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Aguirre-Rodríguez CA, Delgado A, Alatorre A, Oviedo-Chávez A, Martínez-Escudero JR, Barrientos R, Querejeta E. Local activation of CB1 receptors by synthetic and endogenous cannabinoids dampens burst firing mode of reticular thalamic nucleus neurons in rats under ketamine anesthesia. Exp Brain Res 2024; 242:2137-2157. [PMID: 38980339 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-024-06889-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 07/01/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
The reticular thalamic nucleus (RTN) is a thin shell that covers the dorsal thalamus and controls the overall information flow from the thalamus to the cerebral cortex through GABAergic projections that contact thalamo-cortical neurons (TC). RTN neurons receive glutamatergic afferents fibers from neurons of the sixth layer of the cerebral cortex and from TC collaterals. The firing mode of RTN neurons facilitates the generation of sleep-wake cycles; a tonic mode or desynchronized mode occurs during wake and REM sleep and a burst-firing mode or synchronized mode is associated with deep sleep. Despite the presence of cannabinoid receptors CB1 (CB1Rs) and mRNA that encodes these receptors in RTN neurons, there are few works that have analyzed the participation of endocannabinoid-mediated transmission on the electrical activity of RTN. Here, we locally blocked or activated CB1Rs in ketamine anesthetized rats to analyze the spontaneous extracellular spiking activity of RTN neurons. Our results show the presence of a tonic endocannabinoid input, since local infusion of AM 251, an antagonist/inverse agonist, modifies RTN neurons electrical activity; furthermore, local activation of CB1Rs by anandamide or WIN 55212-2 produces heterogeneous effects in the basal spontaneous spiking activity, where the main effect is an increase in the spiking rate accompanied by a decrease in bursting activity in a dose-dependent manner; this effect is inhibited by AM 251. In addition, previous activation of GABA-A receptors suppresses the effects of CB1Rs on reticular neurons. Our results show that local activation of CB1Rs primarily diminishes the burst firing mode of RTn neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Aguirre-Rodríguez
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - Alfonso Delgado
- Departamento de Fisiología Experimental, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Circuito Universitario Campus II, 31127, Chihuahua, Chihuahua, México
| | - Alberto Alatorre
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - Aldo Oviedo-Chávez
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - José R Martínez-Escudero
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - Rafael Barrientos
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México
| | - Enrique Querejeta
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México.
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, Ciudad de México, 11340, México.
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Hwang HH, Choi KM, Im CH, Yang C, Kim S, Lee SH. Comparative analysis of resting-state EEG-based multiscale entropy between schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 134:111048. [PMID: 38825306 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.111048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/04/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Studies that use nonlinear methods to identify abnormal brain dynamics in patients with psychiatric disorders are limited. This study investigated brain dynamics based on EEG using multiscale entropy (MSE) analysis in patients with schizophrenia (SZ) and bipolar disorder (BD). METHODS The eyes-closed resting-state EEG data were collected from 51 patients with SZ, 51 patients with BD, and 51 healthy controls (HCs). Patients with BD were further categorized into type I (n = 23) and type II (n = 16), and then compared with patients with SZ. A sample entropy-based MSE was evaluated from the bilateral frontal, central, and parieto-occipital regions using 30-s artifact-free EEG data for each individual. Correlation analyses of MSE values and psychiatric symptoms were performed. RESULTS For patients with SZ, higher MSE values were observed at higher-scale factors (i.e., 41-70) across all regions compared with both HCs and patients with BD. Furthermore, there were positive correlations between the MSE values in the left frontal and parieto-occipital regions and PANSS scores. For patients with BD, higher MSE values were observed at middle-scale factors (i.e., 13-40) in the bilateral frontal and central regions compared with HCs. Patients with BD type I exhibited higher MSE values at higher-scale factors across all regions compared with those with BD type II. In BD type I, positive correlations were found between MSE values in all left regions and YMRS scores. CONCLUSIONS Patients with psychiatric disorders exhibited group-dependent MSE characteristics. These results suggest that MSE features may be useful biomarkers that reflect pathophysiological characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyeon-Ho Hwang
- Department of Human-Computer Interaction, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea; Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory, Inje University, Goyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang-Min Choi
- Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory, Inje University, Goyang, Republic of Korea; Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Hwan Im
- Department of Electronic Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Chaeyeon Yang
- Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory, Inje University, Goyang, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungkean Kim
- Department of Human-Computer Interaction, Hanyang University, Ansan, Republic of Korea.
| | - Seung-Hwan Lee
- Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory, Inje University, Goyang, Republic of Korea; Department of Psychiatry, Ilsan Paik Hospital, Inje University College of Medicine, Juhwa-ro 170, Ilsanseo-Gu, Goyang 10370, Republic of Korea.
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Sponheim SR, Ramsay IS, Lynn PA, Vinogradov S. Generalized Slowing of Resting State Neural Oscillations in People with Schizophrenia. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2024:S2451-9022(24)00242-8. [PMID: 39182721 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2024] [Revised: 08/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/09/2024] [Indexed: 08/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent interest in how neural oscillations reflect the flow of information through the brain has led to partitioning electroencephalography (EEG) recordings into periodic (i.e., oscillatory) and aperiodic (i.e., non-oscillatory) components. While both contribute to conventional measures of power within the frequencies that compose EEG recordings, the periodic aspect characterizes true oscillations - the speed of which is thought to be critical to efficient functioning of neural systems. Given evidence of EEG power abnormalities in schizophrenia, we sought to determine if the periodic aspect of EEG was aberrant in people with schizophrenia (SCZ) and could serve as a general measure of brain efficiency. METHODS Resting state EEGs were gathered from 104 SCZ and 105 healthy control participants. We used the fitting-oscillations-and-one-over-f (FOOOF) toolbox to remove aperiodic neural activity. We computed the cross-correlation between power spectra for individual participants and the mean power spectrum for all participants to quantify the relative speed of neural oscillations. RESULTS Periodic activity in SCZ was shifted toward lower frequencies compared to control participants during eyes closed rest. On average SCZ had a 0.55 Hz shift toward oscillatory slowing across the frequency spectrum which predicted worse perceptual reasoning. Slower neural oscillations were associated with weaker perceptual reasoning within SCZ. CONCLUSIONS Slowed periodic activity at rest is evident in schizophrenia and may represent inefficient functioning of neural circuits as reflected in worse perceptual reasoning. A slower pace of neural oscillations may be a general limitation on the transmission of information within the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott R Sponheim
- Minneapolis VA Health Care System,; University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences.
| | - Ian S Ramsay
- University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Peter A Lynn
- University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
| | - Sophia Vinogradov
- University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences
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Catalano LT, Reavis EA, Wynn JK, Green MF. Peak alpha frequency in schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and healthy volunteers: Associations with visual information processing and cognition. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2024:S2451-9022(24)00162-9. [PMID: 38909899 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) are associated with information processing abnormalities, including visual perceptual and cognitive impairments, that impact daily functioning. Recent work in healthy samples suggests that peak alpha frequency (PAF) is an electrophysiological index of visual information processing speed that is also correlated with cognitive ability. There is evidence that PAF is slowed in SCZ, but it remains unclear whether PAF is reduced in BD, or if slower PAF is associated with impaired visual perception and cognition in these clinical disorders. METHODS The current study recorded resting-state brain activity (both eyes open and closed) with electroencephalography (EEG) in 90 SCZ participants, 62 BD participants, and 69 healthy controls. Most participants also performed a visual perception task (backward masking) and cognitive testing (MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery). RESULTS We replicated previous findings of reduced PAF in SCZ compared with healthy controls. In contrast, PAF in BD did not significantly differ from healthy controls. Further, PAF was significantly correlated with performance on the perceptual and cognitive measures in SCZ, but not BD. PAF was also correlated with visual perception in the healthy control group, and showed a trend-level correlation with cognition. CONCLUSIONS Together, these results suggest that PAF deficits characterize SCZ, but not BD, and that individual differences in PAF relate to abnormalities in visual information processing and cognition in SCZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren T Catalano
- Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA; Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA.
| | - Eric A Reavis
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA; Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Jonathan K Wynn
- Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA; Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA
| | - Michael F Green
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA; Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA
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Vieira PG, Krause MR, Pack CC. Temporal interference stimulation disrupts spike timing in the primate brain. Nat Commun 2024; 15:4558. [PMID: 38811618 PMCID: PMC11137077 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48962-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Electrical stimulation can regulate brain activity, producing clear clinical benefits, but focal and effective neuromodulation often requires surgically implanted electrodes. Recent studies argue that temporal interference (TI) stimulation may provide similar outcomes non-invasively. During TI, scalp electrodes generate multiple electrical fields in the brain, modulating neural activity only at their intersection. Despite considerable enthusiasm for this approach, little empirical evidence demonstrates its effectiveness, especially under conditions suitable for human use. Here, using single-neuron recordings in non-human primates, we establish that TI reliably alters the timing, but not the rate, of spiking activity. However, we show that TI requires strategies-high carrier frequencies, multiple electrodes, and amplitude-modulated waveforms-that also limit its effectiveness. Combined, these factors make TI 80 % weaker than other forms of non-invasive brain stimulation. Although unlikely to cause widespread neuronal entrainment, TI may be ideal for disrupting pathological oscillatory activity, a hallmark of many neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro G Vieira
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Matthew R Krause
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Christopher C Pack
- Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Torrens WA, Pablo JN, Berryhill ME, Haigh SM. Pattern glare sensitivity distinguishes subclinical autism and schizotypy. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2024; 29:155-172. [PMID: 38551240 PMCID: PMC11296901 DOI: 10.1080/13546805.2024.2335103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder are distinct neurodevelopmental disorders sharing clinically relevant behaviours. However, early sensory responses show divergent responses. Individuals with schizophrenia typically exhibit cortical hypo-excitability whereas individuals with autism show cortical hyperexcitability. Identifying reliable neurobiological differences between the disorders can diminish misdiagnosis and optimise treatments. METHODS The pattern glare test (PGT) is a simple measure of behavioural hyperexcitability. It measures the number of illusions seen in a static horizontal grating. We collected PGT data from non-clinical adults varying in traits of autism and schizophrenia (schizotypy). 576 undergraduate students completed an online survey consisting of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire - Brief Revised, the Autism Spectrum Quotient, and the PGT. RESULTS Subclinical autism and schizotypy traits were highly positively correlated. However, only schizotypy scores were significantly predictive of reporting more pattern glare (PG) illusions. When assessing the subcomponents of the schizotypy and autism scores, positive and disorganised schizotypy traits were predictive of reporting more PG illusions. Whereas, subclinical autism factors were not predictive of PG illusions. CONCLUSIONS High schizotypy performed the PGT in a manner consistent with behavioural hyperexcitability. The PGT distinguished subclinical autistic traits from schizotypy, suggesting potential clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy A Torrens
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Nevada, Reno, USA
| | - Jenna N Pablo
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Nevada, Reno, USA
| | - Marian E Berryhill
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Nevada, Reno, USA
| | - Sarah M Haigh
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Nevada, Reno, USA
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Garakh Z, Larionova E, Shmukler A, Horáček J, Zaytseva Y. EEG alpha reactivity on eyes opening discriminates patients with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder. Clin Neurophysiol 2024; 161:211-221. [PMID: 38522267 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2024.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Alpha activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) is typically dominant during rest with closed eyes but suppressed by visual stimulation. Previous research has shown that alpha-blockade is less pronounced in schizophrenia patients compared to healthy individuals, but no studies have examined it in schizoaffective disorder. METHODS A resting state EEG was used for the analysis of the alpha-reactivity between the eyes closed and the eyes opened conditions in overall (8 - 13 Hz), low (8 - 10 Hz) and high (10 - 13 Hz) alpha bands in three groups: schizophrenia patients (SC, n = 30), schizoaffective disorder (SA, n = 30), and healthy controls (HC, n = 36). All patients had their first psychotic episode and were receiving antipsychotic therapy. RESULTS A significant decrease in alpha power was noted across all subjects from the eyes-closed to eyes-open condition, spanning all regions. Alpha reactivity over the posterior regions was lower in SC compared to HC within overall and high alpha. SA showed a trend towards reduced alpha reactivity compared to HC, especially evident over the left posterior region within the overall alpha. Alpha reactivity was more pronounced over the middle and right posterior regions of SA as compared to SC, particularly in the high alpha. Alpha reactivity in SC and SA patients was associated with various negative symptoms. CONCLUSIONS Our findings imply distinct alterations in arousal mechanisms in SC and SA and their relation to negative symptomatology. Arousal is more preserved in SA. SIGNIFICANCE This study is the first to compare the EEG features of arousal in SC and SA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanna Garakh
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia
| | - Ekaterina Larionova
- Institute of Higher Nervous Activity and Neurophysiology of Russian Academy of Science, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Shmukler
- National Medical Research Centre for Psychiatry and Narcology named after V. Serbsky , Moscow, Russia
| | - Jiří Horáček
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia
| | - Yuliya Zaytseva
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czechia; Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, 3rd Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Prague, Czechia; Institute of Medical Psychology, Ludwig-Maximilian University, Munich, Germany.
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Nakhnikian A, Oribe N, Hirano S, Fujishima Y, Hirano Y, Nestor PG, Francis GA, Levin M, Spencer KM. Spectral decomposition of resting state electroencephalogram reveals unique theta/alpha activity in schizophrenia. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 59:1946-1960. [PMID: 38217348 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 11/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Resting state electroencephalographic (EEG) activity in schizophrenia (SZ) is frequently characterised by increased power at slow frequencies and/or a reduction of peak alpha frequency. Here we investigated the nature of these effects. As most studies to date have been limited by reliance on a priori frequency bands which impose an assumed structure on the data, we performed a data-driven analysis of resting EEG recorded in SZ patients and healthy controls (HC). The sample consisted of 39 chronic SZ and 36 matched HC. The EEG was recorded with a dense electrode array. Power spectral densities were decomposed via Varimax-rotated principal component analysis (PCA) over all participants and for each group separately. Spectral PCA was repeated at the cortical level on cortical current source density computed from standardised low resolution brain electromagnetic tomography. There was a trend for power in the theta/alpha range to be increased in SZ compared to HC, and peak alpha frequency was significantly reduced in SZ. PCA revealed that this frequency shift was because of the presence of a spectral component in the theta/alpha range (6-9 Hz) that was unique to SZ. The source distribution of the SZ > HC theta/alpha effect involved mainly prefrontal and parahippocampal areas. Abnormal low frequency resting EEG activity in SZ was accounted for by a unique theta/alpha oscillation. Other reports have described a similar phenomenon suggesting that the neural circuits oscillating in this range are relevant to SZ pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Nakhnikian
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Naoya Oribe
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Japan Imaging Center of Psychiatry and Neurology, Fukuoka, Japan
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Shogo Hirano
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Yuki Fujishima
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Yoji Hirano
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
| | - Paul G Nestor
- Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Grace A Francis
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - Kevin M Spencer
- Neural Dynamics Laboratory, Research Service, VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Wang L, Wang L, Chen J, Qiu C, Liu T, Wu Y, Li Y, Zou P, Guo S, Lu J. Five-week music therapy improves overall symptoms in schizophrenia by modulating theta and gamma oscillations. Front Psychiatry 2024; 15:1358726. [PMID: 38505791 PMCID: PMC10948521 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1358726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/22/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Some clinical studies have shown that music therapy as an adjunctive therapy can improve overall symptoms in patients with schizophrenia. However, the neural mechanisms of this improvement remain unclear due to insufficient neuroimaging evidence. Methods In this work, 17 patients with schizophrenia accepted a five-week music therapy (music group) that integrated listening, singing, and composing, and required patients to cooperate in a group to complete music therapy tasks. Meanwhile, 15 patients with schizophrenia received a five-week visual art intervention as the control group including handicraft and painting activities. We collected the Manchester Scale (MS) and Positive and Negative Symptom Scale (PANSS) scores and electroencephalography (EEG) data before and after intervention in two groups. Results Behavioral results showed that both interventions mentioned above can effectively help patients with schizophrenia relieve their overall symptoms, while a trend-level effect was observed in favor of music therapy. The EEG results indicated that music therapy can improve abnormal neural oscillations in schizophrenia which is reflected by a decrease in theta oscillation in the parietal lobe and an increase in gamma oscillation in the prefrontal lobe. In addition, correlation analysis showed that in the music group, both reductions in theta oscillations in the parietal lobe and increases in gamma oscillations in the prefrontal lobe were positively correlated with the improvement of overall symptoms. Discussion These findings help us to better understand the neural mechanisms by which music therapy improves overall symptoms in schizophrenia and provide more evidence for the application of music therapy in other psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lujie Wang
- Music and Digital Intelligence, Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Conservatory of Music, Chengdu, China
- Department of Musicology, Sichuan Conservatory of Music, Chengdu, China
- Southwest Music Research Center, Key Research Base of Social Sciences in Sichuan Province, Sichuan Conservatory of Music, Chengdu, China
| | - Liju Wang
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiaxian Chen
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Chenxi Qiu
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Ting Liu
- Department of Rehabilitation, Chengdu Dekang Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Yulin Wu
- Yueling Music Therapy Service Center, Chengdu, China
| | - Yan Li
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Pengyu Zou
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Sijia Guo
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Jing Lu
- Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Lab for Neuroinformation, School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
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Kaar SJ, Nottage JF, Angelescu I, Marques TR, Howes OD. Gamma Oscillations and Potassium Channel Modulation in Schizophrenia: Targeting GABAergic Dysfunction. Clin EEG Neurosci 2024; 55:203-213. [PMID: 36591873 PMCID: PMC10851642 DOI: 10.1177/15500594221148643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Impairments in gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABAergic) interneuron function lead to gamma power abnormalities and are thought to underlie symptoms in people with schizophrenia. Voltage-gated potassium 3.1 (Kv3.1) and 3.2 (Kv3.2) channels on GABAergic interneurons are critical to the generation of gamma oscillations suggesting that targeting Kv3.1/3.2 could augment GABAergic function and modulate gamma oscillation generation. Here, we studied the effect of a novel potassium Kv3.1/3.2 channel modulator, AUT00206, on resting state frontal gamma power in people with schizophrenia. We found a significant positive correlation between frontal resting gamma (35-45 Hz) power (n = 22, r = 0.613, P < .002) and positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS) positive symptom severity. We also found a significant reduction in frontal gamma power (t13 = 3.635, P = .003) from baseline in patients who received AUT00206. This provides initial evidence that the Kv3.1/3.2 potassium channel modulator, AUT00206, may address gamma oscillation abnormalities in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J. Kaar
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
- Division of Psychology and Mental Health, Faculty of Biology, Medicine, and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Judith F. Nottage
- Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Ilinca Angelescu
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- Max Planck UCL Centre for Computational Psychiatry and Ageing Research London, London, UK
| | - Tiago Reis Marques
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
| | - Oliver D. Howes
- Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK
- MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, London, UK
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Imperial College London, London, UK
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11
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Meiron O, Yaniv A, Rozenberg S, David J. Transcranial direct-current stimulation of the prefrontal cortex enhances working memory and suppresses pathological gamma power elevation in schizophrenia. Expert Rev Neurother 2024; 24:217-226. [PMID: 38084398 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2023.2294150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/07/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This investigation examines the clinical benefits of prefrontal cortex transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) treatment of working memory (WM) dysfunction in chronic schizophrenia patients. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS 34 schizophrenia (SZ) patients were evaluated at baseline, and 29 patients were randomly assigned to either active tDCS intervention or sham tDCS intervention. tDCS intervention applied 10 consecutive sessions (20 minutes, 2 mA, two sessions a day) over 5 days. WM performance (N = 25), symptom severity (N = 29), and resting EEG (N = 17) were assessed from pre- to post-tDCS intervention. Additionally, symptom severity was noted over a 12-week follow-up period. RESULTS WM accuracy significantly improved in the active tDCS group while WM accuracy in the sham tDCS group was unchanged. Significant symptom-severity reduction was sustained for one week after active tDCS intervention. Sustained resting gamma stability (RGS) was noted from baseline to post tDCS in the active-treatment group versus a significant elevation in pathological gamma power in the sham-tDCS group. CONCLUSIONS Examining treatment effects on RGS in SZ could be critical in identifying effective novel treatment strategies that promote left-DLPFC excitability and enhance WM functioning. Further empirical support is warranted to support the clinical benefits over longer periods of time. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04637724. ETHICS APPROVAL REGISTRATION NO 337-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oded Meiron
- The Faculty of Education, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel
- The Clinical Research Center for Brain Sciences, Herzog Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Asaf Yaniv
- The Clinical Research Center for Brain Sciences, Herzog Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Sylvie Rozenberg
- Community Mental Health Center, Herzog Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Jonathan David
- The Clinical Research Center for Brain Sciences, Herzog Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel
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12
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Rojas Bernal LA, Santamaría García H, Castaño Pérez GA. Electrophysiological biomarkers in dual pathology. REVISTA COLOMBIANA DE PSIQUIATRIA (ENGLISH ED.) 2024; 53:93-102. [PMID: 38677941 DOI: 10.1016/j.rcpeng.2024.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 04/29/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The co-occurrence of substance use disorder with at least one other mental disorder is called dual pathology, which in turn is characterised by heterogeneous symptoms that are difficult to diagnose and have a poor response to treatment. For this reason, the identification and validation of biomarkers is necessary. Within this group, possible electroencephalographic biomarkers have been reported to be useful in diagnosis, treatment and follow-up, both in neuropsychiatric conditions and in substance use disorders. This article aims to review the existing literature on electroencephalographic biomarkers in dual pathology. METHODS A narrative review of the literature. A bibliographic search was performed on the PubMed, Science Direct, OVID, BIREME and Scielo databases, with the keywords: electrophysiological biomarker and substance use disorder, electrophysiological biomarker and mental disorders, biomarker and dual pathology, biomarker and substance use disorder, electroencephalography, and substance use disorder or comorbid mental disorder. RESULTS Given the greater amount of literature found in relation to electroencephalography as a biomarker of mental illness and substance use disorders, and the few articles found on dual pathology, the evidence is organised as a biomarker in psychiatry for the diagnosis and prediction of risk and as a biomarker for dual pathology. CONCLUSIONS Although the evidence is not conclusive, it suggests the existence of a subset of sites and mechanisms where the effects of psychoactive substances and the neurobiology of some mental disorders could overlap or interact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hernando Santamaría García
- Centro de Memoria y Cognición Intellectus, Hospital Universitario San Ignacio, Bogotá, Colombia; Departamento de Psiquiatría y Fisiología, Universidad Pontificia Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia
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13
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Pacia SV. Sub-Scalp Implantable Telemetric EEG (SITE) for the Management of Neurological and Behavioral Disorders beyond Epilepsy. Brain Sci 2023; 13:1176. [PMID: 37626532 PMCID: PMC10452821 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci13081176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Sub-scalp Implantable Telemetric EEG (SITE) devices are under development for the treatment of epilepsy. However, beyond epilepsy, continuous EEG analysis could revolutionize the management of patients suffering from all types of brain disorders. This article reviews decades of foundational EEG research, collected from short-term routine EEG studies of common neurological and behavioral disorders, that may guide future SITE management and research. Established quantitative EEG methods, like spectral EEG power density calculation combined with state-of-the-art machine learning techniques applied to SITE data, can identify new EEG biomarkers of neurological disease. From distinguishing syncopal events from seizures to predicting the risk of dementia, SITE-derived EEG biomarkers can provide clinicians with real-time information about diagnosis, treatment response, and disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven V Pacia
- Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra-Northwell, Neurology Northwell Health, 611 Northern Blvd, Great Neck, New York, NY 11021, USA
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14
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Sponheim SR, Stim JJ, Engel SA, Pokorny VJ. Slowed alpha oscillations and percept formation in psychotic psychopathology. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1144107. [PMID: 37416534 PMCID: PMC10322206 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1144107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Psychosis is in part defined by disturbances in perception. Recent investigations have implicated the speed of alpha oscillations observed in brain electrical activity as reflective of a sampling rate of the visual environment and perception. Although both slowed alpha oscillations and aberrant percept formation are evident in disorders of psychotic psychopathology such as schizophrenia it is unclear whether slow alpha accounts for abnormal visual perception in these disorders. Methods To examine the role of the speed of alpha oscillations in perception in psychotic psychopathology we gathered resting-state magneto-encephalography data from probands with psychotic psychopathology (i.e., schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, and bipolar disorder with a history of psychosis), their biological siblings, and healthy controls. We appraised visual perceptual function without the confound of cognitive ability and effort through the use of a simple binocular rivalry task. Results We found a slowed pace of alpha oscillations in psychotic psychopathology that was associated with longer percept durations during binocular rivalry, consistent with the assertion that occipital alpha oscillations govern the rate of accumulation of visual information used to generate percepts. Alpha speed varied widely across individuals with psychotic psychopathology and was highly stable across several months indicating that it is likely a trait characteristic of neural function that is relevant to visual perception. Finally, a lower speed of alpha oscillation was associated with a lower IQ and greater disorder symptomatology implying that the effects of the endogenous neural oscillation on visual perception may have wider consequences for everyday functioning. Discussion Slowed alpha oscillations in individuals with psychotic psychopathology appear to reflect altered neural functions related to percept formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott R. Sponheim
- Minneapolis VA Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Joshua J. Stim
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Stephen A. Engel
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Victor J. Pokorny
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
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15
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Herzog LE, Wang L, Yu E, Choi S, Farsi Z, Song BJ, Pan JQ, Sheng M. Mouse mutants in schizophrenia risk genes GRIN2A and AKAP11 show EEG abnormalities in common with schizophrenia patients. Transl Psychiatry 2023; 13:92. [PMID: 36914641 PMCID: PMC10011509 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-023-02393-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a heterogeneous psychiatric disorder with a strong genetic basis, whose etiology and pathophysiology remain poorly understood. Exome sequencing studies have uncovered rare, loss-of-function variants that greatly increase risk of schizophrenia [1], including loss-of-function mutations in GRIN2A (aka GluN2A or NR2A, encoding the NMDA receptor subunit 2A) and AKAP11 (A-Kinase Anchoring Protein 11). AKAP11 and GRIN2A mutations are also associated with bipolar disorder [2], and epilepsy and developmental delay/intellectual disability [1, 3, 4], respectively. Accessible in both humans and rodents, electroencephalogram (EEG) recordings offer a window into brain activity and display abnormal features in schizophrenia patients. Does loss of Grin2a or Akap11 in mice also result in EEG abnormalities? We monitored EEG in heterozygous and homozygous knockout Grin2a and Akap11 mutant mice compared with their wild-type littermates, at 3- and 6-months of age, across the sleep/wake cycle and during auditory stimulation protocols. Grin2a and Akap11 mutants exhibited increased resting gamma power, attenuated auditory steady-state responses (ASSR) at gamma frequencies, and reduced responses to unexpected auditory stimuli during mismatch negativity (MMN) tests. Sleep spindle density was reduced in a gene dose-dependent manner in Akap11 mutants, whereas Grin2a mutants showed increased sleep spindle density. The EEG phenotypes of Grin2a and Akap11 mutant mice show a variety of abnormal features that overlap considerably with human schizophrenia patients, reflecting systems-level changes caused by Grin2a and Akap11 deficiency. These neurophysiologic findings further substantiate Grin2a and Akap11 mutants as genetic models of schizophrenia and identify potential biomarkers for stratification of schizophrenia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linnea E Herzog
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
| | - Lei Wang
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Eunah Yu
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Soonwook Choi
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Zohreh Farsi
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bryan J Song
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Jen Q Pan
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Morgan Sheng
- Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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16
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Shah SJH, Albishri A, Kang SS, Lee Y, Sponheim SR, Shim M. ETSNet: A deep neural network for EEG-based temporal-spatial pattern recognition in psychiatric disorder and emotional distress classification. Comput Biol Med 2023; 158:106857. [PMID: 37044046 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.106857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of EEG for evaluating and diagnosing neurological abnormalities related to psychiatric diseases and identifying human emotions has been improved by deep learning advancements. This research aims to categorize individuals with schizophrenia (SZ), their biological relatives (REL), and healthy controls (HC) using resting EEG brain source signal data defined by regions of interest (ROIs). The proposed solution is a deep neural network for the cortical source signals of the ROIs, incorporating a Squeeze-and-Excitation Block and multiple CNNs designed for eyes-open and closed resting states. The model, called EEG Temporal Spatial Network (ETSNet), has two variants: ETSNets and ETSNetf. Two evaluations were conducted to show the effectiveness of the proposed model. The average accuracy for the classification of SZ, REL, and HC using EEG resting data was 99.57% (ETSNetf), and the average accuracy for the classification of eyes-open (EO) and eyes-closed (EC) resting states was 93.15% (ETSNets). An ablation study was also conducted using two public datasets for intellectual and developmental disorders and emotional states, showing improved classification accuracy compared to advanced EEG classification algorithms when using ETSNets.
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17
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Soni S, Muthukrishnan SP, Sood M, Kaur S, Sharma R. Spectral perturbations of cortical dipoles during a dynamic visuo-spatial working memory task in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res Neuroimaging 2022; 326:111530. [PMID: 36067547 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2022.111530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Altered neural oscillations during prestimulus-task conditions have been reported to be associated with aberrant information processing in schizophrenia. Spectral perturbations induced by visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) task were investigated in patients and their first-degree relatives in order to study the biomarkers in schizophrenia. EEG was recorded using 128-channel during VSWM task in 28 patients, 27 first-degree relatives and 25 controls. After pre-processing and ICA, current dipole was estimated for each IC. Total of 1609 independent and localizable EEG components across all groups were used to compute ERSP during different events of task. Patients deactivated DMN, RSN, auditory cortex more compared to controls during search period to perform VSWM task. Relatives showed altered activation of right medial and inferior frontal gyri during different events and loads of task in lower frequencies compared to controls. Relatives also showed hyperactivity in right cingulate and parahippocampal gyri compared to controls. This is suggestive of genetic predisposition in schizophrenia and could act as vulnerability markers, further strengthened by no significant differences between patients and relatives. Altered processing of simultaneous ongoing events in patients and relatives can serve as state and trait-specific features of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunaina Soni
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Suriya Prakash Muthukrishnan
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Mamta Sood
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Simran Kaur
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Ratna Sharma
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.
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18
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Gordillo D, da Cruz JR, Chkonia E, Lin WH, Favrod O, Brand A, Figueiredo P, Roinishvili M, Herzog MH. The EEG multiverse of schizophrenia. Cereb Cortex 2022; 33:3816-3826. [PMID: 36030389 PMCID: PMC10068296 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Research on schizophrenia typically focuses on one paradigm for which clear-cut differences between patients and controls are established. Great efforts are made to understand the underlying genetical, neurophysiological, and cognitive mechanisms, which eventually may explain the clinical outcome. One tacit assumption of these "deep rooting" approaches is that paradigms tap into common and representative aspects of the disorder. Here, we analyzed the resting-state electroencephalogram (EEG) of 121 schizophrenia patients and 75 controls. Using multiple signal processing methods, we extracted 194 EEG features. Sixty-nine out of the 194 EEG features showed a significant difference between patients and controls, indicating that these features detect an important aspect of schizophrenia. Surprisingly, the correlations between these features were very low. We discuss several explanations to our results and propose that complementing "deep" with "shallow" rooting approaches might help in understanding the underlying mechanisms of the disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dario Gordillo
- Corresponding author: Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | | | - Eka Chkonia
- Department of Psychiatry, Tbilisi State Medical University (TSMU), 0186 Tbilisi, Georgia
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, 0159 Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Wei-Hsiang Lin
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Ophélie Favrod
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Brand
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Patrícia Figueiredo
- Institute for Systems and Robotics – Lisboa, Department of Bioengineering, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Maya Roinishvili
- Institute of Cognitive Neurosciences, Free University of Tbilisi, 0159 Tbilisi, Georgia
- Laboratory of Vision Physiology, Ivane Beritashvili Centre of Experimental Biomedicine, 0160 Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Michael H Herzog
- Laboratory of Psychophysics, Brain Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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19
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Hou L, Chen L, Zhou R. Premenstrual syndrome is associated with an altered spontaneous electroencephalographic delta/beta power ratio across the menstrual cycle. Int J Psychophysiol 2022; 181:64-72. [PMID: 36029920 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2022.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2022] [Revised: 07/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Premenstrual syndrome is associated with altered spontaneous brain activity in the late luteal phase, but the fluctuation patterns of brain activity throughout the menstrual cycle have not been revealed. Furthermore, it is also unknown whether the altered spontaneous brain activity during the whole menstrual cycle is further associated with their habitual use of maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. Based on the two reasons, electroencephalogram data and cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire from 32 women with high premenstrual symptoms (HPMS) and 33 women with low premenstrual symptoms (LPMS) were measured in the late luteal and follicular phases. Delta power, theta power, beta power, and the slow/fast wave ratios (SW/FW, including theta/beta power ratio [TBR] and delta/beta power ratio [DBR]) were calculated using both fixed frequency bands and individually adjusted frequency bands (based on the individual alpha peak frequency). The results showed that for the frontal and central DBR, as assessed both with fixed and individualized frequency bands, there was no difference between the two phases of the LPMS group, whereas there was a difference between the two phases of the HPMS group with a higher DBR in the late luteal phase than in the follicular phase. Further correlation results revealed that for women with HPMS in the late luteal phase, the frontal and central DBR values, as assessed both with fixed and individualized frequency bands, were positively correlated with self-blame and rumination. Consequently, HPMS was characterized by a fluctuation across the menstrual cycle in the DBR, which was further associated with maladaptive emotion regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Hou
- Department of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China; Department of Psychology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210096, China
| | - Lirong Chen
- Department of Psychology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210096, China; Department of Psychology, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Renlai Zhou
- Department of Psychology, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210096, China; State Key Laboratory of Media Convergence Production Technology and Systems, Beijing 100803, China.
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20
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Krause MR, Vieira PG, Thivierge JP, Pack CC. Brain stimulation competes with ongoing oscillations for control of spike timing in the primate brain. PLoS Biol 2022; 20:e3001650. [PMID: 35613140 PMCID: PMC9132296 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) is a popular method for modulating brain activity noninvasively. In particular, tACS is often used as a targeted intervention that enhances a neural oscillation at a specific frequency to affect a particular behavior. However, these interventions often yield highly variable results. Here, we provide a potential explanation for this variability: tACS competes with the brain's ongoing oscillations. Using neural recordings from alert nonhuman primates, we find that when neural firing is independent of ongoing brain oscillations, tACS readily entrains spiking activity, but when neurons are strongly entrained to ongoing oscillations, tACS often causes a decrease in entrainment instead. Consequently, tACS can yield categorically different results on neural activity, even when the stimulation protocol is fixed. Mathematical analysis suggests that this competition is likely to occur under many experimental conditions. Attempting to impose an external rhythm on the brain may therefore often yield precisely the opposite effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. Krause
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Pedro G. Vieira
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-Philippe Thivierge
- School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Brain and Mind Research Institute University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Christopher C. Pack
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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21
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Shim M, Im CH, Lee SH, Hwang HJ. Enhanced Performance by Interpretable Low-Frequency Electroencephalogram Oscillations in the Machine Learning-Based Diagnosis of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder. Front Neuroinform 2022; 16:811756. [PMID: 35571868 PMCID: PMC9094422 DOI: 10.3389/fninf.2022.811756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Electroencephalography (EEG)-based diagnosis of psychiatric diseases using machine-learning approaches has made possible the objective diagnosis of various psychiatric diseases. The objective of this study was to improve the performance of a resting-state EEG-based computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) system to diagnose post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), by optimizing the frequency bands used to extract EEG features. We used eyes-closed resting-state EEG data recorded from 77 PTSD patients and 58 healthy controls (HC). Source-level power spectrum densities (PSDs) of the resting-state EEG data were extracted from 6 frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, low-beta, high-beta, and gamma), and the PSD features of each frequency band and their combinations were independently used to discriminate PTSD and HC. The classification performance was evaluated using support vector machine with leave-one-out cross validation. The PSD features extracted from slower-frequency bands (delta and theta) showed significantly higher classification performance than those of relatively higher-frequency bands. The best classification performance was achieved when using delta PSD features (86.61%), which was significantly higher than that reported in a recent study by about 13%. The PSD features selected to obtain better classification performances could be explained from a neurophysiological point of view, demonstrating the promising potential to develop a clinically reliable EEG-based CAD system for PTSD diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miseon Shim
- Department of Electronics and Information, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
- Industry Development Institute, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
| | - Chang-Hwan Im
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Seung-Hwan Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Ilsan Paik Hospital, Inje University, Goyang, South Korea
- Clinical Emotion and Cognition Research Laboratory, Goyang, South Korea
| | - Han-Jeong Hwang
- Department of Electronics and Information, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program for Artificial Intelligence Smart Convergence Technology, Korea University, Sejong, South Korea
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22
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Cao Y, Han C, Peng X, Su Z, Liu G, Xie Y, Zhang Y, Liu J, Zhang P, Dong W, Gao M, Sha S, Zhao X. Correlation Between Resting Theta Power and Cognitive Performance in Patients With Schizophrenia. Front Hum Neurosci 2022; 16:853994. [PMID: 35529780 PMCID: PMC9074816 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.853994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective Schizophrenia is a mental disorder that is characterized by progressive cognitive impairment. Objective measures of cognitive function may provide reliable neurobiomarkers for patients with schizophrenia. The goal of the current work is to explore the correlation between resting theta power and cognitive performance in patients with schizophrenia. Methods Twenty-two patients with schizophrenia and 23 age-, sex-, and education-matched healthy controls were included in this study. The MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was used for cognitive evaluation and the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) for evaluation of clinical symptoms. EEGs were acquired in the resting state with closed and opened eyes. Between the two groups, we compared the relative theta power and examined their relationship with cognitive performance. Results Compared to healthy controls, patients with schizophrenia showed significantly higher theta power, both with eyes closed and open (P < 0.05). When the eyes were open, negative correlations were found in patients with schizophrenia between theta power in the central and parietal regions with processing speed scores, and between the theta power of the Pz electrode and verbal learning and reasoning and problem-solving scores (r ≥ −0.446). In the control group, theta power over the Fz electrode was negatively correlated with processing speed (r = −0.435). Conclusions Our findings showed that theta activity increased in certain brain regions during resting state in schizophrenia. Negative associations between resting theta power (increased) over the parietal-occipital regions with MCCB domains scores (decreased) suggest that altered theta activity can be used as a neurobiological indicator to predict cognitive performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxiang Cao
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Chuanliang Han
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Modulation and Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Brain Connectome and Behavior, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen–Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science, Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, China
| | - Xing Peng
- School of Public Health, North China University of Science and Technology, Tangshan, China
| | - Ziyao Su
- Beijing Pinggu Hospital-Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Gan Liu
- Beijing Pinggu Hospital-Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yixi Xie
- Beijing Pinggu Hospital-Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yiting Zhang
- Beijing Pinggu Hospital-Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jun Liu
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Pei Zhang
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Wen Dong
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Sha Sha
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Sha Sha,
| | - Xixi Zhao
- The National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders and Beijing Key Laboratory of Mental Disorders, Beijing Anding Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Advanced Innovation Center for Human Brain Protection, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
- Xixi Zhao,
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23
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Korda A, Ventouras E, Asvestas P, Toumaian M, Matsopoulos G, Smyrnis N. Convolutional neural network propagation on electroencephalographic scalograms for detection of schizophrenia. Clin Neurophysiol 2022; 139:90-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2022.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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24
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Barrientos R, Alatorre A, Oviedo-Chávez A, Delgado A, Nielsen N, Querejeta E. Tonic serotonergic input increases the burst firing mode and diminishes the firing rate of reticular thalamic nucleus neurons through 5-HT1A receptors activation in anesthetized rats. Exp Brain Res 2022; 240:1341-1356. [PMID: 35234992 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-022-06328-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The reticular thalamic nucleus (RTn) is a thin shell of GABAergic neurons that covers the dorsal thalamus that regulate the global activity of all thalamic nuclei. RTn controls the flow of information between thalamus and cerebral cortex since it receives glutamatergic information from collaterals of thalamo-cortical (TCs) and cortico-thalamic neurons. It also receives aminergic information from several brain stem nuclei, including serotonergic fibers originated in the dorsal raphe nucleus. RTn neurons express serotonergic receptors including the 5-HT1A subtype, however, the role of this receptor in the RTn electrical activity has been scarcely analyzed. In this work, we recorded in vivo the unitary spontaneous electrical activity of RTn neurons in anesthetized rats; our study aimed to obtain information about the effects of 5-HT1A receptors in RTn neurons. Local application of fluoxetine (a serotonin reuptake inhibitor) increases burst firing index accompanied by a decrease in the basal spiking rate. Local application of different doses of serotonin and 8-OH-DPAT (a specific 5-HT1A receptor agonist) causes a similar response to fluoxetine effects. Local 5-HT1A receptors blockade produces opposite effects and suppresses the effect by 8-OH-DPAT. Our findings indicate the presence of a serotonergic tonic discharge in the RTn that increases the burst firing index and simultaneously decreases the basal spiking frequency through 5-HT1A receptors activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael Barrientos
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico, Nacional. Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina del IPN, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico
| | - Alberto Alatorre
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico, Nacional. Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina del IPN, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico
| | - Aldo Oviedo-Chávez
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico, Nacional. Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico
| | - Alfonso Delgado
- Departamento de Fisiología Experimental, Facultad de Medicina y Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Circuito Universitario Campus II, 31127, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Nielsine Nielsen
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina del IPN, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico
| | - Enrique Querejeta
- Academia de Fisiología, Escuela Superior de Medicina, Instituto Politécnico, Nacional. Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico.
- Sección de Investigación y Posgrado de la Escuela Superior de Medicina del IPN, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de San Luis y Díaz Mirón, 11340, Colonia Casco de Santo Tomás, CdMx, Mexico.
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25
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Parker DA, Trotti RL, McDowell JE, Keedy SK, Hill SK, Gershon ES, Ivleva EI, Pearlson GD, Keshavan MS, Tamminga CA, Clementz BA. Auditory Oddball Responses Across the Schizophrenia-Bipolar Spectrum and Their Relationship to Cognitive and Clinical Features. Am J Psychiatry 2021; 178:952-964. [PMID: 34407624 DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2021.20071043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Neural activations during auditory oddball tasks may be endophenotypes for psychosis and bipolar disorder. The authors investigated oddball neural deviations that discriminate multiple diagnostic groups across the schizophrenia-bipolar spectrum (schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, psychotic bipolar disorder, and nonpsychotic bipolar disorder) and clarified their relationship to clinical and cognitive features. METHODS Auditory oddball responses to standard and target tones from 64 sensor EEG recordings were compared across patients with psychosis (total N=597; schizophrenia, N=225; schizoaffective disorder, N=201; bipolar disorder with psychosis, N=171), patients with bipolar disorder without psychosis (N=66), and healthy comparison subjects (N=415) from the second iteration of the Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network for Intermediate Phenotypes (B-SNIP2) study. EEG activity was analyzed in voltage and in the time-frequency domain (low, beta, and gamma bands). Event-related potentials (ERPs) were compared with those from an independent sample collected during the first iteration of B-SNIP (B-SNIP1; healthy subjects, N=211; psychosis group, N=526) to establish the repeatability of complex oddball ERPs across multiple psychosis syndromes (r values >0.94 between B-SNIP1 and B-SNIP2). RESULTS Twenty-six EEG features differentiated the groups; they were used in discriminant and correlational analyses. EEG variables from the N100, P300, and low-frequency ranges separated the groups along a diagnostic continuum from healthy to bipolar disorder with psychosis/bipolar disorder without psychosis to schizoaffective disorder/schizophrenia and were strongly related to general cognitive function (r=0.91). P50 responses to standard trials and early beta/gamma frequency responses separated the bipolar disorder without psychosis group from the bipolar disorder with psychosis group. P200, N200, and late beta/gamma frequency responses separated the two bipolar disorder groups from the other groups. CONCLUSIONS Neural deviations during auditory processing are related to psychosis history and bipolar disorder. There is a powerful transdiagnostic relationship between severity of these neural deviations and general cognitive performance. These results have implications for understanding the neurobiology of clinical syndromes across the schizophrenia-bipolar spectrum that may have an impact on future biomarker research.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Parker
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Rebekah L Trotti
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Jennifer E McDowell
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Sarah K Keedy
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - S Kristian Hill
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Elliot S Gershon
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Elena I Ivleva
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Godfrey D Pearlson
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Matcheri S Keshavan
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Carol A Tamminga
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
| | - Brett A Clementz
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens (Parker, Trotti, McDowell, Clementz); Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago (Keedy, Gershon); Department of Psychology, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, Chicago (Hill); Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas (Ivleva, Tamminga); Departments of Psychiatry and Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. (Pearlson); Olin Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Healthcare Corporation, Hartford, Conn. (Pearlson); and Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, Mass. (Keshavan)
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Individual alpha peak frequency is slower in schizophrenia and related to deficits in visual perception and cognition. Sci Rep 2021; 11:17852. [PMID: 34497330 PMCID: PMC8426382 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97303-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain at rest generates cycles of electrical activity that have been shown to be abnormal in people with schizophrenia. The alpha rhythm (~ 10 Hz) is the dominant resting state electrical cycle and each person has a propensity toward a particular frequency of oscillation for this rhythm. This individual alpha peak frequency (IAPF) is hypothesized to be central to visual perceptual processes and may have downstream influences on cognitive functions such as attention, working memory, or problem solving. In the current study we sought to determine whether IAPF was slower in schizophrenia, and whether lower IAPF predicted deficits in visual perception and cognition that are often observed in schizophrenia. Eyes-closed resting state EEG activity, visual attention, and global cognitive functioning were assessed in individuals with schizophrenia (N = 104) and a group of healthy controls (N = 101). Compared to controls, the schizophrenia group showed slower IAPF and was associated with poorer discrimination of visual targets and nontargets on a computerized attention task, as well as impaired global cognition measured using neuropsychological tests across groups. Notably, disruptions in visual attention fully mediated the relationship between IAPF and global cognition across groups. The current findings demonstrate that slower alpha oscillatory cycling accounts for global cognitive deficits in schizophrenia by way of impairments in perceptual discrimination measured during a visual attention task.
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Arora M, Knott VJ, Labelle A, Fisher DJ. Alterations of Resting EEG in Hallucinating and Nonhallucinating Schizophrenia Patients. Clin EEG Neurosci 2021; 52:159-167. [PMID: 33074718 DOI: 10.1177/1550059420965385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Auditory hallucinations (AHs) are a common symptom of schizophrenia and contribute significantly to disease burden. Research on schizophrenia and AHs is limited and fails to adequately address the effect of AHs on resting EEG in patients with schizophrenia. This study assessed changes in frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, beta) of resting EEG taken from hallucinating patients (n = 12), nonhallucinating patients (n = 11), and healthy controls (n = 12). Delta and theta activity were unaffected by AHs but differed between patients with schizophrenia and healthy controls. Alpha activity was affected by AHs: nonhallucinators had more alpha activity than hallucinators and healthy controls. Additionally, beta activity was inversely related to trait measures of AHs. These findings contribute to the literature of resting eyes closed EEG recordings of schizophrenia and AHs, and indicate the role of delta, theta, alpha, and beta as markers for schizophrenia and auditory hallucinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhav Arora
- Faculty of Medicine, 6363University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Verner J Knott
- Faculty of Medicine, 6363University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- The 26624Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Alain Labelle
- Faculty of Medicine, 6363University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- The 26624Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Derek J Fisher
- The 26624Royal's Institute of Mental Health Research, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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Sun D, Kermani M, Hudson M, He X, Unnithan RR, French C. Effects of antipsychotic drugs and potassium channel modulators on spectral properties of local field potentials in mouse hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2021; 191:108572. [PMID: 33901515 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2021] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Local field potentials (LFPs) recorded intracranially display a range of location-specific oscillatory spectra which have been related to cognitive processes. Although the mechanisms producing LFPs are not completely understood, it is likely that voltage-gated ion channels which produce action potentials and patterned discharges play a significant role. It is also known that antipsychotic drugs (APDs) affect LFP spectra and a direct inhibitory effect on voltage-gated potassium channels has been reported. Additionally, voltage-gated potassium channels have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, a disorder for which APDs are primary therapies. In this study we sought to: i) better characterise the effects of two APDs on LFPs spectra and connectivity measures and ii) examine the effects of potassium channel modulators on LFPs and potential overlap of effects with APDs. Intracranial electrodes were implanted in hippocampus (HIP) and pre-frontal cortex (PFC) of C57BL/6J mice; power spectra, coherence and phase-amplitude cross-frequency coupling were measured. Drugs tested were APDs haloperidol and clozapine as well as voltage-gated potassium channel modulators (KVMs) 4-aminopyridine (4-AP), tetraethylammonium, retigabine and E-4031. Both APDs and KVMs significantly reduced gamma power except 4-AP, which conversely increased gamma power. Clozapine and retigabine additionally reduced gamma coherence between HIP and PFC, while 4-AP demonstrated the opposite effect. Phase-amplitude coupling between theta and gamma oscillations in HIP was significantly reduced by the administration of haloperidol and retigabine. These results provide previously undescribed effects of APDs on LFP properties and demonstrate novel modulation of LFP characteristics by KVMs that intriguingly overlap with the APD effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dechuan Sun
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia; Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mojtaba Kermani
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Matthew Hudson
- Department of Neuroscience, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
| | - Xin He
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | | | - Chris French
- Department of Medicine, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.
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Harper J, Liu M, Malone SM, McGue M, Iacono WG, Vrieze SI. Using multivariate endophenotypes to identify psychophysiological mechanisms associated with polygenic scores for substance use, schizophrenia, and education attainment. Psychol Med 2021; 52:1-11. [PMID: 33731234 PMCID: PMC8448784 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291721000763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To better characterize brain-based mechanisms of polygenic liability for psychopathology and psychological traits, we extended our previous report (Liu et al. Psychophysiological endophenotypes to characterize mechanisms of known schizophrenia genetic loci. Psychological Medicine, 2017), focused solely on schizophrenia, to test the association between multivariate psychophysiological candidate endophenotypes (including novel measures of θ/δ oscillatory activity) and a range of polygenic scores (PGSs), namely alcohol/cannabis/nicotine use, an updated schizophrenia PGS (containing 52 more genome-wide significant loci than the PGS used in our previous report) and educational attainment. METHOD A large community-based twin/family sample (N = 4893) was genome-wide genotyped and imputed. PGSs were constructed for alcohol use, regular smoking initiation, lifetime cannabis use, schizophrenia, and educational attainment. Eleven endophenotypes were assessed: visual oddball task event-related electroencephalogram (EEG) measures (target-related parietal P3 amplitude, frontal θ, and parietal δ energy/inter-trial phase clustering), band-limited resting-state EEG power, antisaccade error rate. Principal component analysis exploited covariation among endophenotypes to extract a smaller number of meaningful dimensions/components for statistical analysis. RESULTS Endophenotypes were heritable. PGSs showed expected intercorrelations (e.g. schizophrenia PGS correlated positively with alcohol/nicotine/cannabis PGSs). Schizophrenia PGS was negatively associated with an event-related P3/δ component [β = -0.032, nonparametric bootstrap 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.059 to -0.003]. A prefrontal control component (event-related θ/antisaccade errors) was negatively associated with alcohol (β = -0.034, 95% CI -0.063 to -0.006) and regular smoking PGSs (β = -0.032, 95% CI -0.061 to -0.005) and positively associated with educational attainment PGS (β = 0.031, 95% CI 0.003-0.058). CONCLUSIONS Evidence suggests that multivariate endophenotypes of decision-making (P3/δ) and cognitive/attentional control (θ/antisaccade error) relate to alcohol/nicotine, schizophrenia, and educational attainment PGSs and represent promising targets for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy Harper
- Department of Psychiatry & Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Mengzhen Liu
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Stephen M. Malone
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Matt McGue
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - William G. Iacono
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
| | - Scott I. Vrieze
- Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, MN, USA
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30
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Bianciardi B, Uhlhaas PJ. Do NMDA-R antagonists re-create patterns of spontaneous gamma-band activity in schizophrenia? A systematic review and perspective. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 124:308-323. [PMID: 33581223 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
NMDA-R hypofunctioninig is a core pathophysiological mechanism in schizophrenia. However, it is unclear whether the physiological changes observed following NMDA-R antagonist administration are consistent with gamma-band alterations in schizophrenia. This systematic review examined the effects of NMDA-R antagonists on the amplitude of spontaneous gamma-band activity and functional connectivity obtained from preclinical (n = 24) and human (n = 9) studies and compared these data to resting-state EEG/MEG-measurements in schizophrenia patients (n = 27). Overall, the majority of preclinical and human studies observed increased gamma-band power following acute administration of NMDA-R antagonists. However, the direction of gamma-band power alterations in schizophrenia were inconsistent, which involved upregulation (n = 10), decreases (n = 7), and no changes (n = 8) in spectral power. Five out of 6 preclinical studies observed increased connectivity, while in healthy controls receiving Ketamine and in schizophrenia patients the direction of connectivity results was also inconsistent. Accordingly, the effects of NMDA-R hypofunctioning on gamma-band oscillations are different than pathophysiological signatures observed in schizophrenia. The implications of these findings for current E/I balance models of schizophrenia are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bianca Bianciardi
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Peter J Uhlhaas
- Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany.
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31
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Zhang Y, Geyfman A, Coffman B, Gill K, Ferrarelli F. Distinct alterations in resting-state electroencephalogram during eyes closed and eyes open and between morning and evening are present in first-episode psychosis patients. Schizophr Res 2021; 228:36-42. [PMID: 33434730 PMCID: PMC7987764 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abnormalities in resting-state electroencephalogram (rs-EEG) activity have been previously reported in schizophrenia. While most rs-EEG recordings were performed in patients with chronic schizophrenia during eyes closed (EC), only a handful of studies have investigated rs-EEG activity during both EC and eyes open (EO) conditions. It is also unknown whether EC and EO rs-EEG alterations are present at illness onset, and whether they change during the day. Here, we performed EC and EO rs-EEG recordings in the morning (AM) and evening (PM) in twenty-six first-episode psychosis (FEP) patients and seventeen matched healthy controls (HC). In AM/EC rs-EEG, a widespread reduction was found in low alpha power in FEP relative to HC. In PM/EC, the FEP group demonstrated a trend toward decreased theta power in parietal regions, while decreased high alpha power in frontal and left parietal regions was present during PM/EO. Moreover, reduced low alpha power during AM/EC was associated with worse positive symptoms. Altogether, those findings indicate that rs-EEG alterations are present in FEP patients at illness onset, that they are linked to the severity of their psychosis, and that distinct RS abnormalities can be detected in different conditions of visual alertness and time of the day. Future work should therefore account for those factors, which will help reduce variability of rs-EEG findings across studies and may serve as monitoring biomarkers of illness severity in schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingyi Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, USA
| | - Alexandra Geyfman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, USA
| | - Brian Coffman
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, USA
| | - Kathryn Gill
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, USA
| | - Fabio Ferrarelli
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, USA.
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Rahman F, Nanu R, Schneider NA, Katz D, Lisman J, Pi HJ. Optogenetic perturbation of projections from thalamic nucleus reuniens to hippocampus disrupts spatial working memory retrieval more than encoding. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2021; 179:107396. [PMID: 33524571 DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2021.107396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Working memory deficits are key cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia. Elevated delta oscillations, which are uniquely associated with the presence of the illness, may be the proximal cause of these deficits. Spatial working memory (SWM) is impaired by elevated delta oscillations projecting from thalamic nucleus reuniens (RE) to the hippocampus (HPC); these findings imply a role of the RE-HPC circuit in working memory deficits in schizophrenia, but questions remain as to whether the affected process is the encoding of working memory, recall, or both. Here, we answered this question by optogenetically inducing delta oscillations in the HPC terminals of RE axons in mice during either the encoding or retrieval phase (or both) of an SWM task. METHODS We transduced cells in RE to express channelrhodopsin-2 through bilateral injection of adeno-associated virus, and bilaterally implanted optical fibers dorsal to the hippocampus (HPC). While mice performed a spatial memory task on a Y-maze, the RE-HPC projections were optogenetically stimulated at delta frequency during distinct phases of the task. RESULTS Full-trial stimulation successfully impaired SWM performance, replicating the results of the previous study in a mouse model. Task-phase-specific stimulation significantly impaired performance during retrieval but not encoding. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that perturbations in the RE-HPC circuit specifically impair the retrieval phase of working memory. This finding supports the hypothesis that abnormal delta frequency bursting in the thalamus could have a causal role in producing the WM deficits seen in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faiyaz Rahman
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Roshan Nanu
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Nathan A Schneider
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Donald Katz
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA; Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Program in Neuroscience, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - John Lisman
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA
| | - Hyun-Jae Pi
- Volen Center for Complex Systems, Neuroscience Program, Department of Biology, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02453, USA.
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Hederih J, Nuninga JO, van Eijk K, van Dellen E, Smit DJA, Oranje B, Luykx JJ. Genetic underpinnings of schizophrenia-related electroencephalographical intermediate phenotypes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2021; 104:110001. [PMID: 32525059 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2020.110001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Although substantial research into genetics of psychotic disorders has been conducted, a large proportion of their genetic architecture has remained unresolved. Electroencephalographical intermediate phenotypes (EIP) have the potential to constitute a valuable tool when studying genetic risk loci for schizophrenia, in particular P3b amplitude, P50 suppression, mismatch negativity (MMN) and resting state power spectra of the electroencephalogram (EEG). Here, we systematically reviewed studies investigating the association of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with these EIPs and meta-analysed them when appropriate. We retrieved 45 studies (N = 34,971 study participants). Four SNPs investigated in more than one study were genome-wide significant for an association with schizophrenia and three were genome-wide suggestive, based on a lookup in the influential 2014 GWAS (Ripke et al., 2014). However, in our meta-analyses, rs1625579 failed to reach a statistically significant association with p3b amplitude decrease and rs4680 risk allele carrier status was not associated with p3b amplitude decrease or with impaired p50 suppression. In conclusion, evidence for SNP associations with EIPs remains limited to individual studies. Careful selection of EIPs and SNPs, combined with consistent reporting of effect sizes, directions of effect and p-values would aid future meta-analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jure Hederih
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands; Medical Sciences Division, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, United Kingdom.
| | - Jasper O Nuninga
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands
| | - Kristel van Eijk
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands
| | - Edwin van Dellen
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands; Melbourne Neuropsychiatry Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Melbourne and Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Dirk J A Smit
- Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Centre, Meibergdreef 5, Amsterdam 1105 AZ, the Netherlands
| | - Bob Oranje
- Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands
| | - Jurjen J Luykx
- Department of Translational Neuroscience, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Brain Center Rudolf Magnus, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, CX 3584, the Netherlands; GGNet Mental Health, Apeldoorn, the Netherlands
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Perrottelli A, Giordano GM, Brando F, Giuliani L, Mucci A. EEG-Based Measures in At-Risk Mental State and Early Stages of Schizophrenia: A Systematic Review. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:653642. [PMID: 34017273 PMCID: PMC8129021 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.653642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Electrophysiological (EEG) abnormalities in subjects with schizophrenia have been largely reported. In the last decades, research has shifted to the identification of electrophysiological alterations in the prodromal and early phases of the disorder, focusing on the prediction of clinical and functional outcome. The identification of neuronal aberrations in subjects with a first episode of psychosis (FEP) and in those at ultra high-risk (UHR) or clinical high-risk (CHR) to develop a psychosis is crucial to implement adequate interventions, reduce the rate of transition to psychosis, as well as the risk of irreversible functioning impairment. The aim of the review is to provide an up-to-date synthesis of the electrophysiological findings in the at-risk mental state and early stages of schizophrenia. Methods: A systematic review of English articles using Pubmed, Scopus, and PsychINFO was undertaken in July 2020. Additional studies were identified by hand-search. Electrophysiological studies that included at least one group of FEP or subjects at risk to develop psychosis, compared to healthy controls (HCs), were considered. The heterogeneity of the studies prevented a quantitative synthesis. Results: Out of 319 records screened, 133 studies were included in a final qualitative synthesis. Included studies were mainly carried out using frequency analysis, microstates and event-related potentials. The most common findings included an increase in delta and gamma power, an impairment in sensory gating assessed through P50 and N100 and a reduction of Mismatch Negativity and P300 amplitude in at-risk mental state and early stages of schizophrenia. Progressive changes in some of these electrophysiological measures were associated with transition to psychosis and disease course. Heterogeneous data have been reported for indices evaluating synchrony, connectivity, and evoked-responses in different frequency bands. Conclusions: Multiple EEG-indices were altered during at-risk mental state and early stages of schizophrenia, supporting the hypothesis that cerebral network dysfunctions appear already before the onset of the disorder. Some of these alterations demonstrated association with transition to psychosis or poor functional outcome. However, heterogeneity in subjects' inclusion criteria, clinical measures and electrophysiological methods prevents drawing solid conclusions. Large prospective studies are needed to consolidate findings concerning electrophysiological markers of clinical and functional outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Perrottelli
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | | | - Francesco Brando
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Luigi Giuliani
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
| | - Armida Mucci
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli", Naples, Italy
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Parker DA, Trotti RL, McDowell JE, Keedy SK, Gershon ES, Ivleva EI, Pearlson GD, Keshavan MS, Tamminga CA, Sweeney JA, Clementz BA. Auditory paired-stimuli responses across the psychosis and bipolar spectrum and their relationship to clinical features. Biomark Neuropsychiatry 2020; 3:100014. [PMID: 36644018 PMCID: PMC9837793 DOI: 10.1016/j.bionps.2020.100014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background EEG responses during auditory paired-stimuli paradigms are putative biomarkers of psychosis syndromes. The initial iteration of the Bipolar-Schizophrenia Network on Intermediate Phenotypes (B-SNIP1) showed unique and common patterns of abnormalities across schizophrenia (SZ), schizoaffective disorder (SAD), and bipolar disorder with psychosis (BDP). This study replicates those findings in new and large samples of psychosis cases and extends them to an important comparison group, bipolar disorder without psychosis (BDNP). Methods Paired stimuli responses from 64-sensor EEG recording were compared across psychosis (n = 597; SZ = 225, SAD = 201, BDP = 171), BDNP (n = 66), and healthy (n = 415) subjects from the second iteration of B-SNIP. EEG activity was analyzed in voltage and in the time-frequency domain. Principal component analysis (PCA) over sensors (sPCA) was used to efficiently capture EEG voltage responses to the paired stimuli. Evoked power was calculated via a Morlet wavelet procedure. A frequency PCA divided evoked power data into three frequency bands: Low (4-17 Hz), Beta (18-32 Hz), and Gamma (33-55 Hz). Each time-course (ERP Voltage, Low, Beta, and Gamma) were then segmented into 20 ms bins and analyzed for group differences. To efficiently summarize the multiple EEG components that best captured group differences we used multivariate discriminant and correlational analyses. This approach yields a reduced set of measures that may be useful in subsequent biomarker investigations. Results Group ANOVAs identified 17 time-ranges that showed significant group differences (p < .05 after FDR correction), constructively replicating B-SNIP1 findings. Multivariate linear discriminant analysis parsimoniously selected variables that best accounted for group differences: The P50 response to S1 and S2 uniquely separated BDNP from healthy and psychosis subjects (BDNP > all other groups); the S1 N100 response separated groups along an axis of psychopathology severity (HC > BDNP > BDP > SAD > SZ); the S1 P200 response indexed psychosis psychopathology (HC/BDNP > SAD/SZ/BDP); and the preparatory period to the S2 stimulus separated SZ from other groups (SZ > SAD/BDP>HC/BDNP).Canonical correlation identified an association between the neural responses during the S1 N100, S1 N200 and S2 preparatory period and PANSS positive symptoms and social functioning. The neural responses during the S1 P50 and S1 N100 were associated with PANSS Negative/General, MADRS and Young Mania symptoms. Conclusions This study constructively replicated prior B-SNIP1 research on auditory deviations observed during the paired stimuli task in SZ, SAD and BDP. Inclusion of a group of BDNP allows for the identification of biomarkers more closely related to affective versus nonaffective clinical phenotypes and neural distinctions between BDP and BDNP. Findings have implications for nosology and future translational work given that some biomarkers are shared across all psychosis and some are unique to affective syndromes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jennifer E. McDowell
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Georgia
| | - Sarah K. Keedy
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, United States of America
| | - Elliot S. Gershon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, United States of America
| | - Elena I. Ivleva
- Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, United States of America
| | - Godfrey D. Pearlson
- Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, Institute of Living, Hartford Hospital, United States of America
| | - Matcheri S. Keshavan
- Department of Psychiatry, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, United States of America
| | - Carol A. Tamminga
- Department of Psychiatry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, United States of America
| | - John A. Sweeney
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, United States of America
| | - Brett A. Clementz
- Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Bio-Imaging Research Center, University of Georgia, Georgia, Corresponding author at: Psychology Department, 125 Jackson Street, Athens GA, 30601, Greece. (B.A. Clementz)
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Alamian G, Pascarella A, Lajnef T, Knight L, Walters J, Singh KD, Jerbi K. Patient, interrupted: MEG oscillation dynamics reveal temporal dysconnectivity in schizophrenia. Neuroimage Clin 2020; 28:102485. [PMID: 33395976 PMCID: PMC7691748 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Current theories of schizophrenia emphasize the role of altered information integration as the core dysfunction of this illness. While ample neuroimaging evidence for such accounts comes from investigations of spatial connectivity, understanding temporal disruptions is important to fully capture the essence of dysconnectivity in schizophrenia. Recent electrophysiology studies suggest that long-range temporal correlation (LRTC) in the amplitude dynamics of neural oscillations captures the integrity of transferred information in the healthy brain. Thus, in this study, 25 schizophrenia patients and 25 controls (8 females/group) were recorded during two five-minutes of resting-state magnetoencephalography (once with eyes-open and once with eyes-closed). We used source-level analyses to investigate temporal dysconnectivity in patients by characterizing LRTCs across cortical and sub-cortical brain regions. In addition to standard statistical assessments, we applied a machine learning framework using support vector machine to evaluate the discriminative power of LRTCs in identifying patients from healthy controls. We found that neural oscillations in schizophrenia patients were characterized by reduced signal memory and higher variability across time, as evidenced by cortical and subcortical attenuations of LRTCs in the alpha and beta frequency bands. Support vector machine significantly classified participants using LRTCs in key limbic and paralimbic brain areas, with decoding accuracy reaching 82%. Importantly, these brain regions belong to networks that are highly relevant to the symptomology of schizophrenia. These findings thus posit temporal dysconnectivity as a hallmark of altered information processing in schizophrenia, and help advance our understanding of this pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Golnoush Alamian
- CoCo Lab, Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Canada.
| | | | - Tarek Lajnef
- CoCo Lab, Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Canada
| | - Laura Knight
- CUBRIC, School of Psychology, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cardiff University, UK
| | - James Walters
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Division of Psychological Medicine and Clinical Neurosciences, School of Medicine, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Krish D Singh
- CUBRIC, School of Psychology, College of Biomedical and Life Sciences, Cardiff University, UK
| | - Karim Jerbi
- CoCo Lab, Department of Psychology, Université de Montréal, Canada; MEG Center, University of Montreal, Canada; UNIQUE Centre (Unifying AI and Neuroscience - Québec), Quebec, Canada; Mila (Quebec AI Institute), Montreal, QC, Canada; Centre de recherche de l'Institut universitaire en santé mentale de Montréal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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37
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Electrophysiological correlates of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) Val66Met polymorphism. Sci Rep 2020; 10:17915. [PMID: 33087740 PMCID: PMC7578797 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-74780-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein is essential for neuronal development. Val66Met (rs6265) is a functional polymorphism at codon 66 of the BDNF gene that affects neuroplasticity and has been associated with cognition, brain structure and function. The aim of this study was to clarify the relationship between BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and neuronal oscillatory activity, using the electroencephalogram (EEG), in a normative cohort. Neurotypical (N = 92) young adults were genotyped for the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and had eyes open resting-state EEG recorded for four minutes. Focal increases in right fronto-parietal delta, and decreases in alpha-1 and right hemispheric alpha-2 amplitudes were observed for the Met/Met genotype group compared to Val/Val and Val/Met groups. Stronger frontal topographies were demonstrated for beta-1 and beta-2 in the Val/Met group versus the Val/Val group. Findings highlight BDNF Val66Met genotypic differences in EEG spectral amplitudes, with increased cortical excitability implications for Met allele carriers.
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Klein SD, Shekels LL, McGuire KA, Sponheim SR. Neural anomalies during vigilance in schizophrenia: Diagnostic specificity and genetic associations. Neuroimage Clin 2020; 28:102414. [PMID: 32950905 PMCID: PMC7502576 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Revised: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Impaired vigilance is a core cognitive deficit in schizophrenia and may serve as an endophenotype (i.e., mark genetic liability). We used a continuous performance task with perceptually degraded stimuli in schizophrenia patients (N = 48), bipolar disorder patients (N = 26), first-degree biological relatives of schizophrenia patients (N = 55) and bipolar disorder patients (N = 28), as well as healthy controls (N = 68) to clarify whether previously reported vigilance deficits and abnormal neural functions were indicative of genetic liability for schizophrenia as opposed to a generalized liability for severe psychopathology. We also examined variation in the Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene to evaluate whether brain responses were related to genetic variation associated with higher-order cognition. Relatives of schizophrenia patients had an increased rate of misidentification of nontarget stimuli as targets when they were perceptually similar, suggestive of difficulties with contour perception. Larger early visual responses (i.e., N1) were associated with better task performance in patients with schizophrenia consistent with enhanced N1 responses reflecting beneficial neural compensation. Additionally, reduced N2 augmentation to target stimuli was specific to schizophrenia. Both patients with schizophrenia and first-degree relatives displayed reduced late cognitive responses (P3b) that predicted worse performance. First-degree relatives of bipolar patients exhibited performance deficits, and displayed aberrant neural responses that were milder than individuals with liability for schizophrenia and dependent on sex. Variation in the Catechol-O-methyltransferase gene was differentially associated with P3b in schizophrenia and bipolar groups. Poor vigilance in schizophrenia is specifically predicted by a failure to enhance early visual responses, weak augmentation of mid-latency brain responses to targets, and limited engagement of late cognitive responses that may be tied to genetic variation associated with prefrontal dopaminergic availability. Experimental results illustrate specific neural functions that distinguish schizophrenia from bipolar disorder and provides evidence for a putative endophenotype that differentiates genetic liability for schizophrenia from severe mental illness more broadly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Klein
- University of Minnesota Clinical Science and Psychopathology Research Program, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities, 75 East River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Laurie L Shekels
- Minneapolis Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 1 Veterans Dr. Minneapolis, MN 55417, USA
| | - Kathryn A McGuire
- Minneapolis Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 1 Veterans Dr. Minneapolis, MN 55417, USA
| | - Scott R Sponheim
- Minneapolis Veterans Affairs Health Care System, 1 Veterans Dr. Minneapolis, MN 55417, USA; University of Minnesota, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Science, 606 24th Ave S, Minneapolis, MN 55454, USA.
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Yu XY, Liao KR, Niu ZK, Wang K, Cheung EFC, Li XL, Chan RCK. Resting frontal EEG asymmetry and schizotypal traits: a test-retest study. Cogn Neuropsychiatry 2020; 25:333-347. [PMID: 32731803 DOI: 10.1080/13546805.2020.1800448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Increase in right relative to left frontal electroencephalography (EEG) activity has been observed in patients with schizophrenia, both in cognitive tasks and during rest; and this lateralisation may be related to the severity of schizotypal traits. Methods: We used the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ) to assess schizotypal traits, and examined the correlation between these traits and resting EEG frontal asymmetry (left-right) in 52 college students, as well as the reliability of this correlation over a three-month interval. Results: A higher total score on the SPQ was correlated with reduced asymmetry in different frequency bands: gamma and beta2 frequency bands at baseline, and delta and alpha frequency bands three months later. Additionally, the reduced left relative to right frontal gamma and beta2 asymmetry was correlated with the participants' verbal fluency ability. However, this correlation was no longer statistically significant after the total SPQ score was controlled. Conclusions: These findings suggest that resting frontal EEG asymmetry is correlated with powers in different frequency bands, and may be an endophenotype for schizophrenia spectrum disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yang Yu
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ke-Ren Liao
- Shenzhen Health Development Research Center, Shenzhen, People's Republic of China
| | - Zi-Kang Niu
- Castle Peak Hospital, Hong Kong Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Kui Wang
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Eric F C Cheung
- Castle Peak Hospital, Hong Kong Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao-Li Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Raymond C K Chan
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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40
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The relationship between resting electroencephalogram oscillatory abnormalities and schizotypal personality traits in the first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. Neuroreport 2020; 30:1215-1221. [PMID: 31634240 DOI: 10.1097/wnr.0000000000001350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although a large amount of studies have manifested resting state electroencephalogram oscillatory abnormalities in schizophrenia and their first-degree relatives and in schizotype, the results are far from consistent and no research found any relationship between electroencephalograph (EEG) abnormalities and schizotypal personality in first-degree relatives. The present study is to verify the modifications of EEG power spectra in eyes-open resting state of schizophrenia and first-degree relatives, and to investigate associations between EEG band power and schizotypal personality traits in first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. Participant samples in this study consisted of 33 healthy normal controls, 35 unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients and 35 schizophrenia patients. Group differences in resting EEG band power were examined via repeated-measures analysis of variance, and correlation between EEG power and schizotypal personality traits via Pearson Correlation analysis. The results showed that patients with schizophrenia exhibited increased delta, theta and alpha activity over anterior and central regions in eyes-open resting state compared with that of normal control. Gamma band power was found for the first time to be negatively correlated to schizotypal personality traits in first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients. To conclusion, these findings suggested that low-frequency EEG activity might be neural manifestations of pathophysiological changes in the brain of schizophrenia, and gamma band activity might be an approach to measure the genetic liability of the disorder.
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Soni S, Muthukrishnan SP, Sood M, Kaur S, Sharma R. Altered parahippocampal gyrus activation and its connectivity with resting-state network areas in schizophrenia: An EEG study. Schizophr Res 2020; 222:411-422. [PMID: 32534839 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2020.03.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2019] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Synchronized and coherent activity in resting-networks during normal brain functioning could be altered in disconnection syndrome like schizophrenia. Study of neural oscillations as assessed by EEG appears to be a promising proposition to understand the pathophysiology of schizophrenia in patients and their first-degree relatives, where disturbances in neural oscillations point towards genetic predisposition. Therefore, present study aims at establishing EEG based biomarkers for early detection and management strategies. Thirty-two patients with schizophrenia, 28 first-degree relatives and 31 healthy controls (HC) participated in the study. Resting brain activity was recorded using 128-channel electroencephalography. After pre-processing and independent component analysis (ICA), an equivalent current dipole was estimated for each IC. Total of 1551 independent and localizable EEG components across all groups were used in subsequent analysis. Power spectral density and source coherence between IC clusters were computed. Patients and first-degree relatives displayed significantly higher power spectral density (PSD) than HC for all frequency bands in left parahippocampal gyrus (PHG) (-7, -26, 8; BA 27). Another region within left deep PHG (-4, -28, 1), however, distinguished patients from first-degree relatives and HC in terms of significantly lower PSD in higher frequency bands. Functional connectivity (FC) was found to be lower in patients and higher in relatives compared to HC between different resting-state network areas. In patients, connectivity was lower compared to first-degree relatives. Altered activity within left PHG and FC of primarily this with other areas in resting-state network can serve as state and trait markers of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunaina Soni
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Suriya Prakash Muthukrishnan
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Mamta Sood
- Department of Psychiatry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Simran Kaur
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Ratna Sharma
- Stress and Cognitive Electroimaging Laboratory, Department of Physiology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India.
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Zhang Y, Quiñones GM, Ferrarelli F. Sleep spindle and slow wave abnormalities in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders: Recent findings and future directions. Schizophr Res 2020; 221:29-36. [PMID: 31753592 PMCID: PMC7231641 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 10/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Sleep spindles and slow waves are the two main oscillatory activities occurring during NREM sleep. Slow waves are ∼1 Hz, high amplitude, negative-positive deflections that are primarily generated and coordinated within the cortex, whereas sleep spindles are 12-16 Hz, waxing and waning oscillations that are initiated within the thalamus and regulated by thalamo-cortical circuits. In healthy subjects, these oscillations are thought to be responsible for the restorative aspects of sleep and have been increasingly shown to be involved in learning, memory and plasticity. Furthermore, deficits in sleep spindles and, to lesser extent, slow waves have been reported in both chronic schizophrenia (SCZ) and early course psychosis patients. In this article, we will first describe sleep spindle and slow wave characteristics, including their putative functional roles in the healthy brain. We will then review electrophysiological, genetic, and cognitive studies demonstrating spindle and slow wave impairments in SCZ and other psychotic disorders, with particularly emphasis on recent findings in early course patients. Finally, we will discuss how future work, including sleep studies in individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis, may help position spindles and slow waves as candidate biomarkers, as well as novel treatment targets, for SCZ and related psychotic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingyi Zhang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, USA
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Manduca JD, Thériault RK, Williams OOF, Rasmussen DJ, Perreault ML. Transient Dose-dependent Effects of Ketamine on Neural Oscillatory Activity in Wistar-Kyoto Rats. Neuroscience 2020; 441:161-175. [PMID: 32417341 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/07/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Ketamine is a promising therapeutic for treatment-resistant depression (TRD) but is associated with an array of short-term psychomimetic side-effects. These disparate drug effects may be elicited through the modulation of neural circuit activity. The purpose of this study was to therefore delineate dose- and time-dependent changes in ketamine-induced neural oscillatory patterns in regions of the brain implicated in depression. Wistar-Kyoto rats were used as a model system to study these aspects of TRD neuropathology whereas Wistar rats were used as a control strain. Animals received a low (10 mg/kg) or high (30 mg/kg) dose of ketamine and temporal changes in neural oscillatory activity recorded from the prefrontal cortex (PFC), cingulate cortex (Cg), and nucleus accumbens (NAc) for ninety minutes. Effects of each dose of ketamine on immobility in the forced swim test were also evaluated. High dose ketamine induced a transient increase in theta power in the PFC and Cg, as well as a dose-dependent increase in gamma power in these regions 10-min, but not 90-min, post-administration. In contrast, only low dose ketamine normalized innate deficits in fast gamma coherence between the NAc-Cg and PFC-Cg, an effect that persisted at 90-min post-injection. These low dose ketamine-induced oscillatory alterations were accompanied by a reduction in immobility time in the forced swim test. These results show that ketamine induces time-dependent effects on neural oscillations at specific frequencies. These drug-induced changes may differentially contribute to the psychomimetic and therapeutic effects of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua D Manduca
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph (ON), Canada
| | - Rachel-Karson Thériault
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph (ON), Canada; Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph (ON), Canada
| | - Olivia O F Williams
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph (ON), Canada
| | - Duncan J Rasmussen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph (ON), Canada
| | - Melissa L Perreault
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Guelph (ON), Canada; Collaborative Neuroscience Program, University of Guelph (ON), Canada.
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Jacobsen S, Meiron O, Salomon DY, Kraizler N, Factor H, Jaul E, Tsur EE. Integrated Development Environment for EEG-Driven Cognitive-Neuropsychological Research. IEEE JOURNAL OF TRANSLATIONAL ENGINEERING IN HEALTH AND MEDICINE-JTEHM 2020; 8:2200208. [PMID: 32431963 PMCID: PMC7233754 DOI: 10.1109/jtehm.2020.2989768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Background: EEG-driven research is paramount in cognitive-neuropsychological studies, as it provides a non-invasive window to the underlying neural mechanisms of cognition and behavior. A myriad collection of software and hardware frameworks has been developed to alleviate some of the technical barriers involved in EEG-driven research. Methods: we propose an integrated development environment which encompasses the entire technical “data-collection pipeline” of cognitive-neuropsychological research, including experiment design, data acquisition, data exploration and analysis in a state-of-the-art user interface. Our framework is based on a unique integration between a python-based web framework, time-oriented databases and object-based data schemes. Results: we demonstrated our framework with the recording and analysis of an n-Back task completed by 15 elderly (ages 50 to 80) participants. This case study demonstrates the highly utilized nature of our integrated framework with a challenging target population. Furthermore, our results may provide new insights into the correlation between brain activity and working memory performance in elderly people, who are prone to experience accelerated decline in executive prefrontal cortex functioning. Conclusion: our framework extends the range of EEG-driven experimental methods for assessing cognition available for cognitive-neuroscientists, allowing them to concentrate on the creative part of their work instead of technical aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shoham Jacobsen
- 1Department of Computer ScienceJerusalem College of TechnologyJerusalem91160Israel
| | - Oded Meiron
- 2Clinical Research Center for Brain SciencesHerzog Medical CenterJerusalem91120Israel
| | - David Yoel Salomon
- 1Department of Computer ScienceJerusalem College of TechnologyJerusalem91160Israel
| | - Nir Kraizler
- 1Department of Computer ScienceJerusalem College of TechnologyJerusalem91160Israel
| | - Hagai Factor
- 2Clinical Research Center for Brain SciencesHerzog Medical CenterJerusalem91120Israel
| | - Efraim Jaul
- 3Geriatric Skilled Nursing DepartmentHerzog Medical CenterJerusalem91120Israel
| | - Elishai Ezra Tsur
- 1Department of Computer ScienceJerusalem College of TechnologyJerusalem91160Israel
- 4Neuro-Biomorphic Engineering Laboratory (NBEL)Department of Mathematics and Computer ScienceThe Open University of IsraelRa'anana4353701Israel
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Lavoie S, Polari AR, Goldstone S, Nelson B, McGorry PD. Staging model in psychiatry: Review of the evolution of electroencephalography abnormalities in major psychiatric disorders. Early Interv Psychiatry 2019; 13:1319-1328. [PMID: 30688016 DOI: 10.1111/eip.12792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2018] [Revised: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
AIM Clinical staging in psychiatry aims to classify patients according to the severity of their symptoms, from stage 0 (increased risk, asymptomatic) to stage 4 (severe illness), enabling adapted treatment at each stage of the illness. The staging model would gain specificity if one or more quantifiable biological markers could be identified. Several biomarkers reflecting possible causal mechanisms and/or consequences of the pathophysiology are candidates for integration into the clinical staging model of psychiatric illnesses. METHODS This review covers the evolution (from stage 0 to stage 4) of the most important brain functioning impairments as measured with electroencephalography (EEG), in psychosis spectrum and in severe mood disorders. RESULTS The present review of the literature demonstrates that it is currently not possible to draw any conclusion with regard to the state or trait character of any of the EEG impairments in both major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. As for schizophrenia, the most promising markers of the stage of the illness are the pitch mismatch negativity as well as the p300 event-related potentials, as these components seem to deteriorate with increasing severity of the illness. CONCLUSIONS Given the complexity of major psychiatric disorders, and that not a single impairment can be observed in all patients, future research should most likely consider combinations of markers in the quest for a better identification of the stages of the psychiatric illnesses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzie Lavoie
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Andrea R Polari
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Orygen Youth Health, Melbourne Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sherilyn Goldstone
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Barnaby Nelson
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Patrick D McGorry
- Orygen, The National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Vignapiano A, Koenig T, Mucci A, Giordano GM, Amodio A, Altamura M, Bellomo A, Brugnoli R, Corrivetti G, Di Lorenzo G, Girardi P, Monteleone P, Niolu C, Galderisi S, Maj M. Disorganization and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: New insights from electrophysiological findings. Int J Psychophysiol 2019; 145:99-108. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2018] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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Sollychin M, Jack BN, Polari A, Ando A, Amminger GP, Markulev C, McGorry PD, Nelson B, Whitford TJ, Yuen HP, Lavoie S. Frontal slow wave resting EEG power is higher in individuals at Ultra High Risk for psychosis than in healthy controls but is not associated with negative symptoms or functioning. Schizophr Res 2019; 208:293-299. [PMID: 30738699 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2019.01.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Decreased brain activity in the frontal region, as indicated by increased slow wave EEG power measured by electrodes place on the skull over this area, in association with negative symptoms has previously been shown to distinguish ultra-high risk (UHR) individuals who later transitioned to psychosis (UHR-P) from those who did not transition (UHR-NP). The aims of the current study were to: 1) replicate these results and 2) investigate whether similar association between increased frontal slow wave activity and functioning shows any value in the prediction of transition to psychosis in UHR individuals. The brain activity, recorded using EEG, of 44 UHR individuals and 38 healthy controls was included in the analyses. Symptom severity was assessed in UHR participants and functioning was measured in both groups. The power in the theta frequency band in the frontal region of UHR individuals was higher than in controls. However, there was no difference between the UHR-P and the UHR-NP groups, and no change in slow frequency power following transition to psychosis. The correlation between delta frequency power and negative symptoms previously observed was not present in our UHR cohort, and there was no association between frontal delta or theta and functioning in either group. Increased delta power was rather correlated with depressive symptoms in the UHR group. Future research will be needed to better understand when, in the course of the illness, does the slow wave activity in the frontal area becomes impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Sollychin
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | | | - Andrea Polari
- Orygen Youth Health and Melbourne Health, Parkville, Australia
| | - Ayaka Ando
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - G Paul Amminger
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Connie Markulev
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Patrick D McGorry
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Barnaby Nelson
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | | | - Hok Pan Yuen
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Suzie Lavoie
- Orygen, the National Centre of Excellence in Youth Mental Health, Parkville, Australia; Centre for Youth Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia.
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Decrypting the electrophysiological individuality of the human brain: Identification of individuals based on resting-state EEG activity. Neuroimage 2019; 197:470-481. [PMID: 30978497 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Biometric identification (BI) of individuals is a fast-growing field of research that is producing increasingly sophisticated applications in several spheres of everyday life. Previous magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have demonstrated that based on the high inter-individual variability of brain structure and function, it is possible to identify individuals with high accuracy. Otherwise, there is the common belief that electroencephalographic (EEG) data recorded at the surface of the scalp are too noisy for identification purposes with a comparably high hit rate. In the present work, we compared BI quality (F1-scores, accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity) between different types of functional (instantaneous, lagged, and total coherence, phase synchronization, correlation, and mutual information) and effective (Granger causality, phase synchronization, and coherence) connectivity measures. Results revealed that across functional connectivity metrics, identification accuracy was in the range of 0.98-1, whereas sensitivity and F1-scores were between 0.00 and 1 and specificity was between 0.99 and 1. BI was higher for the connectivity metrics that are contaminated by volume conduction (instantaneous connectivity) compared to those that are unaffected by this variable (lagged connectivity). Support vector machine and neural network algorithms yielded the highest BI, followed by random forest and weighted k-nearest neighborhood, whereas linear discriminant analysis was less accurate. These results provide cross-validated counterevidence to the belief that EEG data are too noisy for identification purposes and demonstrate that functional and effective connectivity metrics are particularly suited for BI applications with comparable accuracy to MRI. Our results have important implications for fast, low-cost, and mobile BI applications.
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Newson JJ, Thiagarajan TC. EEG Frequency Bands in Psychiatric Disorders: A Review of Resting State Studies. Front Hum Neurosci 2019; 12:521. [PMID: 30687041 PMCID: PMC6333694 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2018.00521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 338] [Impact Index Per Article: 67.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Accepted: 12/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A significant proportion of the electroencephalography (EEG) literature focuses on differences in historically pre-defined frequency bands in the power spectrum that are typically referred to as alpha, beta, gamma, theta and delta waves. Here, we review 184 EEG studies that report differences in frequency bands in the resting state condition (eyes open and closed) across a spectrum of psychiatric disorders including depression, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism, addiction, bipolar disorder, anxiety, panic disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and schizophrenia to determine patterns across disorders. Aggregating across all reported results we demonstrate that characteristic patterns of power change within specific frequency bands are not necessarily unique to any one disorder but show substantial overlap across disorders as well as variability within disorders. In particular, we show that the most dominant pattern of change, across several disorder types including ADHD, schizophrenia and OCD, is power increases across lower frequencies (delta and theta) and decreases across higher frequencies (alpha, beta and gamma). However, a considerable number of disorders, such as PTSD, addiction and autism show no dominant trend for spectral change in any direction. We report consistency and validation scores across the disorders and conditions showing that the dominant result across all disorders is typically only 2.2 times as likely to occur in the literature as alternate results, and typically with less than 250 study participants when summed across all studies reporting this result. Furthermore, the magnitudes of the results were infrequently reported and were typically small at between 20% and 30% and correlated weakly with symptom severity scores. Finally, we discuss the many methodological challenges and limitations relating to such frequency band analysis across the literature. These results caution any interpretation of results from studies that consider only one disorder in isolation, and for the overall potential of this approach for delivering valuable insights in the field of mental health.
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50
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Hudson MR, Hannan AJ, O’Brien TJ, Jones NC. High-Frequency Neuronal Oscillatory Abnormalities in the Phospholipase C-β1 Knockout Mouse Model of Schizophrenia. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2018; 22:221-231. [PMID: 30517689 PMCID: PMC6403088 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyy097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 11/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a complex neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by psychoses, socioaffective disturbances, and cognitive deficits. The phosphodiesterase enzyme phospholipase C-β1 has been reported to be reduced in postmortem tissue of schizophrenia patients. Dysregulation of neuronal oscillations, particularly those in the higher frequency range such as beta (12-30 Hz) and gamma (30-80 Hz), are also associated with this disorder. We investigated the influence of phospholipase C-β1 gene deletion on cortical oscillatory activity and sensorimotor gating behavior. METHODS Adult phospholipase C-β1 knockout and wild-type C57Bl/6J control mice (total n = 26) underwent surgical implantation of extradural electrodes to allow electrocorticography recordings. Electrocorticography was recorded during prepulse inhibition behavior sessions to measure ongoing and auditory-evoked electrophysiological responses. Mice were also pretreated with antipsychotic drugs haloperidol (0.25 mg/kg), clozapine (2.5 mg/kg), and olanzapine (5 mg/kg). RESULTS Phospholipase C-β1 knockout mice exhibited reduced prepulse inhibition and diminished power and phase synchrony of beta and gamma oscillatory responses to auditory stimuli as well as elevated ongoing beta oscillations. Reductions in prepulse inhibition were highly correlated with the power and phase synchrony of evoked oscillations. Clozapine and olanzapine ameliorated the prepulse inhibition deficit in phospholipase C-β1 knockout mice, but not the electrophysiology abnormalities. CONCLUSIONS Phospholipase C-β1 reduction leads to disturbances to beta and gamma oscillatory dynamics and prepulse inhibition behavior. The strong relationships between these measures demonstrate the importance of event-related oscillatory activity to sensorimotor gating behavior. However, dissociation of these measures observed in the drug studies suggests that abnormalities in neuronal networks may not necessarily need to be corrected for behavioral improvement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R Hudson
- Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), University of Melbourne, Melbourne Brain Centre, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Anthony J Hannan
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne Brain Centre, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Terence J O’Brien
- Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), University of Melbourne, Melbourne Brain Centre, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University and Department of Neurology, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nigel C Jones
- Department of Medicine (Royal Melbourne Hospital), University of Melbourne, Melbourne Brain Centre, Parkville, Victoria, Australia,Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University and Department of Neurology, The Alfred Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia,Correspondence: Nigel C. Jones, PhD, Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, 3004, Australia ()
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