed that wild-type pollen grains swell, and then they stabilize in volume rapidly during hydration. msl8 mutant pollen grains, however, continue to expand and eventually burst. We found that a mathematical model, wherein MSL8 acts as a simple-tension-gated osmoregulator, does not replicate this behavior. A better fit was obtained from variations of the model, wherein MSL8 inactivates independent of its membrane tension gating threshold or MSL8 strengthens the cell wall without osmotic regulation. Experimental and computational testing of several perturbations, including hydration in an osmolyte-rich solution, hyper-desiccation of the grains, and MSL8-YFP overexpression, indicated that the cell wall strengthening model best simulated experimental responses. Finally, the expression of a nonconducting MSL8 variant did not complement the msl8 overexpansion phenotype. These data indicate that contrary to our hypothesis and to the current understanding of MS ion channel function in bacteria, MSL8 does not act as a simple membrane tension-gated osmoregulator. Instead, they support a model wherein ion flux through MSL8 is required to alter pollen cell wall properties. These results demonstrate the utility of pollen as a cellular scale model system and illustrate how mathematical models can correct intuitive hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari Miller
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - Wanda Strychalski
- Department of Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, and Statistics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Masoud Nickaeen
- University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT 06030, USA
| | - Anders Carlsson
- NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Cleveland, OH, USA; Department of Physics, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Haswell
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA; NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Cleveland, OH, USA.
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12
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Wang Y, Coomey J, Miller K, Jensen GS, Haswell ES. Interactions between a mechanosensitive channel and cell wall integrity signaling influence pollen germination in Arabidopsis thaliana. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2022; 73:1533-1545. [PMID: 34849746 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Cells employ multiple systems to maintain cellular integrity, including mechanosensitive ion channels and the cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway. Here, we use pollen as a model system to ask how these different mechanisms are interconnected at the cellular level. MscS-Like 8 (MSL8) is a mechanosensitive channel required to protect Arabidopsis thaliana pollen from osmotic challenges during in vitro rehydration, germination, and tube growth. New CRISPR/Cas9 and artificial miRNA-generated msl8 alleles produced unexpected pollen phenotypes, including the ability to germinate a tube after bursting, dramatic defects in cell wall structure, and disorganized callose deposition at the germination site. We document complex genetic interactions between MSL8 and two previously established components of the CWI pathway, MARIS and ANXUR1/2. Overexpression of MARISR240C-FP suppressed the bursting, germination, and callose deposition phenotypes of msl8 mutant pollen. Null msl8 alleles suppressed the internalized callose structures observed in MARISR240C-FP lines. Similarly, MSL8-YFP overexpression suppressed bursting in the anxur1/2 mutant background, while anxur1/2 alleles reduced the strong rings of callose around ungerminated pollen grains in MSL8-YFP overexpressors. These data show that mechanosensitive ion channels modulate callose deposition in pollen and provide evidence that cell wall and membrane surveillance systems coordinate in a complex manner to maintain cell integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanbing Wang
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
- NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology
| | - Joshua Coomey
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
- NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology
| | - Kari Miller
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Gregory S Jensen
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Haswell
- Department of Biology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
- NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology
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13
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Codjoe JM, Miller K, Haswell ES. Plant cell mechanobiology: Greater than the sum of its parts. THE PLANT CELL 2022; 34:129-145. [PMID: 34524447 PMCID: PMC8773992 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The ability to sense and respond to physical forces is critical for the proper function of cells, tissues, and organisms across the evolutionary tree. Plants sense gravity, osmotic conditions, pathogen invasion, wind, and the presence of barriers in the soil, and dynamically integrate internal and external stimuli during every stage of growth and development. While the field of plant mechanobiology is growing, much is still poorly understood-including the interplay between mechanical and biochemical information at the single-cell level. In this review, we provide an overview of the mechanical properties of three main components of the plant cell and the mechanoperceptive pathways that link them, with an emphasis on areas of complexity and interaction. We discuss the concept of mechanical homeostasis, or "mechanostasis," and examine the ways in which cellular structures and pathways serve to maintain it. We argue that viewing mechanics and mechanotransduction as emergent properties of the plant cell can be a useful conceptual framework for synthesizing current knowledge and driving future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennette M Codjoe
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, 63130, USA
| | - Kari Miller
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University in St Louis, St Louis, Missouri, 63130, USA
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14
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Scheible N, Yoon GM, McCubbin AG. Calmodulin Domain Protein Kinase PiCDPK1 Regulates Pollen Tube Growth Polarity through Interaction with RhoGDI. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:plants11030254. [PMID: 35161234 PMCID: PMC8838988 DOI: 10.3390/plants11030254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The pollen-specific calcium-dependent protein kinase PiCDPK1 of Petunia inflata has previously been shown to regulate polarity in tip growth in pollen tubes. Here we report the identification of a Rho Guanine Dissociation Inhibitor (PiRhoGDI1) as a PiCDPK1 interacting protein. We demonstrate that PiRhoGDI1 and PiCDPK1 interact in a yeast 2-hybrid assay, as well as in an in vitro pull-down assay, and that PiRhoGDI1 is phosphorylated by PiCDPK1 in vitro. We further demonstrate the PiRhoGDI1 is capable of rescuing the loss of growth polarity phenotype caused by over-expressing PiCDPK1 in vivo using stable transgenic plants. We confirmed that PiRhoGDI1 interacts with a pollen-expressed ROP GTPase isoform consistent with the established role of RhoGDIs in negatively regulating GTPases through their membrane removal and locking them in an inactive cytosolic complex. ROP is a central regulator of polarity in tip growth, upstream of Ca2+, and PiCDPK1 over-expression has been previously reported to lead to dramatic elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ through a positive feedback loop. The discovery that PiCDPK1 impacts ROP regulation via PiRhoGDI1 suggests that PiCDPK1 acts as RhoGDI displacement factor and leads us to propose a model which we hypothesize regulates the rapid recycling of ROP GTPase at the pollen tube tip.
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15
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Dumais J. Mechanics and hydraulics of pollen tube growth. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 232:1549-1565. [PMID: 34492127 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
All kingdoms of life have evolved tip-growing cells able to mine their environment or deliver cargo to remote targets. The basic cellular processes supporting these functions are understood in increasing detail, but the multiple interactions between them lead to complex responses that require quantitative models to be disentangled. Here, I review the equations that capture the fundamental interactions between wall mechanics and cell hydraulics starting with a detailed presentation of James Lockhart's seminal model. The homeostatic feedbacks needed to maintain a steady tip velocity are then shown to offer a credible explanation for the pulsatile growth observed in some tip-growing cells. Turgor pressure emerges as a central variable whose role in the morphogenetic process has been a source of controversy for more than 50 yr. I argue that recasting Lockhart's work as a process of chemical stress relaxation can clarify how cells control tip growth and help us internalise the important but passive role played by turgor pressure in the morphogenetic process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Dumais
- Faculty of Engineering and Sciences, Universidad Adolfo Ibáñez, Av. Padre Hurtado 750, Viña del Mar, Region of Valparaíso, Chile
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16
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Abstract
Plants cannot move, so they must endure abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity and extreme temperatures. These stressors greatly limit the distribution of plants, alter their growth and development, and reduce crop productivity. Recent progress in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the responses of plants to abiotic stresses emphasizes their multilevel nature; multiple processes are involved, including sensing, signalling, transcription, transcript processing, translation and post-translational protein modifications. This improved knowledge can be used to boost crop productivity and agricultural sustainability through genetic, chemical and microbial approaches.
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17
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Robinson R, Sollapura V, Couroux P, Sprott D, Ravensdale M, Routly E, Xing T, Robert LS. The Brassica mature pollen and stigma proteomes: preparing to meet. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2021; 107:1546-1568. [PMID: 33650121 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.15219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Successful pollination in Brassica brings together the mature pollen grain and stigma papilla, initiating an intricate series of molecular processes meant to eventually enable sperm cell delivery for fertilization and reproduction. At maturity, the pollen and stigma cells have acquired proteomes, comprising the primary molecular effectors required upon their meeting. Knowledge of the roles and global composition of these proteomes in Brassica species is largely lacking. To address this gap, gel-free shotgun proteomics was performed on the mature pollen and stigma of Brassica carinata, a representative of the Brassica family and its many crop species (e.g. Brassica napus, Brassica oleracea and Brassica rapa) that holds considerable potential as a bio-industrial crop. A total of 5608 and 7703 B. carinata mature pollen and stigma proteins were identified, respectively. The pollen and stigma proteomes were found to reflect not only their many common functional and developmental objectives, but also the important differences underlying their cellular specialization. Isobaric tag for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ) was exploited in the first analysis of a developing Brassicaceae stigma, and revealed 251 B. carinata proteins that were differentially abundant during stigma maturation, providing insight into proteins involved in the initial phases of pollination. Corresponding pollen and stigma transcriptomes were also generated, highlighting functional divergences between the proteome and transcriptome during different stages of pollen-stigma interaction. This study illustrates the investigative potential of combining the most comprehensive Brassicaceae pollen and stigma proteomes to date with iTRAQ and transcriptome data to provide a unique global perspective of pollen and stigma development and interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reneé Robinson
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Vishwanath Sollapura
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Philippe Couroux
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Dave Sprott
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Michael Ravensdale
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Routly
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
| | - Tim Xing
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
| | - Laurian S Robert
- Ottawa Research and Development Centre, 960 Carling Ave., Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0C6, Canada
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18
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Behnami S, Bonetta D. With an Ear Up against the Wall: An Update on Mechanoperception in Arabidopsis. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 10:1587. [PMID: 34451632 PMCID: PMC8398075 DOI: 10.3390/plants10081587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Cells interpret mechanical signals and adjust their physiology or development appropriately. In plants, the interface with the outside world is the cell wall, a structure that forms a continuum with the plasma membrane and the cytoskeleton. Mechanical stress from cell wall damage or deformation is interpreted to elicit compensatory responses, hormone signalling, or immune responses. Our understanding of how this is achieved is still evolving; however, we can refer to examples from animals and yeast where more of the details have been worked out. Here, we provide an update on this changing story with a focus on candidate mechanosensitive channels and plasma membrane-localized receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dario Bonetta
- Faculty of Science, Ontario Tech University, 2000 Simcoe St N, Oshawa, ON L1G 0C5, Canada;
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19
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Plant Transcription Factors Involved in Drought and Associated Stresses. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115662. [PMID: 34073446 PMCID: PMC8199153 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcription factors (TFs) play a significant role in signal transduction networks spanning the perception of a stress signal and the expression of corresponding stress-responsive genes. TFs are multi-functional proteins that may simultaneously control numerous pathways during stresses in plants-this makes them powerful tools for the manipulation of regulatory and stress-responsive pathways. In recent years, the structure-function relationships of numerous plant TFs involved in drought and associated stresses have been defined, which prompted devising practical strategies for engineering plants with enhanced stress tolerance. Vast data have emerged on purposely basic leucine zipper (bZIP), WRKY, homeodomain-leucine zipper (HD-Zip), myeloblastoma (MYB), drought-response elements binding proteins/C-repeat binding factor (DREB/CBF), shine (SHN), and wax production-like (WXPL) TFs that reflect the understanding of their 3D structure and how the structure relates to function. Consequently, this information is useful in the tailored design of variant TFs that enhances our understanding of their functional states, such as oligomerization, post-translational modification patterns, protein-protein interactions, and their abilities to recognize downstream target DNA sequences. Here, we report on the progress of TFs based on their interaction pathway participation in stress-responsive networks, and pinpoint strategies and applications for crops and the impact of these strategies for improving plant stress tolerance.
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20
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Discoveries in structure and physiology of mechanically activated ion channels. Nature 2020; 587:567-576. [PMID: 33239794 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2933-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 64.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The ability to sense physical forces is conserved across all organisms. Cells convert mechanical stimuli into electrical or chemical signals via mechanically activated ion channels. In recent years, the identification of new families of mechanosensitive ion channels-such as PIEZO and OSCA/TMEM63 channels-along with surprising insights into well-studied mechanosensitive channels have driven further developments in the mechanotransduction field. Several well-characterized mechanosensory roles such as touch, blood-pressure sensing and hearing are now linked with primary mechanotransducers. Unanticipated roles of mechanical force sensing continue to be uncovered. Furthermore, high-resolution structures representative of nearly every family of mechanically activated channel described so far have underscored their diversity while advancing our understanding of the biophysical mechanisms of pressure sensing. Here we summarize recent discoveries in the physiology and structures of known mechanically activated ion channel families and discuss their implications for understanding the mechanisms of mechanical force sensing.
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21
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Schlegel AM, Haswell ES. Charged pore-lining residues are required for normal channel kinetics in the eukaryotic mechanosensitive ion channel MSL1. Channels (Austin) 2020; 14:310-325. [PMID: 32988273 PMCID: PMC7757850 DOI: 10.1080/19336950.2020.1818509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels are widespread mechanisms for cellular mechanosensation that can be directly activated by increasing membrane tension. The well-studied MscS family of MS ion channels is found in bacteria, archaea, and plants. MscS-Like (MSL)1 is localized to the inner mitochondrial membrane of Arabidopsis thaliana, where it is required for normal mitochondrial responses to oxidative stress. Like Escherichia coli MscS, MSL1 has a pore-lining helix that is kinked. However, in MSL1 this kink is comprised of two charged pore-lining residues, R326 and D327. Using single-channel patch-clamp electrophysiology in E. coli, we show that altering the size and charge of R326 and D327 leads to dramatic changes in channel kinetics. Modest changes in gating pressure were also observed while no effects on channel rectification or conductance were detected. MSL1 channel variants had differing physiological function in E. coli hypoosmotic shock assays, without clear correlation between function and particular channel characteristics. Taken together, these results demonstrate that altering pore-lining residue charge and size disrupts normal channel state stability and gating transitions, and led us to propose the “sweet spot” model. In this model, the transition to the closed state is facilitated by attraction between R326 and D327 and repulsion between R326 residues of neighboring monomers. In the open state, expansion of the channel reduces inter-monomeric repulsion, rendering open state stability influenced mainly by attractive forces. This work provides insight into how unique charge-charge interactions can be combined with an otherwise conserved structural feature to help modulate MS channel function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Schlegel
- Department of Biology, Washington University , St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University , St. Louis, Missouri, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Haswell
- Department of Biology, Washington University , St. Louis, Missouri, USA.,NSF Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University , St. Louis, Missouri, USA
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22
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Schlegel AM, Haswell ES. Analyzing plant mechanosensitive ion channels expressed in giant E. coli spheroplasts by single-channel patch-clamp electrophysiology. Methods Cell Biol 2020; 160:61-82. [PMID: 32896333 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2020.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Plants possess numerous ion channels that respond to a range of stimuli, including small molecules, transmembrane voltage, and mechanical force. Many in the latter category, known as mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels, open directly in response to increases in lateral membrane tension. One of the most effective techniques for characterizing ion channel properties is patch-clamp electrophysiology, in which the current through a section of membrane containing ion channels is measured. For MS channels, this technique enables the measurement of key channel properties such as tension sensitivity, conductance, and ion selectivity. These characteristics, along with the phenotypes of genetic mutants, can help reveal the physiological roles of a particular MS channel. In this protocol, we provide detailed instructions on how to study MS ion channels using single-channel patch-clamp electrophysiology in giant E. coli spheroplasts. We first present an optimized method for preparing giant spheroplasts, then describe how to measure MS channel activity using patch-clamp electrophysiology and analyze the resulting data. We also provide recommended equipment lists, setup schematics, and useful conventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela M Schlegel
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Elizabeth S Haswell
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering Mechanobiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, United States.
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23
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Vogler H, Santos-Fernandez G, Mecchia MA, Grossniklaus U. To preserve or to destroy, that is the question: the role of the cell wall integrity pathway in pollen tube growth. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 52:131-139. [PMID: 31648148 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2019.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
In plants, cell-shape is defined by the cell wall, a complex network of polymers located outside the plasma membrane. During cell growth, cell wall properties have to be adjusted, assuring cell expansion without compromising cell integrity. Plasma membrane-located receptors sense cell wall properties, transducing extracellular signals into intracellular cascades through the cell wall integrity (CWI) pathway that, in turn, leads to adjustments in the regulation and composition of the cell wall. Using pollen tube growth as a single celled model system, we describe the importance of RAPID ALKALINIZATION FACTOR (RALF) peptides as sensors of cell wall integrity. RALF peptides can mediate the communication between cell wall components and plasma membrane-localized receptor-like kinases (RLKs) of the CrRLK1L family. The subsequent activation of intracellular pathways regulates H+, Ca2+, and ROS levels in the cell and apoplast, thereby modulating cell wall integrity. Interestingly, the RALF-CrRLK1L module and some of the components working up- and downstream of the RLK is conserved in many other developmental and physiological signaling processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Vogler
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology and Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gorka Santos-Fernandez
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology and Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin A Mecchia
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology and Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ueli Grossniklaus
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology and Zurich-Basel Plant Science Center, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zurich, Switzerland.
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24
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Scheible N, McCubbin A. Signaling in Pollen Tube Growth: Beyond the Tip of the Polarity Iceberg. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 8:E156. [PMID: 31181594 PMCID: PMC6630365 DOI: 10.3390/plants8060156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The coordinated growth of pollen tubes through floral tissues to deliver the sperm cells to the egg and facilitate fertilization is a highly regulated process critical to the Angiosperm life cycle. Studies suggest that the concerted action of a variety of signaling pathways underlies the rapid polarized tip growth exhibited by pollen tubes. Ca2+ and small GTPase-mediated pathways have emerged as major players in the regulation of pollen tube growth. Evidence suggests that these two signaling pathways not only integrate with one another but also with a variety of other important signaling events. As we continue to elucidate the mechanisms involved in pollen tube growth, there is a growing importance in taking a holistic approach to studying these pathways in order to truly understand how tip growth in pollen tubes is orchestrated and maintained. This review considers our current state of knowledge of Ca2+-mediated and GTPase signaling pathways in pollen tubes, how they may intersect with one another, and other signaling pathways involved. There will be a particular focus on recent reports that have extended our understanding in these areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nolan Scheible
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA.
| | - Andrew McCubbin
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164-4236, USA.
- Center for Reproductive Biology, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA.
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25
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Wu Y, Qin B, Feng K, Yan R, Kang E, Liu T, Shang Z. Extracellular ATP promoted pollen germination and tube growth of Nicotiana tabacum through promoting K + and Ca 2+ absorption. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2018; 31:399-410. [PMID: 29934740 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-018-0341-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular ATP (eATP) plays an essential role in plant growth, development, and stress tolerance. Here, we report that eATP participated in Nicotiana tabacum pollen germination (PG) and pollen tube growth (PTG) by regulating K+ and Ca2+ influx. Exogenous ATP or ADP effectively promoted PG and PTG in a dose-dependent manner; weakly hydrolysable ATP analog (ATPγS) showed a similar effect. AMP, adenosine, adenine, and phosphate did not affect PG or PTG. Within a certain range, higher concentrations of K+ or Ca2+ in the medium increased the effect of ATP in promoting PG and PTG. However, in mediums containing K+ or Ca2+ concentrations above this range, the effect of ATP was reversed, resulting in PG and PTG inhibition. Ca2+ chelators (EGTA), Ca2+ channel blockers, and K+ channel blockers suppressed ATP-promoted PG and PTG. Results from a patch clamp showed that ATP activated a K+ and Ca2+ influx in pollen protoplasts. These results suggest that, as an apoplastic signal, eATP may be involved in PG and PTG via regulating Ca2+ and K+ absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yansheng Wu
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
- Department of Chemistry Engineering and Biological Technology, Xingtai University, Xingtai, 054001, Hebei, China
| | - Baozhi Qin
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
| | - Kaili Feng
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
| | - Ruolin Yan
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
| | - Erfang Kang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
| | - Ting Liu
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China
| | - Zhonglin Shang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050024, Hebei, China.
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26
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Zheng YY, Lin XJ, Liang HM, Wang FF, Chen LY. The Long Journey of Pollen Tube in the Pistil. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E3529. [PMID: 30423936 PMCID: PMC6275014 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19113529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 11/04/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In non-cleistogamous plants, the male gametophyte, the pollen grain is immotile and exploits various agents, such as pollinators, wind, and even water, to arrive to a receptive stigma. The complex process of pollination involves a tubular structure, i.e., the pollen tube, which delivers the two sperm cells to the female gametophyte to enable double fertilization. The pollen tube has to penetrate the stigma, grow in the style tissues, pass through the septum, grow along the funiculus, and navigate to the micropyle of the ovule. It is a long journey for the pollen tube and its two sperm cells before they meet the female gametophyte, and it requires very accurate regulation to perform successful fertilization. In this review, we update the knowledge of molecular dialogues of pollen-pistil interaction, especially the progress of pollen tube activation and guidance, and give perspectives for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang-Yang Zheng
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Center for Genomics and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Xian-Ju Lin
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Center for Genomics and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Hui-Min Liang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Center for Genomics and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Fang-Fei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Ecological Pest Control for Fujian and Taiwan Crops, College of Plant Protection, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
| | - Li-Yu Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Haixia Applied Plant Systems Biology, Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Genetics, Breeding and Multiple Utilization of Crops, Center for Genomics and Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China.
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Demidchik V, Shabala S, Isayenkov S, Cuin TA, Pottosin I. Calcium transport across plant membranes: mechanisms and functions. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 220:49-69. [PMID: 29916203 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Contents Summary 49 I. Introduction 49 II. Physiological and structural characteristics of plant Ca2+ -permeable ion channels 50 III. Ca2+ extrusion systems 61 IV. Concluding remarks 64 Acknowledgements 64 References 64 SUMMARY: Calcium is an essential structural, metabolic and signalling element. The physiological functions of Ca2+ are enabled by its orchestrated transport across cell membranes, mediated by Ca2+ -permeable ion channels, Ca2+ -ATPases and Ca2+ /H+ exchangers. Bioinformatics analysis has not determined any Ca2+ -selective filters in plant ion channels, but electrophysiological tests do reveal Ca2+ conductances in plant membranes. The biophysical characteristics of plant Ca2+ conductances have been studied in detail and were recently complemented by molecular genetic approaches. Plant Ca2+ conductances are mediated by several families of ion channels, including cyclic nucleotide-gated channels (CNGCs), ionotropic glutamate receptors, two-pore channel 1 (TPC1), annexins and several types of mechanosensitive channels. Key Ca2+ -mediated reactions (e.g. sensing of temperature, gravity, touch and hormones, and cell elongation and guard cell closure) have now been associated with the activities of specific subunits from these families. Structural studies have demonstrated a unique selectivity filter in TPC1, which is passable for hydrated divalent cations. The hypothesis of a ROS-Ca2+ hub is discussed, linking Ca2+ transport to ROS generation. CNGC inactivation by cytosolic Ca2+ , leading to the termination of Ca2+ signals, is now mechanistically explained. The structure-function relationships of Ca2+ -ATPases and Ca2+ /H+ exchangers, and their regulation and physiological roles are analysed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vadim Demidchik
- Department of Horticulture, Foshan University, Foshan, 528000, China
- Department of Plant Cell Biology and Bioengineering, Biological Faculty, Belarusian State University, 4 Independence Avenue, Minsk, 220030, Belarus
- Komarov Botanical Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, 2 Professora Popova Street, St Petersburg, 197376, Russia
| | - Sergey Shabala
- Department of Horticulture, Foshan University, Foshan, 528000, China
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 54, Hobart, Tas, 7001, Australia
| | - Stanislav Isayenkov
- Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Science of Ukraine, 2a Osipovskogo Street, Kyiv, 04123, Ukraine
| | - Tracey A Cuin
- Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 54, Hobart, Tas, 7001, Australia
| | - Igor Pottosin
- Centro Universitario de Investigaciones Biomédicas, Universidad de Colima, Avenida 25 de julio 965, Colima, 28045, Mexico
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Nakayama Y, Hashimoto KI, Sawada Y, Sokabe M, Kawasaki H, Martinac B. Corynebacterium glutamicum mechanosensitive channels: towards unpuzzling "glutamate efflux" for amino acid production. Biophys Rev 2018; 10:1359-1369. [PMID: 30209745 PMCID: PMC6233337 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-018-0452-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Corynebacterium glutamicum has been utilized for industrial amino acid production, especially for monosodium glutamate (MSG), the food-additive for the "UMAMI" category of taste sensation, which is one of the five human basic tastes. Glutamate export from these cells is facilitated by the opening of mechanosensitive channels in the cell membrane within the bacterial cell envelope following specific treatments, such as biotin limitation, addition of Tween 40 or penicillin. A long-unsolved puzzle still remains how and why C. glutamicum mechanosensitive channels are activated by these treatments to export glutamate. Unlike mechanosensitive channels in other bacteria, these channels are not simply osmotic safety valves that prevent these bacteria from bursting upon a hypo-osmotic shock. They also function as metabolic valves to continuously release glutamate as components of a pump-and-leak mechanism regulating the cellular turgor pressure. Recent studies have demonstrated that the opening of the mechanosensitive channel, MscCG, mainly facilitates the efflux of glutamate and not of other amino acids and that the "force-from-lipids" gating mechanism of channels also applies to the MscCG channel. The bacterial types of mechanosensitive channels are found in cell-walled organisms from bacteria to land plants, where their physiological functions have been specialized beyond their basic function in bacterial osmoregulation. In the case of the C. glutamicum MscCG channels, they have evolved to function as specialized glutamate exporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshitaka Nakayama
- Molecular Cardiology and Biophysics Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, 405 Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia.
| | - Ken-Ichi Hashimoto
- Department of Green and Sustainable Chemistry, Tokyo Denki University, 5 Asahi-cho, Senju, Adachi-ku, Tokyo, 120-8551, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Sawada
- Mechanobiology Laboratory, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sokabe
- Mechanobiology Laboratory, Nagoya University Graduate School of Medicine, 65 Tsurumai-cho, Showa-ku, Nagoya, 466-8550, Japan
| | - Hisashi Kawasaki
- Department of Green and Sustainable Chemistry, Tokyo Denki University, 5 Asahi-cho, Senju, Adachi-ku, Tokyo, 120-8551, Japan
| | - Boris Martinac
- Molecular Cardiology and Biophysics Division, Victor Chang Cardiac Research Institute, 405 Liverpool Street, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia
- St Vincent's Clinical School, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Darlinghurst, NSW, 2010, Australia
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Maksaev G, Shoots JM, Ohri S, Haswell ES. Nonpolar residues in the presumptive pore-lining helix of mechanosensitive channel MSL10 influence channel behavior and establish a nonconducting function. PLANT DIRECT 2018; 2:e00059. [PMID: 30506019 PMCID: PMC6261518 DOI: 10.1002/pld3.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Mechanosensitive (MS) ion channels provide a universal mechanism for sensing and responding to increased membrane tension. MscS-like (MSL) 10 is a relatively well-studied MS ion channel from Arabidopsis thaliana that is implicated in cell death signaling. The relationship between the amino acid sequence of MSL10 and its conductance, gating tension, and opening and closing kinetics remains unstudied. Here, we identify several nonpolar residues in the presumptive pore-lining transmembrane helix of MSL10 (TM6) that contribute to these basic channel properties. F553 and I554 are essential for wild type channel conductance and the stability of the open state. G556, a glycine residue located at a predicted kink in TM6, is essential for channel conductance. The increased tension sensitivity of MSL10 compared to close homolog MSL8 may be attributed to F563, but other channel characteristics appear to be dictated by more global differences in structure. Finally, MSL10 F553V and MSL10 G556V provided the necessary tools to establish that MSL10's ability to trigger cell death is independent of its ion channel function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grigory Maksaev
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering MechanoBiologyWashington University in Saint LouisSaint LouisMissouri
- Present address:
Department of Cell Biology and Physiology and Center for the Investigation of Membrane Excitability DiseasesWashington University School of MedicineSaint LouisMO
| | - Jennette M. Shoots
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering MechanoBiologyWashington University in Saint LouisSaint LouisMissouri
| | - Simran Ohri
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering MechanoBiologyWashington University in Saint LouisSaint LouisMissouri
| | - Elizabeth S. Haswell
- Department of Biology and Center for Engineering MechanoBiologyWashington University in Saint LouisSaint LouisMissouri
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Basu D, Haswell ES. Plant mechanosensitive ion channels: an ocean of possibilities. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 40:43-48. [PMID: 28750206 PMCID: PMC5714682 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2017.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2017] [Revised: 06/26/2017] [Accepted: 07/09/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Mechanosensitive ion channels, transmembrane proteins that directly couple mechanical stimuli to ion flux, serve to sense and respond to changes in membrane tension in all branches of life. In plants, mechanosensitive channels have been implicated in the perception of important mechanical stimuli such as osmotic pressure, touch, gravity, and pathogenic invasion. Indeed, three established families of plant mechanosensitive ion channels play roles in cell and organelle osmoregulation and root mechanosensing - and it is likely that many other channels and functions await discovery. Inspired by recent discoveries in bacterial and animal systems, we are beginning to establish the conserved and the unique ways in which mechanosensitive channels function in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debarati Basu
- Department of Biology, Mailcode 1137, Washington University in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Elizabeth S Haswell
- Department of Biology, Mailcode 1137, Washington University in Saint Louis, Saint Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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Abstract
There is increasing evidence that all cells sense mechanical forces in order to perform their functions. In animals, mechanotransduction has been studied during the establishment of cell polarity, fate, and division in single cells, and increasingly is studied in the context of a multicellular tissue. What about plant systems? Our goal in this review is to summarize what is known about the perception of mechanical cues in plants, and to provide a brief comparison with animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Hamant
- Laboratoire Reproduction et Développement des Plantes, University Lyon, ENS de Lyon, UCB Lyon 1, CNRS, INRA, F-69342, Lyon, France.
| | - Elizabeth S Haswell
- Department of Biology, Washington University in Saint Louis, Mailbox 1137, Saint Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
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A R Webb A, Kuchitsu K, Kwak J, Pei ZM, Iida H. Sensors Make Sense of Signaling. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2017; 58:1121-1125. [PMID: 28838127 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcx085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alex A R Webb
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB3 0LJ, UK
| | - Kazuyuki Kuchitsu
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Science, Tokyo University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda-shi, Chiba-ken 278-8510, Japan
| | - June Kwak
- Center for Plant Aging Research, Institute for Basic Science, Daegu, South Korea
- Department of New Biology, Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology, 333 Techno-Jungangdaero, Daegu 42988, South Korea
| | - Zhen-Ming Pei
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
- Department of Biology, Duke University, 124 Science Dr, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Hidetoshi Iida
- Department of Biology, Tokyo Gakugei University, 4-1-1 Nukui Kita-machi, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184-8501, Japan
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