Connexin43 in rat oocytes: developmental modulation of its phosphorylation

Chronic stress decreases fertility parameters in female rats

Multiple effects of stress on health have been reported; however, reproductive alterations in oocytes and cumulus cells have not been fully described. In females, chronic stress has been shown to produce alterations in the estrous cycle, to decrease oocyte in vivo maturation, and to increase the percentage of abnormal oocytes. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the oocytes from chronically stressed female rats could recover and mature in vitro by providing them with all the necessary culture conditions, as well as to evaluate the functionality of the GAP junctions, and the viability and DNA integrity of the cumulus cells, which are crucial for the complete maturation and development of the oocyte. For this, rats were stressed daily by cold water immersion (15 °C) during 15 min for 30 consecutive days. Corticosterone serum levels in rats increased as an indicator of stress. Chronic stress decreased the percentage of in vitro matured oocytes because the cumulus cells presented irreparable damage to their DNA that led to their death, being unable to establish bidirectional communication with the oocyte for its meiotic resumption through the GAP junctions, which were also damaged. These findings could partially explain an association between stress and infertility.

Signaling mechanisms and their regulation during in vivo or in vitro maturation of mammalian oocytes

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is currently one of the most effective methods of infertility treatment. An alternative to commonly used ovarian hyperstimulation can become extracorporeal maturation of oocytes (in vitro maturation; IVM). Fertilization and normal development of the embryo depends on the cytoplasmic, nuclear and genomic maturity of the oocyte. The microenvironment of the ovarian follicle and maternal signals, which mediate bidirectional communication between granulosa, cumulus and oocyte cells, influence the growth, maturation and acquisition of oocyte development capability. During oogenesis in mammals, the meiosis is inhibited in the oocyte at the prophase I of the meiotic division due to the high cAMP level. This level is maintained by the activity of C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP, NPPC) produced by granulosa cells. The CNP binds to the NPR2 receptor in cumulus cells and is responsible for the production of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). The cGMP penetrating into the oocyte through gap junctions inhibits phosphodiesterase 3A (PDE3A), preventing cAMP hydrolysis responsible for low MPF activity. The LH surge during the reproductive cycle reduces the activity of the CNP/NPR2 complex, which results in a decrease in cGMP levels in cumulus cells and consequently in the oocyte. Reduced cGMP concentration unblocks the hydrolytic activity of PDE3A, which decreases cAMP level inside the oocyte. This leads to the activation of MPF and resumption of meiosis. The latest IVM methods called SPOM, NFSOM or CAPA IVM consist of two steps: prematuration and maturation itself. Taking into account the role of cAMP in inhibiting and then unblocking the maturation of oocytes, they have led to a significant progress in terms of the percentage of mature oocytes in vitro and the proportion of properly developed embryos in both animals and humans.

Effect of Mare Age on Transcript Abundance of Connexins-37 and -43, Zona Pellucida Proteins, and Sperm Binding

Zona pellucida (ZP) proteins are important for fertilization and sperm binding and are closely associated with cumulus cells. Communication between cumulus and oocytes is facilitated by intracellular membrane channels composed of connexins. The extent aging impacts potential differences in fertilization and reductions in fertility is not well understood. This study characterized age-related differences in transcript abundance of ZP proteins and connexins in cells from ovarian follicles. Additionally, differences in sperm binding to oocytes from old and young mares was evaluated. For experiment 1, oocytes, corona radiata, cumulus, and granulosa cells were collected from mares classified as young (4-12 years) or old (> 20 years). Transcript abundance was evaluated for connexins -37 (GJA4) and -43 (GJA1); zona pellucida glycoproteins 1, 2, 3, and 4 (ZP1, ZP2, ZP3, ZP4); Tubulin (TUBA1A), and equine chorionic gonadotropin β. For experiment 2, oocytes that failed to cleave following intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) were stored in salt solution for up to 4 years and used for sperm binding assays. Transcript abundance for GJA1 was decreased in oocytes, corona radiata, and granulosa cells while GJA4 was decreased in cumulus cells from old compared to young mares. Additionally, ZP1 tended to be decreased in corona radiata and cumulus cells from old mares. Oocytes from old mares tended to bind less spermatozoa compared young mares. Oocytes that failed to cleave following ICSI can be used for sperm binding studies for up to 2 years without losses in sperm binding. Our findings suggest that maternal age may contribute to changes in cellular communication and the ZP that could impact sperm binding.

Luteinizing Hormone Action in Human Oocyte Maturation and Quality: Signaling Pathways, Regulation, and Clinical Impact

The ovarian follicle luteinizing hormone (LH) signaling molecules that regulate oocyte meiotic maturation have recently been identified. The LH signal reduces preovulatory follicle cyclic nucleotide levels which releases oocytes from the first meiotic arrest. In the ovarian follicle, the LH signal reduces cyclic nucleotide levels via the CNP/NPR2 system, the EGF/EGF receptor network, and follicle/oocyte gap junctions. In the oocyte, reduced cyclic nucleotide levels activate the maturation promoting factor (MPF). The activated MPF induces chromosome segregation and completion of the first and second meiotic divisions. The purpose of this paper is to present an overview of the current understanding of human LH signaling regulation of oocyte meiotic maturation by identifying and integrating the human studies on this topic. We found 89 human studies in the literature that identified 24 LH follicle/oocyte signaling proteins. These studies show that human oocyte meiotic maturation is regulated by the same proteins that regulate animal oocyte meiotic maturation. We also found that these LH signaling pathway molecules regulate human oocyte quality and subsequent embryo quality. Remarkably, in vitro maturation (IVM) prematuration culture (PMC) protocols that manipulate the LH signaling pathway improve human oocyte quality of cultured human oocytes. This knowledge has improved clinical human IVM efficiency which may become a routine alternative ART for some infertile patients.

Stroma cell-derived factor 1 and connexins (37 and 43) are preserved after vitrification and in vitro culture of goat ovarian cortex

This study aimed to evaluate the follicular morphology and development (follicular activation, cell proliferation, and hormone production), as well as the distribution pattern of Connexins 37 and 43 and SDF-1α after vitrification and in vitro culture of goat ovarian tissue. The study involved four experimental groups: fresh control, vitrified control, fresh culture and vitrified culture. The ovarian fragments were vitrified by a solid surface technique using the Ovarian Tissue Cryosystem and subsequently in vitro cultured for 7 days. The percentage of normal preantral follicles was similar between vitrified control and vitrified culture. However, both vitrified control and vitrified culture treatments showed a significant reduction of morphologically normal follicles in comparison to fresh control. A higher percentage of developing follicles (transition, primary and secondary) was observed in both fresh culture and vitrified culture treatments. Progesterone and estradiol production decreased (P < 0.05) during in vitro culture. SDF-1α and Cx37 proteins were detected in oocytes and granulosa cells from all the treatments. However, in vitrified cultured tissue, only granulosa cells were labeled with Cx37. Connexin 43 was detected in the granulosa, theca cells and zona pellucida in all the treatments. In conclusion, in vitro culture of vitrified goat ovarian cortex was able to promote follicle survival and did not alter the expression of SDF-1α and 43. However, the expression of Cx 37 was modified after in vitro culture of vitrified tissue.

Gap junction proteins are key drivers of endocrine function

It has long been known that the main secretory cells of exocrine and endocrine glands are connected by gap junctions, made by a variety of connexin species that ensure their electrical and metabolic coupling. Experiments in culture systems and animal models have since provided increasing evidence that connexin signaling contributes to control the biosynthesis and release of secretory products, as well as to the life and death of secretory cells. More recently, genetic studies have further provided the first lines of evidence that connexins also control the function of human glands, which are central to the pathogenesis of major endocrine diseases. Here, we summarize the recent information gathered on connexin signaling in these systems, since the last reviews on the topic, with particular regard to the pancreatic beta cells which produce insulin, and the renal cells which produce renin. These cells are keys to the development of various forms of diabetes and hypertension, respectively, and combine to account for the exploding, worldwide prevalence of the metabolic syndrome. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Gap Junction Proteins edited by Jean Claude Herve.

The in-vitro effects of cAMP and cGMP modulators on inter-cellular dye transfer and gene expression levels in rat cumulus cell--oocyte complexes

Supplementation of in-vitro maturation medium with reagents that inhibit meiotic resumption whilst supporting normal function of cumulus cell-oocyte complexes (COC) is challenging. This study compared the in-vitro effects of synthetic and physiologically-relevant reagents on meiotic resumption, gap junction activity and gene expression of rat COC. Higher doses of forskolin reduced gap junction activity. Whilst addition of phosphodiesterase inhibitors initially promoted gap junction activity, this decreased with time in-vitro. Moreover despite oocytes remaining in meiotic arrest, there was a concomitant decline in expression of genes critical for oocyte maturation, and evidence of a reduction in overall transcription rate. Similarly, supplementing media with C-type natriuretic peptide and/or oestradiol delayed meiotic resumption and only initially maintained gap junction activity. In contrast, several key genes were stimulated and overall transcription rates remained constant with time in-vitro. In summary, supplementation of media with physiologically-relevant reagents may better enable normal functions of the COC.

Three-dimensional systems for in vitro follicular culture: overview of alginate-based matrices

The in vitro culture of ovarian follicles has provided critical insight into the biology of the follicle and its enclosed oocyte and the physical interaction and communication between the theca and granulosa cells and the oocyte that is necessary to produce meiotically competent oocytes. Various two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) culture systems have been developed to evaluate the effect of growth factors, hormones, extracellular matrix components and culture conditions on follicle development and oocyte growth and maturation. Among these culture systems, 3D systems make it possible to maintain follicle structure and support communication between the various cell compartments within the follicle. In this review article, we will discuss the three main approaches to ovarian follicle culture: 2D attachment systems, 3D floating systems and 3D encapsulated systems. We will specifically emphasise the development of and advances in alginate-based encapsulated systems for in vitro follicle culture.

Prophase I arrest of mouse oocytes mediated by natriuretic peptide precursor C requires GJA1 (connexin-43) and GJA4 (connexin-37) gap junctions in the antral follicle and cumulus-oocyte complex

Fully grown germinal vesicle stage mouse oocytes remain arrested in meiotic prophase I until ovulation. This arrest is maintained by cGMP produced in cumulus granulosa cells surrounding the oocyte. Recently, it was found that cGMP production in cumulus cells depends on NPR2 guanylate cyclase activated by its ligand natriuretic peptide precursor C (NPPC). It is assumed that cGMP reaches the oocyte through gap junctions that couple cumulus granulosa cells to each other and to the oocyte. Previous work identified two main types of gap junctions in the follicle, connexin-43 gap junctions (GJA1 protein) between granulosa cells and connexin-37 gap junctions (GJA4) between cumulus cells and the oocyte. However, it had not been established that both types are required for meiotic arrest mediated by NPPC/NPR2 signaling. To investigate this, we used connexin mimetic peptides (CMPs) that specifically disrupt gap junction isoforms within cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) and isolated antral follicles in culture. We furthermore developed a punctured antral follicle preparation to permit CMP access to the antral cavity in an otherwise intact follicle. CMP directed against connexin-43 (Cx43 CMP) overcame NPPC-mediated meiotic arrest in both isolated COCs and antral follicles. Cx37 CMP, in contrast, had no effect when present in the medium, but released oocyte arrest in the presence of NPPC when microinjected into the perivitelline space near the oocyte surface in COCs. This is consistent with both connexin isoforms being required for meiotic arrest and with the reported localization of connexin-43 throughout the cumulus cells and connexin-37 at the oocyte surface.

Impact of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene exposure on connexin gap junction proteins in cultured rat ovaries

7,12-Dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA) destroys ovarian follicles in a concentration-dependent manner. The impact of DMBA on connexin (CX) proteins that mediate communication between follicular cell types along with pro-apoptotic factors p53 and Bax were investigated. Postnatal day (PND) 4 Fisher 344 rat ovaries were cultured for 4days in vehicle medium (1% DMSO) followed by a single exposure to vehicle control (1% DMSO) or DMBA (12.5nM or 75nM) and cultured for 4 or 8days. RT-PCR was performed to quantify Cx37, Cx43, p53 and Bax mRNA level. Western blotting and immunofluorescence staining were performed to determine CX37 or CX43 level and/or localization. Cx37 mRNA and protein increased (P<0.05) at 4days of 12.5 nM DMBA exposure. Relative to vehicle control-treated ovaries, mRNA encoding Cx43 decreased (P<0.05) but CX43 protein increased (P<0.05) at 4days by both DMBA exposures. mRNA expression of pro-apoptotic p53 was decreased (P<0.05) but no changes in Bax expression were observed after 4days of DMBA exposures. In contrast, after 8days, DMBA decreased Cx37 and Cx43 mRNA and protein but increased both p53 and Bax mRNA levels. CX43 protein was located between granulosa cells, while CX37 was located at the oocyte cell surface of all follicle stages. These findings support that DMBA exposure impacts ovarian Cx37 and Cx43 mRNA and protein prior to both observed changes in pro-apoptotic p53 and Bax and follicle loss. It is possible that such interference in follicular cell communication is detrimental to follicle viability, and may play a role in DMBA-induced follicular atresia.

The dynamics of connexin expression, degradation and localisation are regulated by gonadotropins during the early stages of in vitro maturation of swine oocytes

Gap junctional communication (GJC) plays a primordial role in oocyte maturation and meiotic resumption in mammals by directing the transfer of numerous molecules between cumulus cells and the oocyte. Gap junctions are made of connexins (Cx), proteins that regulate GJC in numerous ways. Understanding the dynamic regulation of connexin arrangements during in vitro maturation (IVM) could provide a powerful tool for controlling meiotic resumption and consequently in vitro development of fully competent oocytes. However, physiological events happening during the early hours of IVM may still be elucidated. The present study reports the dynamic regulation of connexin expression, degradation and localization during this stage. Cx43, Cx45 and Cx60 were identified as the main connexins expressed in swine COC. Cx43 and Cx45 transcripts were judged too static to be a regulator of GJC, while Cx43 protein expression was highly responsive to gonadotropins, suggesting that it might be the principal regulator of GJC. In addition, the degradation of Cx43 expressed after 4.5 h of IVM in response to equine chorionic gonadotropin appeared to involve the proteasomal complex. Cx43 localisation appeared to be associated with GJC. Taken together, these results show for the first time that gonadotropins regulate Cx43 protein expression, degradation and localisation in porcine COC during the first several hours of IVM. Regulation of Cx43 may in turn, via GJC, participate in the development of fully competent oocytes.

Regulation and 3 dimensional culture of tertiary follicle growth

It has been revealed that multiple cohorts of tertiary follicles develop during some animal estrous cycle and the human menstrual cycle. To reach developmental competence, oocytes need the support of somatic cells. During embryogenesis, the primordial germ cells appear, travel to the gonadal rudiments, and form follicles. The female germ cells develop within the somatic cells of the ovary, granulosa cells, and theca cells. How the oocyte and follicle cells support each other has been seriously studied. The latest technologies in genes and proteins and genetic engineering have allowed us to collect a great deal of information about folliculogenesis. For example, a few web pages (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov; http://mrg.genetics.washington.edu) provide access to databases of genomes, sequences of transcriptomes, and various tools for analyzing and discovering genes important in ovarian development. Formation of the antrum (tertiary follicle) is the final phase of folliculogenesis and the transition from intraovarian to extraovian regulation. This final step coordinates with the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. On the other hand, currently, follicle physiology is under intense investigation, as little is known about how to overcome women's ovarian problems or how to develop competent oocytes from in vitro follicle culture or transplantation. In this review, some of the known roles of hormones and some of the genes involved in tertiary follicle growth and the general characteristics of tertiary follicles are summarized. In addition, in vitro culture of tertiary follicles is also discussed as a study model and an assisted reproductive technology model.

Connexin-dependent signaling in neuro-hormonal systems

The advent of multicellular organisms was accompanied by the development of short- and long-range chemical signalling systems, including those provided by the nervous and endocrine systems. In turn, the cells of these two systems have developed mechanisms for interacting with both adjacent and distant cells. With evolution, such mechanisms have diversified to become integrated in a complex regulatory network, whereby individual endocrine and neuro-endocrine cells sense the state of activity of their neighbors and, accordingly, regulate their own level of functioning. A consistent feature of this network is the expression of connexin-made channels between the (neuro)hormone-producing cells of all endocrine glands and secretory regions of the central nervous system so far investigated in vertebrates. This review summarizes the distribution of connexins in the mammalian (neuro)endocrine systems, and what we know about the participation of these proteins on hormone secretion, the life of the producing cells, and the action of (neuro)hormones on specific targets. The data gathered since the last reviews on the topic are summarized, with particular emphasis on the roles of Cx36 in the function of the insulin-producing beta cells of the endocrine pancreas, and of Cx40 in that of the renin-producing juxta-glomerular epithelioid cells of the kidney cortex. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: The Communicating junctions, composition, structure and characteristics.

Influence of epidermal growth factor supplementation during in vitro maturation on nuclear status and gene expression of canine oocytes

This study evaluated the effect of epidermal growth factor (EGF) supplementation during in vitro maturation on the meiotic status and the expression of EGF receptor (EGFr), luteinizing hormone receptor (LHr) and gap junction protein α 5 (GJA5) in canine cumulus-oocyte-complexes (COCs). COCs of ≥110 μm diameter, exhibiting dark pigmentation and completely surrounded by three or more layers of cumulus cells collected from anestrus stage ovaries in natural cycle were matured in TCM-199 supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 0.57 mM cysteine, 10 μg/ml LH and FSH, and different concentrations of EGF (0, 10 and 30 ng/ml). Oocytes cultured for 72 h were fixed to assess the nuclear maturation. Expression of EGFr, LHr and GAJ5 was assessed by immunocytochemistry and real-time PCR. Proportion of metaphase II status of oocytes cultured in in vitro maturation (IVM) medium supplemented with 10 ng/ml EGF for 72 h was significantly (P<0.05) higher than 0 and 30 ng/ml EGF supplemented IVM medium (9.8% vs. 6.5% and 5.2%). In both cumulus cells and oocytes, EGFr protein was undetectable, LHr protein level of expression was low and a strong expression of GJA5 protein was observed. The relative abundance (RA) of EGFr transcript revealed low levels and the LHr expression decreased steadily with addition of EGF. However it did not vary among different concentrations of EGF supplementation. The RA of GJA5 transcript exhibited lower level at 10 ng/ml EGF supplementation. In conclusion, the supplementation of 10 ng/ml EGF in IVM media exerted a positive influence on the progression of maturation to MII phase and the expression level of GJA5 at 72 h, but did not demonstrate any stimulatory role on the expression of EGFr and LHr during the maturation of the canine IVM oocytes.

Identification and expression analysis of connexin-45 and connexin-60 as major connexins in porcine oocytes

During mammalian oogenesis, intercellular communication between oocytes and the surrounding follicle cells through gap junction channels is crucial for oocyte development and maturation. The channel properties of gap junctions may be affected by the composition or combination of connexins, the expression of which is regulated by gonadotropins and other factors. Thus, identification and expression analysis of connexin genes in oocytes and follicle cells will help us to better understand how oogenesis and folliculogenesis are regulated in a species-specific manner in mammals. We previously reported the spatiotemporal expression of multiple connexin genes in porcine follicle cells. Here, we searched for connexin genes specifically expressed in porcine oocytes that may be involved in the formation of gap junctions between oocytes and follicle cells. To achieve this, we constructed an oocyte-specific cDNA library to identify which connexin genes are expressed in these cells and found that gap junction protein, alpha 10, which encodes connexin-60, and a porcine ortholog of mouse gap junction protein, gamma 1 encoding connexin-45, are the major connexins expressed in porcine oocytes during folliculogenesis. Immunostaining and in situ hybridization of sectioned porcine ovaries confirmed oocyte expression of these genes at 3 different stages of ovary development. Furthermore, their gap junction channel activity was assessed using a heterologous cell system. However, gap junction protein, alpha 4, which encodes connexin-37 and is expressed in the oocytes of several other mammals, was undetectable. We demonstrate that there is diversity in the connexin genes expressed in mammalian oocytes, and hence in the gap junctions connecting oocytes and cumulus cells.

The Role of Gap Junction Proteins in Infertility

Testis and ovary serve an important role of producing male and female gametes. Their normal functioning is very important for the proper formation of sperm and ovum and thus has a critical role in the successful fertility outcome. Synchronized activity of various cells in the gonads is needed to provide favorable niche for the growth and development of the germ cells. Among various ways of cellular communication, intercellular communication is mediated by gap junctions, which provides open but selective exchange of ion and molecules of restricted size between two adjoining cells. The basic unit of gap junction is connexins. Their important role has been speculated in the maintenance of homeostasis, morphogenesis, cell differentiation, and growth control in higher organisms. The expression of gap junction proteins in reproductive tissues has drawn the attention and interest of researcher to investigate their role in the reproductive outcome. The reports about the correlation of gap junction protein expression pattern in infertility patients and in animal models have suggested their implication in fertility. Some of these gap junction proteins seem to have redundant functions, whereas some could be very critical in the normal fertility and could not be dispensable for the successful outcome of the reproduction.

Oogenesis: Prospects and challenges for the future

Oogenesis serves a singular role in the reproductive success of plants and animals. Of their remarkable differentiation pathway what stands out is the ability of oocytes to transform from a single cell into the totipotent lineages that seed the early embryo. As our understanding that commonalities between diverse organisms at the genetic, cellular and molecular levels are conserved to achieve successful reproduction, the notion that embryogenesis presupposes oogenesis has entered the day-to-day parlance of regenerative medicine and stem cell biology. With emphasis on the mammalian oocyte, this review will cover (1) current concepts regarding the birth, survival and growth of oocytes that depends on complex patterns of cell communication between germ line and soma, (2) the notion of "maternal inheritance" from a genetic and epigenetic perspective, and (3) the relative value of model systems with reference to current clinical and biotechnology applications.

Gap junctions in the ovary: expression, localization and function

Gap junctions that allow the direct communication between cytoplasmic compartments of neighboring cells are present in a variety of tissues and organs and play pivotal roles in a wide range of physiological processes. In the ovary, gap junctions consist mainly of connexin (Cx) 43 and Cx37, and their indispensable role in regulating folliculogenesis and oogenesis is well established. The ovarian Cx43 is regulated by gonadotropins at the transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels whereas the regulation of the ovarian Cx37 is yet unknown. In addition to their involvement in normal ovarian functions, gap junction proteins, particularly Cx43, seem to act as cancer suppressors. A summary of our present knowledge regarding gap junctional communication (GJC) and the ovarian gap junction proteins in normally developing ovaries and under pathological conditions is presented in this review.

Mechanisms Regulating Oocyte Meiotic Resumption: Roles of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase

Oocyte meiotic maturation is one of the important physiological requirements for species survival. However, little is known about the detailed events occurring during this process. A number of studies have demonstrated that MAPK plays a pivotal role in the regulation of meiotic cell cycle progression in oocytes, but controversial findings have been reported in both lower vertebrates and mammals. In this review, we summarized the roles of MAPK cascade and related signal pathways in oocyte meiotic reinitiation in both lower vertebrates and mammals. We also tried to reconcile the paradoxical results and highlight the new findings concerning the function of MAPK in both oocytes and the surrounding follicular somatic cells. The unresolved questions and future research directions regarding the role of MAPK in meiotic resumption are addressed.

Oocyte-directed depletion of connexin43 using the Cre-LoxP system leads to subfertility in female mice

Gap junctions, predominantly comprising connexin43 (Cx43), mediate cell-to-cell communication within the ovarian follicle. However, the partaking of Cx43 in the formation of the gap junction channels, between the oocyte and the somatic cells, is controversial. We addressed this dispute by crossing females that carry a Cx43 coding region, flanked by loxP recognition sites, with males expressing the Cre recombinase under the control of Zp3 promoter. Oocytes of the resultant Zp3Cre;Gja1(lox/lox) mice did not express Cx43 and were referred to as Cx43(del/del). Unexpectedly, a decrease in Cx43 was observed in cumulus/granulosa cells of some follicles as well. Nevertheless, no histological abnormalities were detected in the ovaries of the Zp3Cre;Gja1(lox/lox) mice. Furthermore, these mice ovulated normally and developed fully functional corpora lutea. Additionally, the ovarian Cx43(del/del) oocytes were meiotically arrested and transferred Lucifer yellow to the surrounding cumulus cells. However, mating Zp3Cre;Gja1(lox/lox) females with wild-type males resulted in a reduced rate of parturition and a substantial decrease in litter size. Further examination revealed that although preimplantation development of Zp3Cre;Gja1(lox/+) embryos was normal, the blactocysts exhibited impaired implantation. Our data suggest that total ablation of Cx43 in the oocyte, combined with its decrease in the surrounding somatic cells, allows normal oogenesis and folliculogenesis, ovulation and early embryonic development but severely impairs the implantation capacity of the resulting blactocysts.

Cloning of GJA1 (connexin43) and its expression in canine ovarian follicles throughout the estrous cycle

GJA1 (also known as connexin43 or Cx43) is the most abundant gap junction protein in mammalian tissues including the ovary. Here, it facilitates intercellular communication among granulosa cells and growing oocytes, thereby connecting the developing gamete to the hormonal axis as well as to the essential network of supporting granulosa cells. To date, the pattern of follicular GJA1 expression has not yet been defined for canines, a species with unique reproductive physiology including delays in follicle development, ovulation, oocyte maturation and fertilization. Here, we report the complete mRNA sequence for canine GJA1 and identify not only increases (P<0.05) in GJA1 mRNA expression in follicles at the secondary stage and larger, but also differences in expression levels between estrous cycle stages in both secondary and antral stage follicles. Expression of GJA1 mRNA in secondary follicles during proestrus was higher than in anestrus or estrus (P<0.01), and at diestrus (P<0.10). Antral follicles obtained during estrus expressed lower levels of GJA1 mRNA than any other cycle stage (P<0.01). GJA1 mRNA expression in primary and large antral follicles was similar across the estrous cycle. Despite the extensive length of the canine estrous cycle as compared with that of other mammals, the GJA1 mRNA and protein expression profiles are not significantly different from those reported for other species and suggests that mechanisms regulating GJA1 transcription are not likely to contribute to the extended delays in follicle and oocyte development in the dog.

Meiotic arrest of oocytes depends on cell-to-cell communication in the ovarian follicle

The source of the inhibitory levels of cAMP that maintain oocytes meiotically arrested is under controversy. A model for regulation of the meiotic division that suggests the transfer of a somatic follicular cells-derived cAMP into the oocyte via gap junctions was first proposed by us in 1978. Later studies provide strong evidence that established gap-junctional communication within the ovarian follicle is indispensable for maintenance of meiotic arrest. On the other hand, other recent reports suggest that oocytes generate their own inhibitory cAMP by a G protein-coupled receptor-activated Gs. These studies as well as other recent reports related to this topic are thoroughly discussed in this chapter.

Cx37 and Cx43 localize to zona pellucida in mouse ovarian follicles

In the ovarian follicle, granulosa cells adjacent to the oocyte extend processes through the zona pellucida matrix, and these projections establish gap junctions both with the oocyte and with neighboring transzonal projections. The identity of connexins contributing to gap junctions between transzonal projections has not been extensively studied. Here, we examined the expression pattern of Cx37 and Cx43 in mouse zona pellucida using multiple connexin-specific antibodies. Immunofluorescence staining revealed abundant Cx37 and Cx43 puncta within the zona pellucida of both preantral and antral follicles. Cx37 persisted in the zona pellucida of mature follicles up to 5 h after an ovulatory stimulus whereas Cx43 was reduced in the zona pellucida by 3 h after an ovulatory stimulus. We suggest that in addition to its role in oocyte-granulosa cell communication, Cx37 could enable a distinct communication pathway between those granulosa cells that are in direct contact with the oocyte.

Differential contributions of connexin37 and connexin43 to oogenesis revealed in chimeric reaggregated mouse ovaries

The gap junction proteins connexin37 and connexin43 are required for ovarian folliculogenesis in the mouse. To define their respective roles in oogenesis, chimeric ovaries containing either null mutant oocytes and wild-type granulosa cells or the reverse combination were grafted to the renal capsules of immunodeficient female mice. After three weeks, the oocytes were tested for meiotic competence and fertilizability in vitro. Ovaries composed of connexin43-deficient oocytes and wild-type granulosa cells produced antral follicles enclosing oocytes that could develop to at least the two-cell stage, demonstrating that oocytes need not express connexin43 to reach maturity. Conversely, both follicle development and oocyte maturation were impaired in ovaries containing either wild-type oocytes and connexin43-deficient granulosa cells or connexin37-deficient oocytes and wild-type granulosa cells. Thus absence of connexin43 from granulosa cells or connexin37 from oocytes is sufficient to compromise both oocyte and follicle development. Wild-type oocytes paired with connexin37-deficient granulosa cells generated antral follicles containing oocytes that developed to at least the two-cell stage. Therefore, connexin37 absence from granulosa cells need not impair fertility in mice. Dye transfer experiments revealed persistent oocyte-granulosa cell coupling in those follicles, indicating functional compensation by another connexin. The results indicate that mouse oocytes do not need to express connexin43 in order to develop into meiotically competent, fertilizable gametes, but must express connexin37 for communication with granulosa cells, a requirement for oogenesis.

Differential expression and localisation of connexin-37 and connexin-43 in follicles of different stages in the 4-week-old mouse ovary

Mammalian female fertility is critically dependent on timely coordinated intercellular communication between follicle cells. Gap junctions are small, membrane-bound, aqueous channels that couple adjacent cells ionically and gap junction proteins, connexin-37 (Cx37) and connexin-43 (Cx43) both participate in sustaining proper growth and maturation of the oocyte. The purpose of the present study was to localise Cx37 and Cx43 in sections of ovarian mouse follicles of different developmental stage, and compare their relative expression using immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. Cx37 exclusively localised to oocytes of all follicle stages, and the estimated number of Cx37 gap junctions per mum oocyte circumference in follicles of stage 2 to stage 6 increased in parallel to oocyte and follicle growth, reaching a maximum in the pre-antral stage. Acetylated alpha-tubulin and Cx37 double labelling revealed that the majority of Cx37 gap junctions, irrespective of follicle stage, were located on the outer surface of the oocyte cytoskeleton. Cx43 was detected in granulosa cells of all follicle stages, beginning with distinct spots in resting primordial follicles. The estimated number of Cx43 gap junctions per granulosa cell increased significantly with follicle development, in particular in the transition from pre-antral to the antral stage. A subpopulation of Cx43 in the outer part of the zona pellucida was identified and it is suggested these Cx43 gap junctions connect cumulus trans-zonal projections. Together, these data suggests specific roles for Cx37 and Cx43 in folliculogenesis and offers new insights in patterns of intercellular communication of the mouse follicle.

Effect of serum and cumulus cell expansion on marker gene transcripts in bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes during maturation in vitro

OBJECTIVE

To determine the distribution of transcripts encoding the FSH receptor (FSHr), LH receptor (LHr), connexin 43 (Cx43), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and prostaglandin E(2) receptors 2 and 3 (EP2 and EP3) within bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) and denuded oocytes and investigate the influence of gonadotropins, serum, and cumulus cell expansion on the abundance of transcripts encoding these genes.

DESIGN

Prospective controlled animal study.

SETTING

University research laboratory.

PATIENT(S)

Animal models for human studies.

INTERVENTION(S)

Cumulus-oocyte complexes were treated in culture with serum and gonadotropin-supplemented media to examine the effects to mRNA transcript levels.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

Variation in mRNA transcript levels.

RESULT(S)

Luteinizing hormone receptor, FSHr, and EP3 mRNAs were detected in intact COCs and not in cumulus cell-denuded oocytes, whereas Cx43, COX-2, and EP2 mRNAs were found in both COCs and oocytes. The relative abundance of marker gene mRNAs did not vary in media containing no additives or FSH alone, independent of whether the media induced cumulus cell expansion. However, the presence of serum in maturation media significantly decreased expression of all mRNAs except LHr.

CONCLUSION(S)

The relative abundance of COC mRNAs is altered by serum in the maturation medium, which may signify long-term consequences for embryonic development.

Changes in Expression and Localization of Connexin 43 mRNA and Protein in Porcine Ovary Granulosa Cells during Follicular Atresia

Gap junctions contain channels that connect neighboring cells by allowing the movement of molecules smaller than 1,200 Da. They are formed by connexins and may play a crucial role in the regulation of apoptotic cell death. To determine the role of connexin 43 (Cx43), which is dominantly expressed in granulosa cells, in the regulation of granulosa cell apoptosis during follicular atresia, we examined the changes in the expression and localization of Cx43 mRNA and protein in granulosa cells during atresia using the quantitative real-time revese transcription-polymerase chain reaction, in situ hybridization, Western blot, and immunohistochemistry. Stages of follicular atresia were assessed based on histochemical terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated biotinylated deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end-labeling (TUNEL) and/or the ratio of progesterone and 17beta-estradiol levels in follicular fluid measured by radioimmunoassay. Cx43 mRNA was detected in granulosa cells of secondary follicles and of healthy, early and progressed atretic tertiary follicles, but not in those of primordial or primary follicles. Both phosphorylated/activated and non-phosphorylated/native Cx43 proteins were detected in granulosa cells of secondary and tertiary follicles, but not in those of primordial or primary follicles. Moreover, in tertiary follicles, these Cx43 proteins were expressed most strongly in granulosa cells of healthy follicles, but only trace levels were noted in cells of early atretic and progressed atretic follicles, an indication that the expression levels of Cx43 protein decrease during follicular atresia. These findings indicate that Cx43 is involved in the apoptosis of granulosa cells during atresia in porcine ovaries.

Luteinizing hormone-induced connexin 43 down-regulation: inhibition of translation

The coordinated function of the different compartments of the follicle, the oocyte and the somatic cumulus/granulosa cells, is enabled by the presence of a network of cell-to-cell communication generated by gap junctions. Connexin 43 (Cx43) is the most abundant gap junction protein expressed by the ovarian follicle. The expression of Cx43 is subjected to the control of gonadotropins as follows: FSH up-regulates, whereas LH down-regulates its levels. The aim of this study was to explore the mechanism by which LH reduces the levels of Cx43 and to identify the signal transduction pathway involved in this process. The effect of LH was studied in vitro using isolated intact ovarian follicles. The possible mediators of LH-induced Cx43 down-regulation were examined by incubating the follicles with LH in the presence or absence of inhibitors of protein kinase A (PKA) and of MAPK signaling pathways. Our experiments revealed a 3-h half-life of Cx43 in both control and LH-treated follicles, suggesting that LH did not affect the rate of Cx43 degradation. We further demonstrated that the level of Cx43 mRNA was not significantly influenced by this gonadotropin. However, upon LH administration, [(35)S]methionine incorporation into Cx43 protein was remarkably reduced. The LH-induced arrest of Cx43 synthesis was counteracted by inhibitors of both the PKA and the MAPK cascades. We show herein that LH inhibits Cx43 expression by reducing its rate of translation and that this effect is mediated by both PKA and MAPK.

Cumulus-oocyte complex interactions during oocyte maturation

In most mammals, the oocyte in the Graafian follicle is surrounded by tightly packed layers of cumulus cells, forming the cumulus-oocyte complex. During the preovulatory period, cumulus cells change from a compact cell mass into a dispersed structure of cells for the synthesis and deposition of a mucoid intercellular matrix, a process referred to as cumulus expansion. Cumulus expansion is thought to influence a variety of fundamental developmental changes during oocyte maturation. Volumetric expansion of the cumulus-oocyte complex correlates, at least in pig, with the outcome of oocyte maturation, fertilization, and embryo development. Therefore, detailed functional studies of cumulus expansion seem to be required to elucidate the mechanism of oocyte maturation. We summarize the current knowledge about (1) morphological changes of cumulus-oocyte complexes during oocyte maturation, (2) follicle factors inducing cumulus expansion, (3) the role of cumulus expansion in oocyte maturation, (4) cytoplasmic regulators of oocyte maturation, and (5) possible roles of cumulus expansion.

Plasma membrane channels formed by connexins: their regulation and functions

Members of the connexin gene family are integral membrane proteins that form hexamers called connexons. Most cells express two or more connexins. Open connexons found at the nonjunctional plasma membrane connect the cell interior with the extracellular milieu. They have been implicated in physiological functions including paracrine intercellular signaling and in induction of cell death under pathological conditions. Gap junction channels are formed by docking of two connexons and are found at cell-cell appositions. Gap junction channels are responsible for direct intercellular transfer of ions and small molecules including propagation of inositol trisphosphate-dependent calcium waves. They are involved in coordinating the electrical and metabolic responses of heterogeneous cells. New approaches have expanded our knowledge of channel structure and connexin biochemistry (e.g., protein trafficking/assembly, phosphorylation, and interactions with other connexins or other proteins). The physiological role of gap junctions in several tissues has been elucidated by the discovery of mutant connexins associated with genetic diseases and by the generation of mice with targeted ablation of specific connexin genes. The observed phenotypes range from specific tissue dysfunction to embryonic lethality.

Effect of growth hormone (GH) on in vitro nuclear and cytoplasmic oocyte maturation, cumulus expansion, hyaluronan synthases, and connexins 32 and 43 expression, and GH receptor messenger RNA expression in equine and porcine species

The aim of this study was to investigate the role of growth hormone (GH) on in vitro cumulus expansion and oocyte maturation in equine and porcine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), and to approach its way of action. Equine COCs were cultured in a control medium (TCM199, 5 mg/ml BSA, 1 microg/ml estradiol, and antibiotics) supplemented with either 0.5 microg/ml equine GH or 5 microg/ml equine LH. Porcine COCs were cultured in a basal medium (TCM199 with 570 microM cysteamine) supplemented with 0, 0.1, 0.5, or 1 microg/ml porcine GH or in a control medium (basal medium with 10 ng/ml epidermal growth factor and 400 ng/ml FSH) supplemented with 0 or 0.5 microg/ml porcine GH. After culture, cumulus expansion and nuclear stage were assessed. The cytoplasmic maturation of porcine oocytes was evaluated by in vitro fertilization and development for 7 days. The modifications of the expression of proteins implicated in cumulus expansion were analyzed in equine COCs by SDS-PAGE with antibodies against connexins 32 and 43 and hyaluronan synthases (Has) 1, 2, and 3. The expression of GH receptor mRNA was studied in oocytes and cumulus cells of the two species using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction with specific primers. The addition of GH in maturation medium increased cumulus expansion in equine but not porcine COCs. It improved nuclear maturation in equine and porcine, but had no effect on porcine fertilization and embryo development. The GH receptor mRNA was detected in equine and porcine oocytes and cumulus cells. GH did not influence the expression of Has 1, Has 3, and connexin 43 in equine cumulus cells.

Growth hormone-related effects on apoptosis, mitosis, and expression of connexin 43 in bovine in vitro maturation cumulus-oocyte complexes

Pituitary LH and FSH are known to be the major regulators of ovarian function. In the last few years, however, there has been evidence that growth hormone (GH) is also involved in ovarian regulation. Therefore, the aim of our study was to elucidate the mechanisms of GH action during in vitro maturation (IVM) of bovine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). As shown by detection of the nuclear cell proliferation-associated antigen Ki-67, COCs matured in vitro in the presence of GH revealed a significantly (P < 0.05) higher proportion of proliferating cumulus cells (12.6%) compared with the COCs matured in the control medium TCM 199 (9.9%). In contrast, the percentage of proliferating cells was not increased by supplementation of the medium with a combination of GH and insulin-like-growth factor I (IGF-I). Apoptosis as determined by TUNEL (terminal doxynucleotidyl transferase mediated dUTP nick-end labeling) was significantly (P < 0.05) reduced in the cumulus cells by GH treatment. COCs matured with a combination of GH and IGF-I revealed the lowest percentage of apoptotic cells (11%). The localization and quantification of the gap junction protein connexin 43 (Cx 43) demonstrated that GH induced a significant decrease in the synthesis of the Cx 43 protein in the cumulus cells. Our results imply that GH increases cumulus expansion by promotion of cell proliferation and inhibition of apoptosis. Whereas the increase in cell proliferation is a direct effect of GH, the antiapoptotic effects of GH during in vitro maturation are modulated by IGF-I. Stimulatory effects of GH on oocyte maturation are correlated with changes in the synthesis of gap junction proteins.

Responsiveness of bovine cumulus-oocyte-complexes (COC) to porcine and recombinant human FSH, and the effect of COC quality on gonadotropin receptor and Cx43 marker gene mRNAs during maturation in vitro

Substantially less development to the blastocyst stage occurs in vitro than in vivo and this may be due to deficiencies in oocyte competence. Although a large proportion of bovine oocytes undergo spontaneous nuclear maturation, less is known about requirements for proper cytoplasmic maturation. Commonly, supraphysiological concentrations of FSH and LH are added to maturation media to improve cumulus expansion, fertilization and embryonic development. Therefore, various concentrations of porcine FSH (pFSH) and recombinant human FSH (rhFSH) were investigated for their effect on bovine cumulus expansion in vitro. Expression of FSHr, LHr and Cx43 mRNAs was determined in cumulus-oocyte complexes to determine whether they would be useful markers of oocyte competence. In serum-free media, only 1000 ng/ml pFSH induced marked cumulus expansion, but the effect of 100 ng/ml pFSH was amplified in the presence of 10% serum. In contrast, cumulus expansion occurred with 1 ng/ml rhFSH in the absence of serum. FSHr mRNA was highest at 0-6 h of maturation, then abundance decreased. Similarly, Cx43 mRNA expression was highest from 0-6 h but decreased by 24 h of maturation. However, the relative abundance of LHr mRNA did not change from 6-24 h of maturation. Decreased levels of FSHr, LHr and Cx43 mRNAs were detected in COCs of poorer quality. In conclusion, expansion of bovine cumulus occurred at low doses of rhFSH in serum-free media. In summary, FSHr, LHr and Cx43 mRNA abundance reflects COC quality and FSHr and Cx43 mRNA expression changes during in vitro maturation; these genes may be useful markers of oocyte developmental competence.

The ovarian gap junction protein connexin43: regulation by gonadotropins

The major role of the ovarian follicle is the timely production of a mature fertilizable oocyte. This mission is accomplished by a gonadotropin-regulated, gap junction-mediated alteration between established and interrupted cell-cell communication. Recent studies have revealed that gonadotropin action on ovarian gap junctions is elicited at the transcriptional, translational and post-translational levels. Here, we review the existing information generated on the molecular mechanisms employed by the gonadotropins to elicit their effect on the ovarian gap junction protein Cx43.

Gap junctional intercellular communication of bovine granulosa and thecal cells from antral follicles: effects of luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone

Throughout each estrous cycle, the gonadotropins, luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), are involved in regulation of folliculogenesis. We have shown that LH or FSH affect cellular interactions mediated by gap junctions in bovine granulosa and thecal cells in vitro. To evaluate further the hypothesis that gonadotropins influence gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) and expression of gap junctional proteins known as connexins (Cx), throughout antral follicle development, granulosa and thecal cells from large (>10 mm; n = 13), medium (5-10 mm; n = 20), and small (<5 mm; n = 27) follicles were cultured (n = 4 cultures per size) with or without LH, FSH, or LH + FSH for 24 h. GJIC was evaluated (n = 125-150 cells/treatment group) by using the fluorescent recovery after photobleaching technique and laser cytometry. Additionally, Cx43, Cx32, and Cx26 were detected in cultured cells by immunocytochemistry and Cx43 by Western immunoblot analysis. Finally, progesterone production by cultured cells was evaluated by radioimmunoassay. Across all follicles and treatments, GJIC was greater (p < 0.01) for granulosa than thecal cells (4.9 +/- 0.05 vs 3.8 +/- 0.04%/min). For granulosa cells of large and medium follicles, LH and/or FSH did not affect GJIC. For granulosa cells of small follicles, FSH increased (p < 0.05), but LH or LH + FSH had no effect on GJIC. For thecal cells of large follicles, LH increased (p < 0.01) GJIC, whereas FSH or LH + FSH had no effects. For thecal cells of medium and small follicles, LH and/or FSH did not affect GJIC. These results demonstrate that FSH influenced GJIC of granulosa cells from small, but not from medium or large, follicles, and LH influenced GJIC of thecal cells from large, but not from medium or small, follicles. Cx43 was present as punctate staining between granulosa or thecal cells from all cultures, indicating assembled gap junctions. LH + FSH increased (p < 0.05) expression of Cx43 only by thecal cells from large follicles. Cx32 was detected in the perinuclear cytoplasm of cultured granulosa or thecal cells, and in the cytoskeleton of a few cells per culture dish in all sizes of follicles. Cx26 was present in a regular pattern throughout the cytoplasm of granulosa or thecal cells in all sizes of follicles. For granulosa cells from large follicles, progesterone production was stimulated (p < 0.05) with LH or FSH alone but was unaffected by LH + FSH. For granulosa cells from medium and small follicles, progesterone production was unaffected by LH and/or FSH. For thecal cells from all sizes of follicles, LH, FSH, and LH + FSH stimulated (p < 0.05) production of progesterone. These data indicate that LH and FSH influence gap junction function and expression, which likely contributes to the development and maintenance of ovarian follicles.