Has an angel shown the way? Etiological and therapeutic implications of the PCP/NMDA model of schizophrenia

Long-term adaptation of prefrontal circuits in a mouse model of NMDAR hypofunction

Pharmacological approaches to induce N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction have been intensively used to understand the aetiology and pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Yet, the precise cellular and molecular mechanisms that relate to brain network dysfunction remain largely unknown. Here, we used a set of complementary approaches to assess the functional network abnormalities present in male mice that underwent a 7-day subchronic phencyclidine (PCP 10 mg/kg, subcutaneously, once daily) treatment. Our data revealed that pharmacological intervention with PCP affected cognitive performance and auditory evoked gamma oscillations in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) mimicking endophenotypes of some schizophrenia patients. We further assessed PFC cellular function and identified altered neuronal intrinsic membrane properties, reduced parvalbumin (PV) immunostaining and diminished inhibition onto L5 PFC pyramidal cells. A decrease in the strength of optogenetically-evoked glutamatergic current at the ventral hippocampus to PFC synapse was also demonstrated, along with a weaker shunt of excitatory transmission by local PFC interneurons. On a macrocircuit level, functional ultrasound measurements indicated compromised functional connectivity within several brain regions particularly involving PFC and frontostriatal circuits. Herein, we reproduced a panel of schizophrenia endophenotypes induced by subchronic PCP application in mice. We further recapitulated electrophysiological signatures associated with schizophrenia and provided an anatomical reference to critical elements in the brain circuitry. Together, our findings contribute to a better understanding of the physiological underpinnings of deficits induced by subchronic NMDAR antagonist regimes and provide a test system for characterization of pharmacological compounds.

NMDAR dysfunction and the regulation of dopaminergic transmission in schizophrenia

A substantial body of evidence implicates dysfunction in N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. This article illustrates how NMDAR dysfunction may give rise to many of the neurobiological phenomena frequently associated with schizophrenia with a particular focus on how NMDAR dysfunction affects the thalamic reticular nucleus (nRT) and pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg). Furthermore, this article presents a model for schizophrenia illustrating how dysfunction in the nRT may interrupt prefrontal regulation of midbrain dopaminergic neurons, and how dysfunction in the PPTg may drive increased, irregular burst firing.

Decreased free D-aspartate levels in the blood serum of patients with schizophrenia

Introduction

Schizophrenia (SCZ) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are neurodevelopmental diseases characterized by different psychopathological manifestations and divergent clinical trajectories. Various alterations at glutamatergic synapses have been reported in both disorders, including abnormal NMDA and metabotropic receptor signaling.

Methods

We conducted a bicentric study to assess the blood serum levels of NMDA receptors-related glutamatergic amino acids and their precursors, including L-glutamate, L-glutamine, D-aspartate, L-aspartate, L-asparagine, D-serine, L-serine and glycine, in ASD, SCZ patients and their respective control subjects. Specifically, the SCZ patients were subdivided into treatment-resistant and non-treatment-resistant SCZ patients, based on their responsivity to conventional antipsychotics.

Results

D-serine and D-aspartate serum reductions were found in SCZ patients compared to controls. Conversely, no significant differences between cases and controls were found in amino acid concentrations in the two ASD cohorts analyzed.

Discussion

This result further encourages future research to evaluate the predictive role of selected D-amino acids as peripheral markers for SCZ pathophysiology and diagnosis.

A computational account of the development and evolution of psychotic symptoms

The mechanisms of psychotic symptoms like hallucinations and delusions are often investigated in fully-formed illness, well after symptoms emerge. These investigations have yielded key insights, but are not well-positioned to reveal the dynamic forces underlying symptom formation itself. Understanding symptom development over time would allow us to identify steps in the pathophysiological process leading to psychosis, shifting the focus of psychiatric intervention from symptom alleviation to prevention. We propose a model for understanding the emergence of psychotic symptoms within the context of an adaptive, developing neural system. We will make the case for a pathophysiological process that begins with cortical hyperexcitability and bottom-up noise transmission, which engenders inappropriate belief formation via aberrant prediction error signaling. We will argue that this bottom-up noise drives learning about the (im)precision of new incoming sensory information because of diminished signal-to-noise ratio, causing an adaptive relative over-reliance on prior beliefs. This over-reliance on priors predisposes to hallucinations and covaries with hallucination severity. An over-reliance on priors may also lead to increased conviction in the beliefs generated by bottom-up noise and drive movement toward conversion to psychosis. We will identify predictions of our model at each stage, examine evidence to support or refute those predictions, and propose experiments that could falsify or help select between alternative elements of the overall model. Nesting computational abnormalities within longitudinal development allows us to account for hidden dynamics among the mechanisms driving symptom formation and to view established symptomatology as a point of equilibrium among competing biological forces.

3-Methoxy-Phencyclidine Induced Psychotic Disorder: A Literature Review and an 18F-FDG PET/CT Case Report

New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) are modifying the drug scenario worldwide and have become a public health concern because of their toxicological profiles and their harmful physical/psychological effects. 3-Methoxy-Phencyclidine (3-MeO-PCP), a non-competitive antagonist of glutamate N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, belongs to the phencyclidine-like subfamily of arylcyclohexylamines and has gained attention for its toxic, sometimes fatal, effects. Despite several cases of intoxication and death reported in the literature, little is known about substance-induced psychotic disorders (SIP) and potential cognitive impairment following 3-MeO-PCP intake. This literature review aimed to summarize available evidence about 3-MeO-PCP mechanisms of action and physical and psychotropic effects and to spread preliminary findings about persistent psychotic symptoms and impaired cognitive functioning. Additionally, the case of an SIP is reported in a 29-year-old man with small oral intakes of 3-MeO-PCP over two weeks until a high dose ingestion. Psychometric and neuropsychological assessment and brain [18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography integrated with computed tomography were used to support clinical description. Identifying and addressing the characteristic clinical features and neural substrates of NPS-induced psychoses might help clinicians with a more precise differentiation from other psychotic disorders. Although further studies are required, phenotyping the cognitive profile of NPS users might provide targets for tailored therapeutic approaches.

Reduced slow wave density is associated with worse positive symptoms in clinical high risk: An objective readout of symptom severity for early treatment interventions?

Individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR) present subsyndromal psychotic symptoms that can escalate and lead to the transition to a diagnosable psychotic disorder. Identifying biological parameters that are sensitive to these symptoms can therefore help objectively assess their severity and guide early interventions in CHR. Reduced slow wave oscillations (∼1 Hz) during non-rapid eye movement sleep were recently observed in first-episode psychosis patients and were linked to the intensity of their positive symptoms. Here, we collected overnight high-density EEG recordings from 37 CHR and 32 healthy control (HC) subjects and compared slow wave (SW) activity and other SW parameters (i.e., density and negative peak amplitude) between groups. We also assessed the relationships between clinical symptoms and SW parameters in CHR. While comparisons between HC and the entire CHR group showed no SW differences, CHR individuals with higher positive symptom severity (N = 18) demonstrated a reduction in SW density in an EEG cluster involving bilateral prefrontal, parietal, and right occipital regions compared to matched HC individuals. Furthermore, we observed a negative correlation between SW density and positive symptoms across CHR individuals, suggesting a potential target for early treatment interventions.

Psychosocial stress moderates the relationship between cerebrospinal fluid lactate dehydrogenase and the duration of untreated psychosis in first-episode psychosis

Introduction

Previous research has shown that lower lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) are associated with longer prodromal symptoms in first-episode psychosis (FEP). We aimed to study whether there is a relationship between the duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) and LDH and other CSF biomarkers in FEP and whether stressful life events moderate this association.

Methods

Ninety-five inpatients with FEP and with less than 6 weeks of antipsychotic treatment were included in the study. All participants were informed about the nature of the study, which was approved by the local ethics committee, and signed an informed consent form. A lumbar puncture was performed at index admission (baseline) to measure CSF parameters (glucose, total protein, LDH). The DUP was assessed with the Quick Psychosis Onset and Prodromal Symptoms Inventory (Q-POPSI). Stressful life events (SLEs) in the previous 6 months were assessed with the List of Threatening Experiences. We dichotomized the SLE variable into having experienced at least one SLE or no experience of SLEs. Statistical analyses were performed with SPSS v. 25.0. Total protein and LDH concentrations were natural log transformed (ln) to reduce skewness. Multiple linear regression analyses were conducted to explore the association between the DUP and CSF parameters (considered the dependent variable). Age, sex, DUP and SLEs were considered independent variables. We tested the DUP by SLE interaction. Significant interactions were included in the final model. The threshold for significance was set at p<0.05.

Results

Fifty-four FEP patients (56.8%) reported an SLE in the previous 6 months. There were no significant differences in the DUP between patients with or without SLEs. There were no significant differences in CSF biomarkers between the SLE groups. In the multiple linear regression analyses, we found a significant DUP by SLE interaction effect on CSF LDH concentrations (standardized beta= -0.320, t= -2.084, p= 0.040). In patients with SLEs, a shorter DUP was associated with higher CSF LDH concentrations and vice versa. No significant associations were found between the DUP or SLEs and other CSF biomarkers (glucose, total proteins).

Conclusions

Our study suggests that psychosocial stress moderates the relationship between the onset of psychosis and CSF biomarkers related to bioenergetic systems.

A prefrontal network model operating near steady and oscillatory states links spike desynchronization and synaptic deficits in schizophrenia

Schizophrenia results in part from a failure of prefrontal networks but we lack full understanding of how disruptions at a synaptic level cause failures at the network level. This is a crucial gap in our understanding because it prevents us from discovering how genetic mutations and environmental risks that alter synaptic function cause prefrontal network to fail in schizophrenia. To address that question, we developed a recurrent spiking network model of prefrontal local circuits that can explain the link between NMDAR synaptic and 0-lag spike synchrony deficits we recently observed in a pharmacological monkey model of prefrontal network failure in schizophrenia. We analyze how the balance between AMPA and NMDA components of recurrent excitation and GABA inhibition in the network influence oscillatory spike synchrony to inform the biological data. We show that reducing recurrent NMDAR synaptic currents prevents the network from shifting from a steady to oscillatory state in response to extrinsic inputs such as might occur during behavior. These findings strongly parallel dynamic modulation of 0-lag spike synchrony we observed between neurons in monkey prefrontal cortex during behavior, as well as the suppression of this 0-lag spiking by administration of NMDAR antagonists. As such, our cortical network model provides a plausible mechanism explaining the link between NMDAR synaptic and 0-lag spike synchrony deficits observed in a pharmacological monkey model of prefrontal network failure in schizophrenia.

Enhanced methamphetamine sensitisation in a rat model of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met variant: Sex differences and dopamine receptor gene expression

Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and the Val66Met polymorphism may play a role in the development of psychosis and schizophrenia. The aim of this study was to investigate long-term effects of methamphetamine (Meth) on psychosis-like behaviour and dopamine receptor and dopamine transporter gene expression in a novel rat model of the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism. At the end of a 7-day subchronic Meth treatment, female rats with the Met/Met genotype selectively showed locomotor hyperactivity sensitisation to the acute effect of Meth. Male rats showed tolerance to Meth irrespective of Val66Met genotype. Two weeks later, female Met/Met rats showed increased locomotor activity following both saline treatment or a low dose of Meth, a hyperactivity which was not observed in other genotypes or in males. Baseline PPI did not differ between the groups but the disruption of PPI by acute treatment with apomorphine was absent in Meth-pretreated Met/Met rats. Female Met/Met rats selectively showed down-regulation of dopamine D2 receptor gene expression in striatum. Behavioural effects of MK-801 or its locomotor sensitisation by prior Meth pretreatment were not influenced by genotype. These data suggest a selective vulnerability of female Met/Met rats to short-term and long-term effects of Meth, which could model increased vulnerability to psychosis development associated with the BDNF Val66Met polymorphism.

Effects of gestational haloperidol exposure on mRNA expressions related to glutamate and GABA receptors in offspring

Antipsychotic treatment is vital for patients with schizophrenia even in the perinatal period, but the impact at the molecular biological level on offspring is unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of intraperitoneal haloperidol injection to pregnant mice on glutamate and GABA receptors in the brain of offspring mice. Eight-week-old pregnant mice were treated with either intraperitoneal haloperidol or normal saline injection, and their offspring were defined as F1 mice. In addition, eight-week-old male mice were used as acute mice that were intraperitoneally injected with haloperidol or normal saline for 20 days. mRNA expression levels were measured by RT-qPCR. Western blotting was performed of the frontal lobes of F1 mice. In the hippocampi of F1 mice, Grik3 (p = 0.023) and Gabra3 (p = 0.004) mRNA expression levels were significantly higher in the haloperidol group than in the control group, whereas Gria2 (p < 0.001) and Grin2a (p < 0.001) mRNA expression levels were significantly lower in the haloperidol group than in the control group. Gria2 (p = 0.015), and Grik3 (p = 0.037), and Grin2a (p = 0.012) mRNA expression levels were significantly lower in the haloperidol group than in the control group in the frontal lobes of F1 mice. In the hippocampi of acute mice, Grik3 (p = 0.049) and Gabra3 (p = 0.007) mRNA expression levels were significantly decreased in the haloperidol group. Fetal exposure to haloperidol can affect glutamate and GABA receptors through mRNA expression changes in the brain of offspring.

Arketamine for cognitive impairment in psychiatric disorders

Cognitive impairment has been observed in patients with various psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia, major depressive disorder (MDD), and bipolar disorder (BD). Although modern therapeutic drugs can improve certain symptoms (i.e., psychosis, depression) in these patients, these drugs have not been found to improve cognitive impairment. The N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist (R,S)-ketamine has attracted attention as a rapidly acting antidepressant. In addition to its robust antidepressant effects, (R,S)-ketamine has been suggested to improve cognitive impairment in patients with MDD and BD, despite causing cognitive impairment in healthy control subjects. (R,S)-ketamine is a racemic mixture of equal amounts of (R)-ketamine (or arketamine) and (S)-ketamine (or esketamine). Arketamine has been found to have more potent antidepressant-like actions than esketamine in rodents. Interestingly, arketamine, but not esketamine, has been suggested to improve phencyclidine-induced cognitive deficits in mice. Furthermore, arketamine has been suggested to ameliorate cognitive deficits in rodent offspring after maternal immune activation. In the current article, it is proposed that arketamine has therapeutic potential for treating cognitive impairment in patients with psychiatric disorders. Additionally, the potential role of the gut-microbiome-brain axis in cognitive impairment in psychiatric disorders is discussed.

Anterior cingulate glutamate levels associate with functional activation and connectivity during sensory integration in schizophrenia: a multimodal 1H-MRS and fMRI study

BACKGROUND

Glutamatergic dysfunction has been implicated in sensory integration deficits in schizophrenia, yet how glutamatergic function contributes to behavioural impairments and neural activities of sensory integration remains unknown.

METHODS

Fifty schizophrenia patients and 43 healthy controls completed behavioural assessments for sensory integration and underwent magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) for measuring the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) glutamate levels. The correlation between glutamate levels and behavioural sensory integration deficits was examined in each group. A subsample of 20 pairs of patients and controls further completed an audiovisual sensory integration functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) task. Blood Oxygenation Level Dependent (BOLD) activation and task-dependent functional connectivity (FC) were assessed based on fMRI data. Full factorial analyses were performed to examine the Group-by-Glutamate Level interaction effects on fMRI measurements (group differences in correlation between glutamate levels and fMRI measurements) and the correlation between glutamate levels and fMRI measurements within each group.

RESULTS

We found that schizophrenia patients exhibited impaired sensory integration which was positively correlated with ACC glutamate levels. Multimodal analyses showed significantly Group-by-Glutamate Level interaction effects on BOLD activation as well as task-dependent FC in a 'cortico-subcortical-cortical' network (including medial frontal gyrus, precuneus, ACC, middle cingulate gyrus, thalamus and caudate) with positive correlations in patients and negative in controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that ACC glutamate influences neural activities in a large-scale network during sensory integration, but the effects have opposite directionality between schizophrenia patients and healthy people. This implicates the crucial role of glutamatergic system in sensory integration processing in schizophrenia.

Negative symptoms in schizophrenia: Newly emerging measurements, pathways, and treatments

The negative symptoms of schizophrenia, which often appear earlier than any other symptom, are prominent and clinically relevant in the majority of patients. As a result, interest in their treatment has increased. Patients who exhibit significant negative symptoms have worse functional outcomes than those without, resulting in impairments in occupational, household, and recreational functioning, as well as difficulties in relationships. Yet treatment with currently available medications does not lead to any significant improvements in this core component of schizophrenia. An increased understanding of the pathophysiology underlying negative symptoms and the discovery of novel treatments that do not directly target dopamine offer the potential to develop therapies that may reduce negative symptoms and increase quality of life for patients. The current article will discuss the impact of negative symptoms, outline current measurement tools for the assessment of negative symptoms, and examine how these measures may be improved. Insights into the neural circuitry underlying negative symptoms will be discussed, and promising targets for the development of effective treatments for these symptoms will be identified. As more prospective, large-scale, randomized studies focus on the effects of treatments on negative symptoms, progress in this area is foreseeable. However, improvements in clinical assessment instruments, a better understanding of the underlying neural mechanisms, development of novel treatments with varied targets, and a greater focus on personalized treatment are all important to produce significant benefits for patients with negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Using Nonhuman Primate Models to Reverse-Engineer Prefrontal Circuit Failure Underlying Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia

In this chapter, I review studies in nonhuman primates that emulate the circuit failure in prefrontal cortex responsible for working memory and cognitive control deficits in schizophrenia. These studies have characterized how synaptic malfunction, typically induced by blockade of NMDAR, disrupts neural function and computation in prefrontal networks to explain errors in cognitive tasks that are seen in schizophrenia. This work is finding causal relationships between pathogenic events of relevance to schizophrenia at vastly different levels of scale, from synapses, to neurons, local, circuits, distributed networks, computation, and behavior. Pharmacological manipulation, the dominant approach in primate models, has limited construct validity for schizophrenia pathogenesis, as the disease results from a complex interplay between environmental, developmental, and genetic factors. Genetic manipulation replicating schizophrenia risk is more advanced in rodent models. Nonetheless, gene manipulation in nonhuman primates is rapidly advancing, and primate developmental models have been established. Integration of large scale neural recording, genetic manipulation, and computational modeling in nonhuman primates holds considerable potential to provide a crucial schizophrenia model moving forward. Data generated by this approach is likely to fill several crucial gaps in our understanding of the causal sequence leading to schizophrenia in humans. This causal chain presents a vexing problem largely because it requires understanding how events at very different levels of scale relate to one another, from genes to circuits to cognition to social interactions. Nonhuman primate models excel here. They optimally enable discovery of causal relationships across levels of scale in the brain that are relevant to cognitive deficits in schizophrenia. The mechanistic understanding of prefrontal circuit failure they promise to provide may point the way to more effective therapeutic interventions to restore function to prefrontal networks in the disease.

Kynurenine pathway abnormalities are state-specific but not diagnosis-specific in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder

Schizophrenia (SCZ) and bipolar disorder (BD) are associated with immunological dysfunctions that have been hypothesized to lead to clinical symptomatology in particular through kynurenine pathway abnormalities. The aim of this study was thus to investigate the impact of serum kynurenine metabolite levels on diagnosis, clinical state, symptom severity and clinical course in a large French transdiagnostic cohort of SCZ and BD patients. Four patient groups (total n = 507) were included in a cross-sectional observational study: 1) hospitalized acute bipolar patients (n = 205); 2) stable bipolar outpatients (n = 116); 3) hospitalized acute schizophrenia patients (n = 111) and 4) stable schizophrenia outpatients (n = 75), in addition to healthy controls (HC) (n = 185). The quantitative determination of serum kynurenine metabolites was performed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Kynurenine levels were lower in all patients combined compared to HC while ANCOVA analyses did not reveal inter-diagnostic difference between SCZ and BD. Interestingly, hospitalized patients of both diagnostic groups combined displayed significantly lower kynurenine levels than stabilized outpatients. Psychotic symptoms were associated with lower quinaldic acid (F = 9.18, p=<.001), which is KAT-driven, whereas a longer duration of illness contributed to abnormalities in tryptophan (F = 5.41, p = .023), kynurenine (F = 16.93, p=<.001), xanthurenic acid (F = 9.34, p = .002), quinolinic acid (F = 9.18, p = .003) and picolinic acid (F = 4.15, p = .043), metabolized through the KMO-branch. These data confirm illness state rather than diagnosis to drive KP alterations in SCZ and BD. Lower levels of KP metabolites can thus be viewed as a transdiagnostic feature of SCZ and BD, independently associated with acute symptomatology and a longer duration of illness. Quinaldic acid has seldomly been investigated by previous studies and appears an important state marker in SCZ and BD. As serum samples are used in this study, it is not possible to extrapolate these findings to the brain.

The neurobiology of duration of untreated psychosis: a comprehensive review

Duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) is defined as the time from the onset of psychotic symptoms until the first treatment. Studies have shown that longer DUP is associated with poorer response rates to antipsychotic medications and impaired cognition, yet the neurobiologic correlates of DUP are poorly understood. Moreover, it has been hypothesized that untreated psychosis may be neurotoxic. Here, we conducted a comprehensive review of studies that have examined the neurobiology of DUP. Specifically, we included studies that evaluated DUP using a range of neurobiologic and imaging techniques and identified 83 articles that met inclusion and exclusion criteria. Overall, 27 out of the total 83 studies (32.5%) reported a significant neurobiological correlate with DUP. These results provide evidence against the notion of psychosis as structurally or functionally neurotoxic on a global scale and suggest that specific regions of the brain, such as temporal regions, may be more vulnerable to the effects of DUP. It is also possible that current methodologies lack the resolution needed to more accurately examine the effects of DUP on the brain, such as effects on synaptic density. Newer methodologies, such as MR scanners with stronger magnets, PET imaging with newer ligands capable of measuring subcellular structures (e.g., the PET ligand [11C]UCB-J) may be better able to capture these limited neuropathologic processes. Lastly, to ensure robust and replicable results, future studies of DUP should be adequately powered and specifically designed to test for the effects of DUP on localized brain structure and function with careful attention paid to potential confounds and methodological issues.

Synchronized Auditory Gamma Response to Frontal Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) and its Inter-Individual Variation in Healthy Humans

In schizophrenia, a disorder associated with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction, auditory cortical plasticity deficits have been indexed by the synchronized electroencephalographic (EEG) auditory steady-state gamma-band (40-Hz) response (ASSR) and the early auditory evoked gamma-band response (aeGBR), both considered to be target engagement biomarkers for NMDAR function, and potentially amenable to treatment by NMDAR modulators. As transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is likely dependent on NMDAR neurotransmission, this preliminary study, conducted in 30 healthy volunteers, assessed the off-line effects of prefrontal anodal tDCS and sham (placebo) treatment on 40-Hz ASSR and aeGBR. Anodal tDCS failed to alter aeGBR but increased both 40-Hz ASSR power, as measured by event-related spectral perturbations (ERSP), and phase locking, as measured by inter-trial phase consistency (ITPC). Inter-individual differences in tDCS-induced increases in ERSP were negatively related to baseline ERSPs. These findings provide tentative support for further study of tDCS as a potential NMDAR neuromodulatory intervention for synchronized auditory gamma response deficits.

Computational modeling of excitatory/inhibitory balance impairments in schizophrenia

Deficits in glutamatergic function are well established in schizophrenia (SZ) as reflected in "input" dysfunction across sensory systems. By contrast, less is known about contributions of the GABAergic system to impairments in excitatory/inhibitory balance. We investigated this issue by measuring contrast thresholds for orientation detection, orientation discriminability, and orientation-tilt-aftereffect curves in schizophrenia subjects and matched controls. These measures depend on the amplitude and width of underlying orientation tuning curves, which, in turn, depend on excitatory and inhibitory interactions. By simulating a well-established V1 orientation selectivity model and its link to perception, we demonstrate that reduced cortical excitation and inhibition are both necessary to explain our psychophysical data. Reductions in GABAergic feedback may represent a compensatory response to impaired glutamatergic input in SZ, or a separate pathophysiological event. We also found evidence for the widely accepted, but rarely tested, inverse relationship between orientation discriminability and tuning width.

Relevance of interactions between dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission in schizophrenia

Dopamine (DA) and glutamate neurotransmission are strongly implicated in schizophrenia pathophysiology. While most studies focus on contributions of neurons that release only DA or glutamate, neither DA nor glutamate models alone recapitulate the full spectrum of schizophrenia pathophysiology. Similarly, therapeutic strategies limited to either system cannot effectively treat all three major symptom domains of schizophrenia: positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms. Increasing evidence suggests extensive interactions between the DA and glutamate systems and more effective treatments may therefore require the targeting of both DA and glutamate signaling. This offers the possibility that disrupting DA-glutamate circuitry between these two systems, particularly in the striatum and forebrain, culminate in schizophrenia pathophysiology. Yet, the mechanisms behind these interactions and their contributions to schizophrenia remain unclear. In addition to circuit- or system-level interactions between neurons that solely release either DA or glutamate, here we posit that functional alterations involving a subpopulation of neurons that co-release both DA and glutamate provide a novel point of integration between DA and glutamate systems, offering a key missing link in our understanding of schizophrenia pathophysiology. Better understanding of mechanisms underlying DA/glutamate co-release from these neurons may therefore shed new light on schizophrenia pathophysiology and lead to more effective therapeutics.

Treatments for Social Interaction Impairment in Animal Models of Schizophrenia: A Critical Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

While pharmacological treatments for positive symptoms of schizophrenia are widely used, their beneficial effect on negative symptoms, particularly social impairment, is insufficiently studied. Therefore, there is an increasing interest in preclinical research of potentially beneficial treatments, with mixed results. The current review aims to evaluate the efficacy of available treatments for social deficits in different animal models of schizophrenia.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic literature search generated 145 outcomes for the measures "total time" and "number" of social interactions. Standardized mean differences (SMD) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated, and heterogeneity was tested using Q statistics in a random-effect meta-analytic model. Given the vast heterogeneity in effect sizes, the animal model, treatment group, and sample size were all examined as potential moderators.

STUDY RESULTS

The results showed that in almost all models, treatment significantly improved social deficit (total time: SMD = 1.24; number: SMD = 1.1). The moderator analyses discovered significant subgroup differences across models and treatment subgroups. Perinatal and adult pharmacological models showed the most substantial influence of treatments on social deficits, reflecting relative pharmacological validity. Furthermore, atypical antipsychotic drugs had the highest SMD within each model subgroup.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that the improvement in social interaction behaviors is dependent on the animal model and treatment family used. Implications for the preclinical and clinical fields are discussed.

Mismatch Negativity in Response to Auditory Deviance and Risk for Future Psychosis in Youth at Clinical High Risk for Psychosis

Importance

Although clinical criteria for identifying youth at risk for psychosis have been validated, they are not sufficiently accurate for predicting outcomes to inform major treatment decisions. The identification of biomarkers may improve outcome prediction among individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR-P).

Objective

To examine whether mismatch negativity (MMN) event-related potential amplitude, which is deficient in schizophrenia, is reduced in young people with the CHR-P syndrome and associated with outcomes, accounting for effects of antipsychotic medication use.

Design, Setting, and Participants

MMN data were collected as part of the multisite case-control North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study (NAPLS-2) from 8 university-based outpatient research programs. Baseline MMN data were collected from June 2009 through April 2013. Clinical outcomes were assessed throughout 24 months. Participants were individuals with the CHR-P syndrome and healthy controls with MMN data. Participants with the CHR-P syndrome who developed psychosis (ie, converters) were compared with those who did not develop psychosis (ie, nonconverters) who were followed up for 24 months. Analysis took place between December 2019 and December 2021.

Main Outcomes and Measures

Electroencephalography was recorded during a passive auditory oddball paradigm. MMN elicited by duration-, pitch-, and duration + pitch double-deviant tones was measured.

Results

The CHR-P group (n = 580; mean [SD] age, 19.24 [4.39] years) included 247 female individuals (42.6%) and the healthy control group (n = 241; mean age, 20.33 [4.74] years) included 114 female individuals (47.3%). In the CHR-P group, 450 (77.6%) were not taking antipsychotic medication at baseline. Baseline MMN amplitudes, irrespective of deviant type, were deficient in future CHR-P converters to psychosis (n = 77, unmedicated n = 54) compared with nonconverters (n = 238, unmedicated n = 190) in both the full sample (d = 0.27) and the unmedicated subsample (d = 0.33). In the full sample, baseline medication status interacted with group and deviant type indicating that double-deviant MMN, compared with single deviants, was reduced in unmedicated converters compared with nonconverters (d = 0.43). Further, within the unmedicated subsample, deficits in double-deviant MMN were most strongly associated with earlier conversion to psychosis (hazard ratio, 1.40 [95% CI, 1.03-1.90]; P = .03], which persisted over and above positive symptom severity.

Conclusions and Relevance

This study found that MMN amplitude deficits were sensitive to future psychosis conversion among individuals at risk of CHR-P, particularly those not taking antipsychotic medication at baseline, although associations were modest. While MMN shows limited promise as a biomarker of psychosis onset on its own, it may contribute novel risk information to multivariate prediction algorithms and serve as a translational neurophysiological target for novel treatment development in a subgroup of at-risk individuals.

Increased Belief Instability in Psychotic Disorders Predicts Treatment Response to Metacognitive Training

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

In a complex world, gathering information and adjusting our beliefs about the world is of paramount importance. The literature suggests that patients with psychotic disorders display a tendency to draw early conclusions based on limited evidence, referred to as the jumping-to-conclusions bias, but few studies have examined the computational mechanisms underlying this and related belief-updating biases. Here, we employ a computational approach to understand the relationship between jumping-to-conclusions, psychotic disorders, and delusions.

STUDY DESIGN

We modeled probabilistic reasoning of 261 patients with psychotic disorders and 56 healthy controls during an information sampling task-the fish task-with the Hierarchical Gaussian Filter. Subsequently, we examined the clinical utility of this computational approach by testing whether computational parameters, obtained from fitting the model to each individual's behavior, could predict treatment response to Metacognitive Training using machine learning.

STUDY RESULTS

We observed differences in probabilistic reasoning between patients with psychotic disorders and healthy controls, participants with and without jumping-to-conclusions bias, but not between patients with low and high current delusions. The computational analysis suggested that belief instability was increased in patients with psychotic disorders. Jumping-to-conclusions was associated with both increased belief instability and greater prior uncertainty. Lastly, belief instability predicted treatment response to Metacognitive Training at the individual level.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results point towards increased belief instability as a key computational mechanism underlying probabilistic reasoning in psychotic disorders. We provide a proof-of-concept that this computational approach may be useful to help identify suitable treatments for individual patients with psychotic disorders.

Validation of ketamine as a pharmacological model of thalamic dysconnectivity across the illness course of schizophrenia

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction is a leading pathophysiological model of schizophrenia. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI) studies demonstrate a thalamic dysconnectivity pattern in schizophrenia involving excessive connectivity with sensory regions and deficient connectivity with frontal, cerebellar, and thalamic regions. The NMDAR antagonist ketamine, when administered at sub-anesthetic doses to healthy volunteers, induces transient schizophrenia-like symptoms and alters rsfMRI thalamic connectivity. However, the extent to which ketamine-induced thalamic dysconnectivity resembles schizophrenia thalamic dysconnectivity has not been directly tested. The current double-blind, placebo-controlled study derived an NMDAR hypofunction model of thalamic dysconnectivity from healthy volunteers undergoing ketamine infusions during rsfMRI. To assess whether ketamine-induced thalamic dysconnectivity was mediated by excess glutamate release, we tested whether pre-treatment with lamotrigine, a glutamate release inhibitor, attenuated ketamine's effects. Ketamine produced robust thalamo-cortical hyper-connectivity with sensory and motor regions that was not reduced by lamotrigine pre-treatment. To test whether the ketamine thalamic dysconnectivity pattern resembled the schizophrenia pattern, a whole-brain template representing ketamine's thalamic dysconnectivity effect was correlated with individual participant rsfMRI thalamic dysconnectivity maps, generating "ketamine similarity coefficients" for people with chronic (SZ) and early illness (ESZ) schizophrenia, individuals at clinical high-risk for psychosis (CHR-P), and healthy controls (HC). Similarity coefficients were higher in SZ and ESZ than in HC, with CHR-P showing an intermediate trend. Higher ketamine similarity coefficients correlated with greater hallucination severity in SZ. Thus, NMDAR hypofunction, modeled with ketamine, reproduces the thalamic hyper-connectivity observed in schizophrenia across its illness course, including the CHR-P period preceding psychosis onset, and may contribute to hallucination severity.

Parsing neural circuits of fear learning and extinction across basic and clinical neuroscience: Towards better translation

Over the past decades, studies of fear learning and extinction have advanced our understanding of the neurobiology of threat and safety learning. Animal studies can provide mechanistic/causal insights into human brain regions and their functional connectivity involved in fear learning and extinction. Findings in humans, conversely, may further enrich our understanding of neural circuits in animals by providing macroscopic insights at the level of brain-wide networks. Nevertheless, there is still much room for improvement in translation between basic and clinical research on fear learning and extinction. Through the lens of neural circuits, in this article, we aim to review the current knowledge of fear learning and extinction in both animals and humans, and to propose strategies to fill in the current knowledge gap for the purpose of enhancing clinical benefits.

Machine Learning algorithm unveils glutamatergic alterations in the post-mortem schizophrenia brain

Schizophrenia is a disorder of synaptic plasticity and aberrant connectivity in which a major dysfunction in glutamate synapse has been suggested. However, a multi-level approach tackling diverse clusters of interacting molecules of the glutamate signaling in schizophrenia is still lacking. We investigated in the post-mortem dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and hippocampus of schizophrenia patients and non-psychiatric controls, the levels of neuroactive d- and l-amino acids (l-glutamate, d-serine, glycine, l-aspartate, d-aspartate) by HPLC. Moreover, by quantitative RT-PCR and western blotting we analyzed, respectively, the mRNA and protein levels of pre- and post-synaptic key molecules involved in the glutamatergic synapse functioning, including glutamate receptors (NMDA, AMPA, metabotropic), their interacting scaffolding proteins (PSD-95, Homer1b/c), plasma membrane and vesicular glutamate transporters (EAAT1, EAAT2, VGluT1, VGluT2), enzymes involved either in glutamate-dependent GABA neurotransmitter synthesis (GAD65 and 67), or in post-synaptic NMDA receptor-mediated signaling (CAMKIIα) and the pre-synaptic marker Synapsin-1. Univariable analyses revealed that none of the investigated molecules was differently represented in the post-mortem DLPFC and hippocampus of schizophrenia patients, compared with controls. Nonetheless, multivariable hypothesis-driven analyses revealed that the presence of schizophrenia was significantly affected by variations in neuroactive amino acid levels and glutamate-related synaptic elements. Furthermore, a Machine Learning hypothesis-free unveiled other discriminative clusters of molecules, one in the DLPFC and another in the hippocampus. Overall, while confirming a key role of glutamatergic synapse in the molecular pathophysiology of schizophrenia, we reported molecular signatures encompassing elements of the glutamate synapse able to discriminate patients with schizophrenia and normal individuals.

Efficacy and safety of add-on sodium benzoate, a D-amino acid oxidase inhibitor, in treatment of schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

The role of sodium benzoate, an NMDA receptor enhancer, in schizophrenia has been evaluated in a few clinical trials, but results are contradictory and inconclusive. The present meta-analysis has evaluated the efficacy and safety of add-on sodium benzoate for the treatment of schizophrenia.

METHODS

After performing a literature search on MEDLINE/PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane databases and International Clinical Trial Registry Platform, reviewers assessed eligibility and extracted data from four relevant articles. PRISMA guidelines were followed in the selection, analysis, and reporting of findings. The random-effect model was used to estimate effect size. Quality assessment was done using the risk of bias assessment tool, and sensitivity analysis was done in case of high heterogeneity.

RESULTS

Add-on sodium benzoate can improve positive symptoms of schizophrenia significantly (MD: -1.87; 95%CI: -3.25 to -0.48; p = 0.008) but had no significant favourable effect on negative symptoms (p = 0.84), general psychopathology (p = 0.49), and total PANSS score (p = 0.19) over the control. There was no significant improvement in GAF (p = 0.43), CGI (p = 0.58), cognitive function (p = 0.46) and quality of life (p = 0.73). Extrapyramidal symptoms were significantly higher (MD: 0.39; 95% CI:0.19-0.60; p = 0.0002) in the sodium benzoate group in comparison to the control group; however, there was no significant difference in respect to other adverse events.

CONCLUSION

Sodium benzoate can improve the positive symptoms of schizophrenia without any beneficial effect on other symptomatology, cognition, quality of life and functioning. Further studies are needed to evaluate long-term efficacy, safety and use in specific subgroups of patients.

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, characterised by psychotic symptoms and in many cases social and occupational decline, remains an aetiological and therapeutic challenge. Contrary to popular belief, the disorder is modestly more common in men than in women. Nor is the outcome uniformly poor. A division of symptoms into positive, negative, and disorganisation syndromes is supported by factor analysis. Catatonic symptoms are not specific to schizophrenia and so-called first rank symptoms are no longer considered diagnostically important. Cognitive impairment is now recognised as a further clinical feature of the disorder. Lateral ventricular enlargement and brain volume reductions of around 2% are established findings. Brain functional changes occur in different subregions of the frontal cortex and might ultimately be understandable in terms of disturbed interaction among large-scale brain networks. Neurochemical disturbance, involving dopamine function and glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor function, is supported by indirect and direct evidence. The genetic contribution to schizophrenia is now recognised to be largely polygenic. Birth and early life factors also have an important aetiological role. The mainstay of treatment remains dopamine receptor-blocking drugs; a psychological intervention, cognitive behavioural therapy, has relatively small effects on symptoms. The idea that schizophrenia is better regarded as the extreme end of a continuum of psychotic symptoms is currently influential. Other areas of debate include cannabis and childhood adversity as causative factors, whether there is progressive brain change after onset, and the long-term success of early intervention initiatives.

Implication of Electrophysiological Biomarkers in Psychosis: Focusing on Diagnosis and Treatment Response

Precision medicine has been considered a promising approach to diagnosis, treatment, and various interventions, considering the individual clinical and biological characteristics. Recent advances in biomarker development hold promise for guiding a new era of precision medicine style trials for psychiatric illnesses, including psychosis. Electroencephalography (EEG) can directly measure the full spatiotemporal dynamics of neural activation associated with a wide variety of cognitive processes. This manuscript reviews three aspects: prediction of diagnosis, prognostic aspects of disease progression and outcome, and prediction of treatment response that might be helpful in understanding the current status of electrophysiological biomarkers in precision medicine for patients with psychosis. Although previous EEG analysis could not be a powerful method for the diagnosis of psychiatric illness, recent methodological advances have shown the possibility of classifying and detecting mental illness. Some event-related potentials, such as mismatch negativity, have been associated with neurocognition, functioning, and illness progression in schizophrenia. Resting state studies, sophisticated ERP measures, and machine-learning approaches could make technical progress and provide important knowledge regarding neurophysiology, disease progression, and treatment response in patients with schizophrenia. Identifying potential biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment response in schizophrenia is the first step towards precision medicine.

Cerebellar stimulation in schizophrenia: A systematic review of the evidence and an overview of the methods

BACKGROUND

Cerebellar structural and functional abnormalities underlie widespread deficits in clinical, cognitive, and motor functioning that are observed in schizophrenia. Consequently, the cerebellum is a promising target for novel schizophrenia treatments. Here we conducted an updated systematic review examining the literature on cerebellar stimulation efficacy and tolerability for mitigating symptoms of schizophrenia. We discuss the purported mechanisms of cerebellar stimulation, current methods for implementing stimulation, and future directions of cerebellar stimulation for intervention development with this population.

METHODS

Two independent authors identified 20 published studies (7 randomized controlled trials, 7 open-label studies, 1 pilot study, 4 case reports, 1 preclinical study) that describe the effects of cerebellar circuitry modulation in patients with schizophrenia or animal models of psychosis. Published studies up to October 11, 2022 were identified from a search within PubMed, Scopus, and PsycInfo.

RESULTS

Most studies stimulating the cerebellum used transcranial magnetic stimulation or transcranial direct-current stimulation, specifically targeting the cerebellar vermis/midline. Accounting for levels of methodological rigor across studies, these studies detected post-cerebellar modulation in schizophrenia as indicated by the alleviation of certain clinical symptoms (mainly negative and depressive symptoms), as well as increased frontal-cerebellar connectivity and augmentation of canonical neuro-oscillations known to be abnormal in schizophrenia. In contrast to a prior review, we did not find consistent evidence for cognitive improvements following cerebellar modulation stimulation. Modern cerebellar stimulation methods appear tolerable for individuals with schizophrenia, with only mild and temporary side effects.

CONCLUSION

Cerebellar stimulation is a promising intervention for individuals with schizophrenia that may be more relevant to some symptom domains than others. Initial results highlight the need for continued research using more methodologically rigorous designs, such as additional longitudinal and randomized controlled trials.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

[https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/], identifier [CRD42022346667].

White matter abnormalities and multivariate pattern analysis in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate white matter (WM) microstructural alterations and their relationship correlation with disease severity in anti-NMDA receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis. Multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) was applied to discriminate between patients and healthy controls and explore potential imaging biomarkers.

METHODS

Thirty-two patients with anti-NMDAR encephalitis and 26 matched healthy controls underwent diffusion tensor imaging. Tract-based spatial statistics and atlas-based analysis were used to determine WM microstructural alterations between the two groups. MVPA, based on a machine-learning algorithm, was applied to classify patients and healthy controls.

RESULTS

Patients exhibited significantly reduced fractional anisotropy in the corpus callosum, fornix, cingulum, anterior limb of the internal capsule, and corona radiata. Moreover, mean diffusivity was increased in the anterior corona radiata and body of the corpus callosum. On the other hand, radial diffusivity was increased in the anterior limb of the internal capsule, cingulum, corpus callosum, corona radiata, and fornix. WM changes in the cingulum, fornix, and retrolenticular part of the internal capsule were correlated with disease severity. The accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of fractional anisotropy-based classification were each 78.33%, while they were 67.71, 65.83, and 70% for radial diffusivity.

CONCLUSION

Widespread WM lesions were detected in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. The correlation between WM abnormalities and disease severity suggests that these alterations may serve a key role in the pathophysiological mechanisms of anti-NMDAR encephalitis. The combination of tract-based spatial statistics and MVPA may provide more specific and complementary information at the group and individual levels.

Kynurenine pathway metabolites are associated with gray matter volume in subjects with schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

There has been growing evidence of the existence of abnormalities in the kynurenine pathway (KP) and structural gray matter volume (GMV) in schizophrenia (SCZ). Numerous studies have suggested that abnormal kynurenine metabolism (KM) in the brain is clearly associated with the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and may be one of the pathological mechanisms of SCZ. In this pilot study, we investigated whether there was a correlation between KP and GMV in schizophrenia patients.

METHODS

The plasma levels of KM were measured in 41 patients who met the Structured Clinical Interview of the Diagnostic IV criteria for schizophrenia and 60 healthy controls by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and cortical thickness (as measured via magnetic resonance imaging) was obtained.

RESULTS

Our study showed no statistically significant differences in the concentrations of kynurenine (KYN), tryptophan (TRP), and KYNA/TRP (all p > 0.05), but kynurenic acid (KYNA) and the KYNA/KYN ratio were significantly higher in the schizophrenia subjects than in the healthy controls (F = 4.750, p = 0.032; F = 6.153, p = 0.015, respectively) after controlling for age and sex. Spearman's tests showed that KYN concentrations in SCZ patients were negatively correlated with GMV in the left front cingulate belt (r = -0.325, p = 0.046) and that KYN/TRP was negatively correlated with GMV in the left island (r = -0.396, p = 0.014) and right island (r = -0.385, p = 0.017).

CONCLUSION

Our findings appear to provide new insights into the predisposition of an imbalance in the relative metabolism of KYN/TRP and KYN to GMV in schizophrenia.

Tryptophan Metabolism in Central Nervous System Diseases: Pathophysiology and Potential Therapeutic Strategies

The metabolism of L-tryptophan (TRP) regulates homeostasis, immunity, and neuronal function. Altered TRP metabolism has been implicated in the pathophysiology of various diseases of the central nervous system. TRP is metabolized through two main pathways, the kynurenine pathway and the methoxyindole pathway. First, TRP is metabolized to kynurenine, then kynurenic acid, quinolinic acid, anthranilic acid, 3-hydroxykynurenine, and finally 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid along the kynurenine pathway. Second, TRP is metabolized to serotonin and melatonin along the methoxyindole pathway. In this review, we summarize the biological properties of key metabolites and their pathogenic functions in 12 disorders of the central nervous system: schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, spinal cord injury, traumatic brain injury, ischemic stroke, intracerebral hemorrhage, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and Huntington's disease. Furthermore, we summarize preclinical and clinical studies, mainly since 2015, that investigated the metabolic pathway of TRP, focusing on changes in biomarkers of these neurologic disorders, their pathogenic implications, and potential therapeutic strategies targeting this metabolic pathway. This critical, comprehensive, and up-to-date review helps identify promising directions for future preclinical, clinical, and translational research on neuropsychiatric disorders.

New concepts in the development of schizophrenia, autism spectrum disorders, and degenerative brain diseases based on chronic inflammation: A working hypothesis from continued advances in neuroscience research

This paper was written prompted by a poignant film about adolescent girl with schizophrenia who babysits for a younger girl in an isolated cabin. Schizophrenia is an illness that both authors are fascinated with and that they continue to study and investigate. There is now compelling evidence that schizophrenia is a very complex syndrome that involves numerous neural pathways in the brain, far more than just dopaminergic and serotonergic systems. One of the more popular theories in recent literature is that it represents a hypo glutaminergic deficiency of certain pathways, including thalamic ones. After much review of research and study in this area, we have concluded that most such theories contain a number of shortcomings. Most are based on clinical responses to certain drugs, particularly antipsychotic drugs affecting the dopaminergic neurotransmitters; thus, assuming dopamine release was the central cause of the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia. The theory was limited in that dopamine excess could only explain the positive symptoms of the disorder. Antipsychotic medications have minimal effectiveness for the negative and cognitive symptoms associated with schizophrenia. It has been estimated that 20–30% of patients show either a partial or no response to antipsychotic medications. In addition, the dopamine hypothesis does not explain the neuroanatomic findings in schizophrenia.

Involvement of anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and BDNF up-regulating properties in the antipsychotic-like effect of the essential oil of Alpinia zerumbet in mice: a comparative study with olanzapine

The current drug therapy for schizophrenia effectively treats acute psychosis and its recurrence; however, this mental disorder's cognitive and negative symptoms are still poorly controlled. Antipsychotics present important side effects, such as weight gain and extrapyramidal effects. The essential oil of Alpinia zerumbet (EOAZ) leaves presents potential antipsychotic properties that need further preclinical investigation. Here, we determined EAOZ effects in preventing and reversing schizophrenia-like symptoms (positive, negative, and cognitive) induced by ketamine (KET) repeated administration in mice and putative neurobiological mechanisms related to this effect. We conducted the behavioral evaluations of prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex (PPI), social interaction, and working memory (Y-maze task), and verified antioxidant (GSH, nitrite levels), anti-inflammatory [interleukin (IL)-6], and neurotrophic [brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)] effects of this oil in hippocampal tissue. The atypical antipsychotic olanzapine (OLZ) was used as standard drug therapy. EOAZ, similarly to OLZ, prevented and reversed most KET-induced schizophrenia-like behavioral alterations, i.e., sensorimotor gating deficits and social impairment. EOAZ had a modest effect on the prevention of KET-associated working memory deficit. Compared to OLZ, EOAZ showed a more favorable side effects profile, inducing less cataleptic and weight gain changes. EOAZ efficiently protected the hippocampus against KET-induced oxidative imbalance, IL-6 increments, and BDNF impairment. In conclusion, our data add more mechanistic evidence for the anti-schizophrenia effects of EOAZ, based on its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and BDNF up-regulating actions. The absence of significant side effects observed in current antipsychotic drug therapy seems to be an essential benefit of the oil.

Recreational ketamine-related deaths notified to the National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths, England, 1997-2019

BACKGROUND

Ketamine is a phencyclidine derivative with dissociative anaesthetic properties. Increasing numbers of individuals in England take ketamine recreationally. Information on deaths arising from such use in England is presented.

METHODS

Cases were extracted on 31 January 2020 from the National Programme on Substance Abuse Deaths database, based on text searches of the cause of death, coroner's verdict and positive toxicology results for the terms 'ketamine' or 'norketamine'.

FINDINGS

During 1997-2005, there were <5 deaths p.a. in which ketamine was implicated. Numbers increased until 2009 (21), plateauing until 2016; thereafter, deaths have risen to about 30 p.a. Decedents' characteristics (N = 283): male 84.1%, mean age 31.2 (SD 10.0) years, employed 56.5%, drug use history 79.6% and living with others 60.3%. Ketamine was detected with other substances in most cases. Main (74.6%) underlying cause of death was accidental poisoning. Ketamine may have impaired judgement in other cases.

CONCLUSIONS

Although controlled, recreational ketamine use and related fatalities continue to increase. Consumers need to be more aware of the potentially fatal risks they face.

N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonism modulates P300 event-related potentials and associated activity in salience and central executive networks

Impairments in auditory information processing in schizophrenia as indexed electrophysiologically by P300 deficits during novelty (P3a) and target (P3b) processing are linked to N -methyl- D -aspartate receptor (NMDAR) dysfunction. This study in 14 healthy volunteers examined the effects of a subanesthetic dose of the NMDAR antagonist ketamine on P300 and their relationship to psychomimetic symptoms and cortical source activity (with eLORETA). Ketamine reduced early (e- P3a) and late (l-P3a) novelty P300 at sensor (scalp)-level and at source-level in the salience network. Increases in dissociation symptoms were negatively correlated with ketamine-induced P3b changes, at sensor-level and source-level, in both salience and central executive networks. These P3a alterations during novelty processing, and the symptom-related P3b changes during target processing support a model of NMDAR hypofunction underlying disrupted auditory attention in schizophrenia.

Machine-learning-based diagnosis of drug-naive adult patients with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder using mismatch negativity

Relatively little is investigated regarding the neurophysiology of adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Mismatch negativity (MMN) is an event-related potential component representing pre-attentive auditory processing, which is closely associated with cognitive status. We investigated MMN features as biomarkers to classify drug-naive adult patients with ADHD and healthy controls (HCs). Sensor-level features (amplitude and latency) and source-level features (source activation) of MMN were investigated and compared between the electroencephalograms of 34 patients with ADHD and 45 HCs using a passive auditory oddball paradigm. Correlations between MMN features and ADHD symptoms were analyzed. Finally, we applied machine learning to differentiate the two groups using sensor- and source-level features of MMN. Adult patients with ADHD showed significantly lower MMN amplitudes at the frontocentral electrodes and reduced MMN source activation in the frontal, temporal, and limbic lobes, which were closely associated with MMN generators and ADHD pathophysiology. Source activities were significantly correlated with ADHD symptoms. The best classification performance for adult ADHD patients and HCs showed an 81.01% accuracy, 82.35% sensitivity, and 80.00% specificity based on MMN source activity features. Our results suggest that abnormal MMN reflects the adult ADHD patients' pathophysiological characteristics and might serve clinically as a neuromarker of adult ADHD.

Kynurenine pathway in post-mortem prefrontal cortex and cerebellum in schizophrenia: relationship with monoamines and symptomatology

BACKGROUND

The cortico-cerebellar-thalamic-cortical circuit has been implicated in the emergence of psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia (SZ). The kynurenine pathway (KP) has been linked to alterations in glutamatergic and monoaminergic neurotransmission and to SZ symptomatology through the production of the metabolites quinolinic acid (QA) and kynurenic acid (KYNA).

METHODS

This work describes alterations in KP in the post-mortem prefrontal cortex (PFC) and cerebellum (CB) of 15 chronic SZ patients and 14 control subjects in PFC and 13 control subjects in CB using immunoblot for protein levels and ELISA for interleukins and QA and KYNA determinations. Monoamine metabolites were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography and SZ symptomatology was assessed by Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS). The association of KP with inflammatory mediators, monoamine metabolism and SZ symptomatology was explored.

RESULTS

In the PFC, the presence of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 together with IDO2 and KATII enzymes decreased in SZ, while TDO and KMO enzyme expression increased. A network interaction analysis showed that in the PFC IL-10 was coupled to the QA branch of the kynurenine pathway (TDO-KMO-QA), whereas IL-10 associated with KMO in CB. KYNA in the CB inversely correlated with negative and general PANSS psychopathology. Although there were no changes in monoamine metabolite content in the PFC in SZ, a network interaction analysis showed associations between dopamine and methoxyhydroxyphenylglycol degradation metabolite. Direct correlations were found between general PANSS psychopathology and the serotonin degradation metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid. Interestingly, KYNA in the CB inversely correlated with 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid in the PFC.

CONCLUSIONS

Thus, this work found alterations in KP in two brain areas belonging to the cortico-cerebellar-thalamic-cortical circuit associated with SZ symptomatology, with a possible impact across areas in 5-HT degradation.

Atypical Integration of Sensory-to-Transmodal Functional Systems Mediates Symptom Severity in Autism

A notable characteristic of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is co-occurring deficits in low-level sensory processing and high-order social interaction. While there is evidence indicating detrimental cascading effects of sensory anomalies on the high-order cognitive functions in ASD, the exact pathological mechanism underlying their atypical functional interaction across the cortical hierarchy has not been systematically investigated. To address this gap, here we assessed the functional organisation of sensory and motor areas in ASD, and their relationship with subcortical and high-order trandmodal systems. In a resting-state fMRI data of 107 ASD and 113 neurotypical individuals, we applied advanced connectopic mapping to probe functional organization of primary sensory/motor areas, together with targeted seed-based intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) analyses. In ASD, the connectopic mapping revealed topological anomalies (i.e., excessively more segregated iFC) in the motor and visual areas, the former of which patterns showed association with the symptom severity of restricted and repetitive behaviors. Moreover, the seed-based analysis found diverging patterns of ASD-related connectopathies: decreased iFCs within the sensory/motor areas but increased iFCs between sensory and subcortical structures. While decreased iFCs were also found within the higher-order functional systems, the overall proportion of this anomaly tends to increase along the level of cortical hierarchy, suggesting more dysconnectivity in the higher-order functional networks. Finally, we demonstrated that the association between low-level sensory/motor iFCs and clinical symptoms in ASD was mediated by the high-order transmodal systems, suggesting pathogenic functional interactions along the cortical hierarchy. Findings were largely replicated in the independent dataset. These results highlight that atypical integration of sensory-to-high-order systems contributes to the complex ASD symptomatology.

Recent Advances and Future Directions in Brain MR Imaging Studies in Schizophrenia: Toward Elucidating Brain Pathology and Developing Clinical Tools

Schizophrenia is a common severe psychiatric disorder that affects approximately 1% of general population through the life course. Historically, in Kraepelin's time, schizophrenia was a disease unit conceptualized as dementia praecox; however, since then, the disease concept has changed. Recent MRI studies had shown that the neuropathology of the brain in this disorder was characterized by mild progression before and after the onset of the disease, and that the brain alterations were relatively smaller than assumed. Although genetic factors contribute to the brain alterations in schizophrenia, which are thought to be trait differences, other changes include factors that are common in psychiatric diseases. Furthermore, it has been shown that the brain differences specific to schizophrenia were relatively small compared to other changes, such as those caused by brain development, aging, and gender. In addition, compared to the disease and participant factors, machine and imaging protocol differences could affect MRI signals, which should be addressed in multi-site studies. Recent advances in MRI modalities, such as multi-shell diffusion-weighted imaging, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and multimodal brain imaging analysis, may be candidates to sharpen the characterization of schizophrenia-specific factors and provide new insights. The Brain/MINDS Beyond Human Brain MRI (BMB-HBM) project has been launched considering the differences and noises irrespective of the disease pathologies and includes the future perspectives of MRI studies for various psychiatric and neurological disorders. The sites use restricted MRI machines and harmonized multi-modal protocols, standardized image preprocessing, and traveling subject harmonization. Data sharing to the public will be planned in FY 2024. In the future, we believe that combining a high-quality human MRI dataset with genetic data, randomized controlled trials, and MRI for non-human primates and animal models will enable us to understand schizophrenia, elucidate its neural bases and therapeutic targets, and provide tools for clinical application at bedside.

Pharmacologic Similarities and Differences Among Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens constitute a unique class of substances that cause changes in the user's thoughts, perceptions, and mood through various mechanisms of action. Although the serotonergic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, and N,N-dimethyltryptamine have been termed the classical hallucinogens, many hallucinogens elicit their actions through other mechanisms such as N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonism, opioid receptor agonism, or inhibition of the reuptake of monoamines including serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. The aim of this article is to compare the pharmacologic similarities and differences among substances within the hallucinogen class and their impact on physical and psychiatric effects. Potential toxicities, including life-threatening and long-term effects, will be reviewed.

NMDARs Containing NR2B Subunit Do Not Contribute to the LTP Form of Hippocampal Plasticity: In Vivo Pharmacological Evidence in Rats

Synaptic plasticity is the key to synaptic health, and aberrant synaptic plasticity, which in turn impairs the functioning of large-scale brain networks, has been associated with neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders. The best known and most studied form of activity-dependent synaptic plasticity remains long-term potentiation (LTP), which is controlled by glutamatergic N-methyl-d-aspartate) receptors (NMDAR) and considered to be a mechanism crucial for cellular learning and memory. Over the past two decades, discrepancies have arisen in the literature regarding the contribution of NMDAR subunit assemblies in the direction of NMDAR-dependent synaptic plasticity. Here, the nonspecific NMDAR antagonist ketamine (5 and 10 mg/kg), and the selective NR2B antagonists CP-101606 and Ro 25-6981 (6 and 10 mg/kg), were administered intraperitoneally in Sprague Dawley rats to disentangle the contribution of NR2B subunit in the LTP induced at the Schaffer Collateral-CA1 synapse using the theta burst stimulation protocol (TBS). Ketamine reduced, while CP-101606 and Ro 25-6981 did not alter the LTP response. The administration of CP-101606 before TBS did not influence the effects of ketamine when administered half an hour after tetanization, suggesting a limited contribution of the NR2B subunit in the action of ketamine. This work confirms the role of NMDAR in the LTP form of synaptic plasticity, whereas specific blockade of the NR2B subunit was not sufficient to modify hippocampal LTP. Pharmacokinetics at the doses used may have contributed to the lack of effects with specific antagonists. The findings refute the role of the NR2B subunit in the plasticity mechanism of ketamine in the model.

Unveiling a key role of oxaloacetate-glutamate interaction in regulation of respiration and ROS generation in nonsynaptic brain mitochondria using a kinetic model

Glutamate plays diverse roles in neuronal cells, affecting cell energetics and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. These roles are especially vital for neuronal cells, which deal with high amounts of glutamate as a neurotransmitter. Our analysis explored neuronal glutamate implication in cellular energy metabolism and ROS generation, using a kinetic model that simulates electron transport details in respiratory complexes, linked ROS generation and metabolic reactions. The analysis focused on the fact that glutamate attenuates complex II inhibition by oxaloacetate, stimulating the latter's transformation into aspartate. Such a mechanism of complex II activation by glutamate could cause almost complete reduction of ubiquinone and deficiency of oxidized form (Q), which closes the main stream of electron transport and opens a way to massive ROS generating transfer in complex III from semiquinone radicals to molecular oxygen. In this way, under low workload, glutamate triggers the respiratory chain (RC) into a different steady state characterized by high ROS generation rate. The observed stepwise dependence of ROS generation on glutamate concentration experimentally validated this prediction. However, glutamate's attenuation of oxaloacetate's inhibition accelerates electron transport under high workload. Glutamate-oxaloacetate interaction in complex II regulation underlies the observed effects of uncouplers and inhibitors and acceleration of Ca2+ uptake. Thus, this theoretical analysis uncovered the previously unknown roles of oxaloacetate as a regulator of ROS generation and glutamate as a modifier of this regulation. The model predicted that this mechanism of complex II activation by glutamate might be operative in situ and responsible for excitotoxicity. Spatial-time gradients of synthesized hydrogen peroxide concentration, calculated in the reaction-diffusion model with convection under a non-uniform local approximation of nervous tissue, have shown that overproduction of H2O2 in a cell causes excess of its level in neighbor cells.

Glutamate and functional connectivity - support for the excitatory-inhibitory imbalance hypothesis in autism spectrum disorders

It has been proposed that the Glutamate (Glu) system is implicated in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) via an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory brain circuits, which impacts on brain function. Here, we investigated the excitatory-inhibitory imbalance theory by measuring Glu-concentrations and the relationship with resting-state function. Nineteen adult males with ASD and 19 age and sex-matched healthy controls (HC) (23 - 58 years) underwent Proton Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) and resting-state functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI). Glu and Glx concentrations were compared between groups. Seed-based functional connectivity was analyzed with a priori seeds of the right and left dACC. Finally, metabolite concentrations were related to functional connectivity coefficients and compared between both groups. Individuals with ASD showed significantly negative associations between increased Glx concentrations and reduced functional connectivity between the dACC and insular, limbic and parietal regions. In contrast, HC displayed a positive relationship between the same metabolite and connectivity measures. We provided new evidence to support the excitatory-inhibitory imbalance theory, where excitatory Glx concentrations were related to functional dysconnectivity in ASD. Future research is needed to investigate large-scale functional networks in association with both excitatory and inhibitory metabolites in subpopulations of ASD.

What Event-Related Potential Tells Us about Brain Function: Child-Adolescent Psychiatric Perspectives

Electroencephalography (EEG) measures neural activation due to various cognitive processes. EEG and event-related potentials (ERPs) are widely used in studies investigating psychopathology and neural substrates of psychiatric diseases in children and adolescents. The present study aimed to review recent ERP studies in child and adolescent psychiatry. ERPs are non-invasive methods for studying synaptic functions in the brain. ERP might be a candidate biomarker in child-adolescent psychiatry, considering its ability to reflect cognitive and behavioral functions in humans. For the EEG study of psychiatric diseases in children and adolescents, several ERP components have been used, such as mismatch negativity, P300, error-related negativity (ERN), and reward positivity (RewP). Regarding executive functions and inhibition in patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), P300 latency, and ERN were significantly different in patients with ADHD compared to those in the healthy population. ERN showed meaningful changes in patients with anxiety disorders, such as generalized anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. Patients with depression showed significantly attenuated RewP compared to the healthy population, which was related to the symptoms of anhedonia.

N-methyl d-aspartate receptor hypofunction reduces visual contextual integration

Visual cognition is finely tuned to the elements in a scene but also relies on contextual integration to improve visual detection and discrimination. This integration is impaired in patients with schizophrenia. Studying impairments in contextual integration may lead to biomarkers of schizophrenia, tools to monitor disease progression, and, in animal models, insight into the underlying neural deficits. We developed a nonhuman primate model to test the hypothesis that hypofunction of the N-methyl d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) impairs contextual integration. Two male rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) were trained to indicate which of two patterns on the screen had the highest contrast. One of these patterns appeared in isolation, and the other was surrounded by a high-contrast pattern. In humans, this high-contrast context is known to lead to an underestimation of contrast. This so-called Chubb illusion is thought to result from surround suppression, a key contextual integration mechanism. To test the involvement of NMDAR in this process, we compared animals' perceptual bias with and without intramuscular injections of a subanesthetic dose of the NMDAR antagonist ketamine. In the absence of ketamine, the animals reported a Chubb illusion - matching reports in healthy humans. Hence, monkeys - just like humans - perform visual contextual integration. This reaffirms the importance of nonhuman primates to help understand visual cognition. Injection of ketamine significantly reduced the strength of the illusion and thus impaired contextual integration. This supports the hypothesis that NMDAR hypofunction plays a causal role in specific behavioral impairments observed in schizophrenia.

Visual cortical plasticity and the risk for psychosis: An interim analysis of the North American Prodrome Longitudinal Study

BACKGROUND

Adolescence/early adulthood coincides with accelerated pruning of cortical synapses and the onset of schizophrenia. Cortical gray matter reduction and dysconnectivity in schizophrenia are hypothesized to result from impaired synaptic plasticity mechanisms, including long-term potentiation (LTP), since deficient LTP may result in too many weak synapses that are then subject to over-pruning. Deficient plasticity has already been observed in schizophrenia. Here, we assessed whether such deficits are present in the psychosis risk syndrome (PRS), particularly those who subsequently convert to full psychosis.

METHODS

An interim analysis was performed on a sub-sample from the NAPLS-3 study, including 46 healthy controls (HC) and 246 PRS participants. All participants performed an LTP-like visual cortical plasticity paradigm involving assessment of visual evoked potentials (VEPs) elicited by vertical and horizontal line gratings before and after high frequency ("tetanizing") visual stimulation with one of the gratings to induce "input-specific" neuroplasticity (i.e., VEP changes specific to the tetanized stimulus). Non-parametric, cluster-based permutation testing was used to identify electrodes and timepoints that demonstrated input-specific plasticity effects.

RESULTS

Input-specific pre-post VEP changes (i.e., increased negative voltage) were found in a single spatio-temporal cluster covering multiple occipital electrodes in a 126-223 ms time window. This plasticity effect was deficient in PRS individuals who subsequently converted to psychosis, relative to PRS non-converters and HC.

CONCLUSIONS

Input-specific LTP-like visual plasticity can be measured from VEPs in adolescents and young adults. Interim analyses suggest that deficient visual cortical plasticity is evident in those PRS individuals at greatest risk for transition to psychosis.

Effects of ketamine on brain function during metacognition of episodic memory

Only little research has been conducted on the pharmacological underpinnings of metacognition. Here, we tested the modulatory effects of a single intravenous dose (100 ng/ml) of the N-methyl-D-aspartate-glutamate-receptor antagonist ketamine, a compound known to induce altered states of consciousness, on metacognition and its neural correlates. Fifty-three young, healthy adults completed two study phases of an episodic memory task involving both encoding and retrieval in a double-blind, placebo-controlled fMRI study. Trial-by-trial confidence ratings were collected during retrieval. Effects on the subjective state of consciousness were assessed using the 5D-ASC questionnaire. Confirming that the drug elicited a psychedelic state, there were effects of ketamine on all 5D-ASC scales. Acute ketamine administration during retrieval had deleterious effects on metacognitive sensitivity (meta-d') and led to larger metacognitive bias, with retrieval performance (d') and reaction times remaining unaffected. However, there was no ketamine effect on metacognitive efficiency (meta-d'/d'). Measures of the BOLD signal revealed that ketamine compared to placebo elicited higher activation of posterior cortical brain areas, including superior and inferior parietal lobe, calcarine gyrus, and lingual gyrus, albeit not specific to metacognitive confidence ratings. Ketamine administered during encoding did not significantly affect performance or brain activation. Overall, our findings suggest that ketamine impacts metacognition, leading to significantly larger metacognitive bias and deterioration of metacognitive sensitivity as well as unspecific activation increases in posterior hot zone areas of the neural correlates of consciousness.

Forecasting Remission From the Psychosis Risk Syndrome With Mismatch Negativity and P300: Potentials and Pitfalls

Clinical outcomes vary for individuals at clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis, ranging from conversion to a psychotic disorder to full remission from the risk syndrome. Given that most CHR individuals do not convert to psychosis, recent research efforts have turned toward identifying specific predictors of CHR remission, a task that is conceptually and empirically dissociable from the identification of predictors of conversion to psychosis, and one that may reveal specific biological characteristics that confer resilience to psychosis and provide further insights into the mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and those underlying a transient CHR syndrome. Such biomarkers may ultimately facilitate the development of novel early interventions and support the optimization of individualized care. In this review, we focus on two event-related brain potential measures, mismatch negativity and P300, that have attracted interest as predictors of future psychosis among CHR individuals. We describe several recent studies examining whether mismatch negativity and P300 predict subsequent CHR remission and suggest that intact mismatch negativity and P300 may reflect the integrity of specific neurocognitive processes that confer resilience against the persistence of the CHR syndrome and its associated risk for future transition to psychosis. We also highlight several major methodological concerns associated with these studies that apply to the broader literature examining predictors of CHR remission. Among them is the concern that studies that predict dichotomous remission versus nonremission and/or dichotomous conversion versus nonconversion outcomes potentially confound remission and conversion effects, a phenomenon we demonstrate with a data simulation.