MAP kinase pathways activated by stress: the p38 MAPK pathway

Mitochondria-targeting peptide SS-31 attenuates ferroptosis via inhibition of the p38 MAPK signaling pathway in the hippocampus of epileptic rats

Ferroptosis is a newly identified form of non-apoptotic regulated cell death (RCD) andplaysanimportantrole in epileptogenesis. The p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK) pathway has been confirmed to be involved in ferroptosis. The mitochondria-targeting antioxidant Elamipretide (SS-31) can reduce the generation of lipid peroxidation and the buildup of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Collectively, our present study was to decipher whether SS-31 inhibits ferroptosis via the p38 MAPK signaling pathway in the rat epilepsy model induced by pilocarpine (PILO).Adult male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups: control group (CON group), epilepsy group (EP group), SS-31 treatment group (SS group), and p38 MAPK inhibitor (SB203580) treatment group (SB group). Our results demonstrated that the rat hippocampal neurons after epilepsy were followed by accumulated iron and malondialdehyde (MDA) content, upregulated phosphorylated p38 MAPK protein (P-p38) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) levels, reduced glutathione peroxidase 4 (Gpx4) content, and depleted glutathione (GSH) activity. Morphologically, mitochondrial ultrastructural damage under electron microscopy was manifested by a partial increase in outer membrane density, disappearance of mitochondrial cristae, and mitochondrial shrinkage. SS-31 and SB203580 treatment blocked the initiation and progression of ferroptosis in the hippocampus of epileptic rats via reducing the severity of epileptic seizures, reversing the expression of Gpx4, P-p38 , decreasing the levels of iron and MDA, as well as increasing the activity of GSH and Nrf2. To summarize, our findings proved that ferroptosis was coupled with the pathology of epilepsy, and SS-31 can inhibit PILO-induced seizures by preventing ferroptosis, which may be connected to the inhibition of p38 MAPK phosphorylation, highlighting the potential therapeutic value for targeting ferroptosis process in individuals with seizure-related diseases.

CNS-Active p38α MAPK Inhibitors for the Management of Neuroinflammatory Diseases: Medicinal Chemical Properties and Therapeutic Capabilities

During the last two decades, many p38α mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38α MAPK) inhibitors have been developed and tested in preclinical/clinical studies for the treatment of various disorders, especially problems with the origin of inflammation. Previous studies strongly suggest the involvement of the p38α MAPK pathway in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Despite the significant progress made in this field, so far no studies have focused on p38α MAPK inhibitors that have the capability to be used for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. In the present review, we evaluated a wide range of well-known p38α MAPK inhibitors (more than 140 small molecules) by measuring key physicochemical parameters to identify those capable of successfully crossing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). As a result, we identify about 50 naturally occurring and synthetic p38α MAPK inhibitors with high potential to cross the BBB, which can be further explored in the future for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, a detailed analysis of the previously released X-ray crystal structure of the inhibitors in the active site of the p38α MAPK enzyme revealed that some residues such as Met109 play a critical role in the occurrence of effective interactions by constructing strong H-bonds. This study can encourage scientists to focus more on the design, production, and biological evaluation of new central nervous system (CNS)-active p38α MAPK inhibitors in the future.

Ganoderma lucidum extract attenuates corticotropin-releasing hormone-induced cellular senescence in human hair follicle cells

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is a key mediator in stress-induced hair growth inhibition. Here, we investigated the impact of stress-induced senescence and evaluated the potential of Ganoderma lucidum (GL) extract in mitigating CRH-induced senescence in human hair follicle cells (hHFCs). We show that CRH treatment increased the senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-β-GAL) activity and reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation in hHFCs and suppressed alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and anagen-inducing genes. However, GL extract restored ALP activity and decreased the expression levels of anagen-related genes in CRH-treated hHFCs. It decreased SA-β-GAL activity, reduced ROS production, and prevented the phosphorylation of MAPK signaling pathways in CRH-related stress response. Moreover, GL reversed the CRH-induced inhibition of two-cell assemblage (TCA) elongation and Ki67 expression. GL extract attenuates stress-induced hair follicular senescence by delaying catagen entry and scavenging ROS. Our findings suggest that GL extract could be used for treating stress-induced hair loss.

Downregulation of IL-1β/p38 mitogen activated protein kinase pathway by diacerein protects against kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Renal ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) can be precipitated by multiple clinical situations that lead to impaired renal function and associated mortality. The resulting tubular cell damage is the outcome of complex disorders including, an inflammatory process with an overproduction of cytokines. Here, diacerein (DIA), an inhibitor of proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), was investigated against renal I/R in rats. DIA was orally administrated (50 mg/kg/day) for ten days before bilateral ischemia for 45 min with subsequent 2 hr. reperfusion. Interestingly, DIA alleviated the renal dysfunction and histopathological damage in the renal tissues. Pretreatment with DIA corrected the oxidative imbalance by prevented reduction in antioxidant levels of GSH and SOD, while it decreased the elevation of the oxidative marker, MDA. In addition, DIA downregulated IL-1β and TNF-α expression in the renal tissues. Consequent to inhibition of the oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades, DIA inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK). Therefore, downstream targets for p38 MAPK were also inhibited via DIA which prevented further increases of inflammatory cytokines and the apoptotic marker, caspase-3. Collectively, this study revealed the renoprotective role of DIA for renal I/R and highlighted the role of p38 MAPK encountered in its therapeutic application in renal disease.

4-Hydroxysesamin, a Modified Natural Compound, Attenuates Neuronal Apoptosis After Ischemic Stroke via Inhibiting MAPK Pathway

Background

The 4-hydroxysesamin (4-HS, a di-tetrahydrofuran lignin) is a modified sesamin that was prepared in the laboratory. This preclinical study was designed to preliminarily investigate the neuroprotective properties of 4-HS.

Methods

In vitro, neuronal injury and inflammation were simulated by oxygen-glucose deprivation and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure in mouse hippocampal neuronal HT22 cell line, and treated with 4-HS and/or metformin (MET, MAPK pathway activator for exploring mechanism). CCK-8, flow cytometry, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were performed to evaluate cell viability, apoptosis, and inflammation. Apoptosis- and pathway-related proteins were detected by Western blotting. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was constructed as a stroke model and treated with 4-HS for in vivo confirmation. Histological staining was used for in vivo evaluation of 4-HS properties.

Results

The 4-HS showed similar anti-inflammatory activity to sesamin but did not affect the cell viability of HT22 cells. In vitro, 4-HS improved the cell viability, ameliorated neuronal apoptosis, along with the reversion of apoptotic proteins (Bax, cleaved-caspase 3/9, Bcl-2) expression and inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-10) in LPS-treated HT22 cells. The 4-HS suppressed the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38 but the addition of MET reversed 4-HS-induced changes of phenotype and protein expression in LPS-treated cells. In vivo, 4-HS showed apparent improvement in cerebral infarction, brain tissue morphology, neuronal architecture, apoptosis, and inflammation of MCAO mice, and also showed inhibiting effects on the phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and p38, confirming in vivo results.

Conclusion

In this first pre-clinical study on 4-HS, we preliminarily demonstrated the neuroprotective properties of 4-HS both in cell and animal models, and proposed that the underlying mechanism might be associated with the MAPK pathway.

Autophagy and oxidative stress modulation mediate Bortezomib resistance in prostate cancer

Proteasome inhibitors such as Bortezomib represent an established type of targeted treatment for several types of hematological malignancies, including multiple myeloma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, and mantle cell lymphoma, based on the cancer cell's susceptibility to impairment of the proteasome-ubiquitin system. However, a major problem limiting their efficacy is the emergence of resistance. Their application to solid tumors is currently being studied, while simultaneously, a wide spectrum of hematological cancers, such as Myelodysplastic Syndromes show minimal or no response to Bortezomib treatment. In this study, we utilize the prostate cancer cell line DU-145 to establish a model of Bortezomib resistance, studying the underlying mechanisms. Evaluating the resulting resistant cell line, we observed restoration of proteasome chymotrypsin-like activity, regardless of drug presence, an induction of pro-survival pathways, and the substitution of the Ubiquitin-Proteasome System role in proteostasis by induction of autophagy. Finally, an estimation of the oxidative condition of the cells indicated that the resistant clones reduce the generation of reactive oxygen species induced by Bortezomib to levels even lower than those induced in non-resistant cells. Our findings highlight the role of autophagy and oxidative stress regulation in Bortezomib resistance and elucidate key proteins of signaling pathways as potential pharmaceutical targets, which could increase the efficiency of proteasome-targeting therapies, thus expanding the group of molecular targets for neoplastic disorders.

Blocking μ-opioid receptor by naltrexone exaggerates oxidative stress and airway inflammation via the MAPkinase pathway in a murine model of asthma

Opioids regulate various physiological and pathophysiological functions, including cell proliferation, immune function, obesity, and neurodegenerative disorders. They have been used for centuries as a treatment for severe pain, binding to opioid receptors a specific G protein-coupled receptor. Common opioids, like β-endorphin, [D-Ala2, N-MePhe4, Gly-ol]-enkephalin (DAMGO), and dynorphins, have analgesic effects. The use of a potent antagonist, like naltrexone hydrochloride, to block the effects of mu Opioid Receptor (μOR) may result in the withdrawal of physiological effects and could potentially impact immune responses in many diseases including respiratory disease. Asthma is a respiratory disease characterized by airway hyperresponsiveness, inflammation, bronchoconstriction, chest tightness, stress generation and release of various cytokines. Airway inflammation leads recruitment and activation of immune cells releasing mediators, including opioids, which may modulate inflammatory response by binding to their respective receptors. The study aims to explore the role of μOR antagonist (naltrexone) in regulating asthma pathophysiology, as the regulation of immune and inflammatory responses in asthma remains unclear. Balb/c mice were sensitized intranasally by 1% TDI and challenged with 2.5% TDI. Naltrexone hydrochloride (1 mg/kg body weight) was administered through intraperitoneal route 1 h before TDI induction. Blocking μOR by naltrexone exacerbates airway inflammation by recruiting inflammatory cells (lymphocytes and neutrophils), enhancing intracellular Reactive oxygen species in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), and inflammatory mediator (histamine, Eosinophil peroxidase and neutrophil elastase) in lungs. Naltrexone administration modulated inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-17A), and enhanced IgE and CRP levels. Naltrexone administration also increased the expression of NF-κB, and phosphorylated p-P38, p-Erk, p-JNK and NF-κB by inhibiting the μOR. Docking study revealed good binding affinity of naltrexone with μOR compared to δ and κ receptors. In future it might elucidate potential therapeutic against many respiratory pathological disorders. In conclusion, μOR blocking by naltrexone regulates and implicates inflammation, bronchoconstriction, and lung physiology.

Signalling Pathways Involved in Microglial Activation in Alzheimer's Disease and Potential Neuroprotective Role of Phytoconstituents

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a commonly reported neurodegenerative disorder associated with dementia and cognitive impairment. The pathophysiology of AD comprises Aβ, hyperphosphorylated tau protein formation, abrupt cholinergic cascade, oxidative stress, neuronal apoptosis, and neuroinflammation. Recent findings have established the profound role of immunological dysfunction and microglial activation in the pathogenesis of AD. Microglial activation is a multifactorial cascade encompassing various signalling molecules and pathways such as Nrf2/NLRP3/NF-kB/p38 MAPKs/ GSK-3β. Additionally, deposited Aβ or tau protein triggers microglial activation and accelerates its pathogenesis. Currently, the FDA-approved therapeutic regimens are based on the modulation of the cholinergic system, and recently, one more drug, aducanumab, has been approved by the FDA. On the one hand, these drugs only offer symptomatic relief and not a cure for AD. Additionally, no targetedbased microglial medicines are available for treating and managing AD. On the other hand, various natural products have been explored for the possible anti-Alzheimer effect via targeting microglial activation or different targets of microglial activation. Therefore, the present review focuses on exploring the mechanism and associated signalling related to microglial activation and a detailed description of various natural products that have previously been reported with anti-Alzheimer's effect via mitigation of microglial activation. Additionally, we have discussed the various patents and clinical trials related to managing and treating AD.

Overexpression of Eimeria tenella Rhoptry Kinase 2 Induces Early Production of Schizonts

Eimeria tenella is an obligate intracellular parasite responsible for avian coccidiosis. Like other apicomplexan parasites, such as Toxoplasma gondii, cell invasion and intracellular development rely on apical organelle content discharge, named micronemes and rhoptries. Some rhoptry (ROP) kinases (ROPK) are key virulence factors in T. gondii. To date, among the 28 ropk genes carried by E. tenella, only two to four were confirmed by proteomic analysis or immunostaining to be expressed at the sporozoite stage. We have previously shown that EtROP1 is implicated in the inhibition of host cell apoptosis by interacting with the cellular p53. This work functionally described the second ROP kinase expressed at the sporozoite stage in E. tenella. EtROP2 is an active kinase that phosphorylates cell substrates of approximately 50 kDa. Its overexpression leads to the shortening of the prepatent period and to the early development of first-generation schizonts. Conduction of RNA sequencing analysis and reverse transcriptase quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) on the host cell allowed us to identify the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway and the transcription factor cFos to be upregulated by EtROP2. We also showed by immunofluorescence assay that the active kinase EtROP2 is implicated in the p38 MAPK pathway activation. We established here that EtROP2 activates the p38 MAPK pathway through a direct or indirect phosphorylation, leading to the overexpression of the master transcription factor cFos known to be implicated in E. tenella development. IMPORTANCE Rhoptries are specialized secretory organelles found in zoite stages of apicomplexan parasites. In addition to well-conserved rhoptry neck proteins, their protein consists mostly of kinase proteins, highly divergent from eukaryotic kinases. Some of those kinases are described as major virulence factors in Toxoplasma gondii, secreted into the host cell to hijack signaling pathways. Most of those kinases remain to be characterized in Eimeria tenella. Deciphering their cellular function is a prerequisite to supporting their relevance as a druggable target in development of new means of Eimeria tenella control. Secreted divergent kinases that interact with host cell partners to modulate pathways are good candidates, as they coevolve with their host targets to ensure their function within the host and are less prone to mutations that would lead to drug resistance. The absence of any orthologous kinase in host cells makes these parasite kinases a promising drug target candidate.

Involvement of brain cell phenotypes in stress-vulnerability and resilience

Stress-related disorders' prevalence is epidemically increasing in modern society, leading to a severe impact on individuals' well-being and a great economic burden on public resources. Based on this, it is critical to understand the mechanisms by which stress induces these disorders. The study of stress made great progress in the past decades, from deeper into the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis to the understanding of the involvement of a single cell subtype on stress outcomes. In fact, many studies have used state-of-the-art tools such as chemogenetic, optogenetic, genetic manipulation, electrophysiology, pharmacology, and immunohistochemistry to investigate the role of specific cell subtypes in the stress response. In this review, we aim to gather studies addressing the involvement of specific brain cell subtypes in stress-related responses, exploring possible mechanisms associated with stress vulnerability versus resilience in preclinical models. We particularly focus on the involvement of the astrocytes, microglia, medium spiny neurons, parvalbumin neurons, pyramidal neurons, serotonergic neurons, and interneurons of different brain areas in stress-induced outcomes, resilience, and vulnerability to stress. We believe that this review can shed light on how diverse molecular mechanisms, involving specific receptors, neurotrophic factors, epigenetic enzymes, and miRNAs, among others, within these brain cell subtypes, are associated with the expression of a stress-susceptible or resilient phenotype, advancing the understanding/knowledge on the specific machinery implicate in those events.

Ameliorative Effect of Posidonia oceanica on High Glucose-Related Stress in Human Hepatoma HepG2 Cells

Metabolic disorders characterized by elevated blood glucose levels are a recognized risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Lipid dysregulation is critically involved in the HCC progression, regulating energy storage, metabolism, and cell signaling. There is a clear link between de novo lipogenesis in the liver and activation of the NF-κB pathway, which is involved in cancer metastasis via regulation of metalloproteinases MMP-2/9. As conventional therapies for HCC reach their limits, new effective and safe drugs need to be found for the prevention and/or adjuvant therapy of HCC. The marine plant Posidonia oceanica (L.) Delile is endemic to the Mediterranean and has traditionally been used to treat diabetes and other health disorders. The phenol-rich leaf extract of Posidonia oceanica (POE) is known to have cell-safe bioactivities. Here, high glucose (HG) conditions were used to study lipid accumulation and fatty acid synthase (FASN) expression in human HepG2 hepatoma cells using Oil Red O and Western blot assays. Under HG conditions, the activation status of MAPKs/NF-κB axis and MMP-2/9 activity were determined by Western blot and gelatin zymography assays. The potential ameliorative role of POE against HG-related stress in HepG2 cells was then investigated. POE reduced lipid accumulation and FASN expression with an impact on de novo lipogenesis. Moreover, POE inhibited the MAPKs/NF-κB axis and, consequently, MMP-2/9 activity. Overall, these results suggest that P. oceanica may be a potential weapon in the HCC additional treatment.

MicroRNAs-mediated regulation pathways in rheumatic diseases

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and ankylosing spondylitis (AS) are two common rheumatic disorders marked by persistent inflammatory joint disease. Patients with RA have osteodestructive symptoms, but those with AS have osteoproliferative manifestations. Ligaments, joints, tendons, bones, and muscles are all affected by rheumatic disorders. In recent years, many epigenetic factors contributing to the pathogenesis of rheumatoid disorders have been studied. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, non-coding RNA molecules implicated as potential therapeutic targets or biomarkers in rheumatic diseases. MiRNAs play a critical role in the modulation of bone homeostasis and joint remodeling by controlling fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs), chondrocytes, and osteocytes. Several miRNAs have been shown to be dysregulated in rheumatic diseases, including miR-10a, 16, 17, 18a, 19, 20a, 21, 27a, 29a, 34a, 103a, 125b, 132, 137, 143, 145, 146a, 155, 192, 203, 221, 222, 301a, 346, and 548a.The major molecular pathways governed by miRNAs in these cells are Wnt, bone-morphogenic protein (BMP), nuclear factor (NF)-κB, receptor activator of NF-κB (RANK)-RANK ligand (RANKL), and macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) receptor pathway. This review aimed to provide an overview of the most important signaling pathways controlled by miRNAs in rheumatic diseases.

Methionine played a positive role in improving the intestinal digestion capacity, anti-inflammatory reaction and oxidation resistance of grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella, fry

A study was carried out to appraisal the function of methionine on intestinal digestion and the health of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) fry (initial weight 0.36 ± 0.01 g). The fry were fed graded dietary methionine levels (0.33%-1.20% dry matter) in 18 recirculatory tanks (180 L). After an 8-week breeding experiment, the results revealed that 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels markedly upregulated the mRNA levels of intestinal digestion including trypsin, amylase, chymotrypsin and AKP, and 0.71%-0.87% dietary methionine level significantly increased intestinal trypsin activities compared with the 0.33% dietary methionine level. For inflammation, 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels downregulated the mRNA levels of NF-κBp65, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15 and IL-17D, whereas upregulated the mRNA levels of anti-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-4/13B, IL-10 and IL-11. In terms of antioxidants, although dietary methionine levels had no significant effect on the expression of most core genes of the Nrf2/ARE signaling pathway, such as Nrf2, Keap 1, GPx4, CAT, Cu/Zn-SOD. Furthermore, dietary methionine levels had no significant effect on the expression of p38MAPK, IL-12p35, TGF-β2 and IL-4/13A. 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels still increased the mRNA levels of GPx1α, GSTR and GSTP1. Furthermore, higher intestinal catalase activity and glutathione contents were also observed in fry fed 0.71%-1.20% diets. In summary, 0.71%-1.20% dietary methionine levels played a positive role in improving the intestinal digestion capacity of digestion, anti-inflammatory reaction and oxidation resistance of grass carp fry. This study provided a theoretical basis for improving the survival rate and growth of grass carp fry.

Pro-tumorigenic role of type 2 diabetes-induced cellular senescence in colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the second leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. The disease still remains incurable and highly lethal in the advanced stage, representing a global health concern. Therefore, it is essential to understand the causes and risk factors leading to its development. Because age-related cellular senescence and type 2 diabetes (T2D) have been recognised as risk factors for CRC development, the recent finding that type 2 diabetic patients present an elevated circulating volume of senescent cells raises the question whether type 2 diabetes facilitates the process of CRC tumorigenesis by inducing premature cell senescence. In this review, we will discuss the mechanisms according to which T2D induces cellular senescence and the role of type 2 diabetes-induced cellular senescence in the pathogenesis and progression of colorectal cancer. Lastly, we will explore the current therapeutic approaches and challenges in targeting senescence.

Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Protopine through MAPK and NF-κB Signaling Regulation in HepG2 Cell

Protopine is a substance used for hemostasis with an anti-inflammatory action and is one of the substances that are actively undergoing experiments to confirm their utility as anticancer agents. This study examined the molecular changes in the cellular signaling pathways associated with inflammatory responses in phorbol 12-myristate 13 acetate (PMA)-induced human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (Hep G2). The inhibition of PMA-induced phosphorylation of I-κB in HepG2, the effect of protopine on the MAPK signals, the inhibition of COX-2 activity, and the inhibition of MMP-9 as a medium of inflammatory response were evaluated by Western blot and qPCR. The effect of protopine on the survival rates in HepG2 cells was evaluated and found to be stable to a processing concentration of up to 40μM. Subsequent Western blot analyses showed that protopine blocks the transfer of the MAPKs cell signals induced by PMA and the transfer of the subunit of the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) to the nucleolus. Protopine inhibited the kappa alpha (I-κBα) phosphorylation in the cytosol and blocked PMA-induced inflammation via COX-2 activity inhibition. The expression of MMP-9 at the gene and protein levels, which is associated with cell migration and metastasis, was reduced by protopine.

The role of inflammation in neurodegeneration: novel insights into the role of the immune system in C9orf72 HRE-mediated ALS/FTD

Neuroinflammation is an important hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). An inflammatory reaction to neuronal injury is deemed vital for neuronal health and homeostasis. However, a continued activation of the inflammatory response can be detrimental to remaining neurons and aggravate the disease process. Apart from a disease modifying role, some evidence suggests that neuroinflammation may also contribute to the upstream cause of the disease. In this review, we will first focus on the role of neuroinflammation in the pathogenesis of chromosome 9 open reading frame 72 gene (C9orf72) hexanucleotide repeat expansions (HRE)-mediated ALS/FTD (C9-ALS/FTD). Additionally, we will discuss evidence from ex vivo and in vivo studies and finally, we briefly summarize the trials and progress of anti-inflammatory therapies.

Brain Volume Loss, Astrocyte Reduction, and Inflammation in Anorexia Nervosa

Anorexia nervosa is the third most common chronic disease in adolescence and is characterized by low body weight, body image distortion, weight phobia, and severe somatic consequences. Among the latter, marked brain volume reduction has been linked to astrocyte cell count reduction of about 50% in gray and white matter, while neuronal and other glial cell counts remain normal. Exact underlying mechanisms remain elusive; however, first results point to important roles of the catabolic state and the very low gonadal steroid hormones in these patients. They also appear to involve inflammatory states of "hungry astrocytes" and interactions with the gut microbiota. Functional impairments could affect the role of astrocytes in supporting neurons metabolically, neurotransmitter reuptake, and synapse formation, among others. These could be implicated in reduced learning, mood alterations, and sleep disturbances often seen in patients with AN and help explain their rigidity and difficulties in relearning processes in psychotherapy during starvation.

Oxidative Stress, Mitochondrial Function and Adaptation to Exercise: New Perspectives in Nutrition

Cells have the ability to adapt to stressful environments as a part of their evolution. Physical exercise induces an increase of a demand for energy that must be met by mitochondria as the main (ATP) provider. However, this process leads to the increase of free radicals and the so-called reactive oxygen species (ROS), which are necessary for the maintenance of cell signaling and homeostasis. In addition, mitochondrial biogenesis is influenced by exercise in continuous crosstalk between the mitochondria and the nuclear genome. Excessive workloads may induce severe mitochondrial stress, resulting in oxidative damage. In this regard, the objective of this work was to provide a general overview of the molecular mechanisms involved in mitochondrial adaptation during exercise and to understand if some nutrients such as antioxidants may be implicated in blunt adaptation and/or an impact on the performance of exercise by different means.

The injury response to DNA damage in live tumor cells promotes antitumor immunity

Although immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has strong clinical benefit for treating some tumor types, it fails in others, indicating a need for additional modalities to enhance the ICB effect. Here, we identified one such modality by using DNA damage to create a live, injured tumor cell adjuvant. Using an optimized ex vivo coculture system, we found that treating tumor cells with specific concentrations of etoposide, mitoxantrone, or doxorubicin markedly enhanced dendritic cell–mediated T cell activation. These immune-enhancing effects of DNA damage did not correlate with immunogenic cell death markers or with the extent of apoptosis or necroptosis; instead, these effects were mediated by live injured cells with activation of the DNA-PK, ATR, NF-κB, p38 MAPK, and RIPK1 signaling pathways. In mice, intratumoral injection of ex vivo etoposide–treated tumor cells in combination with systemic ICB (by anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA4 antibodies) increased the number of intratumoral CD103+ dendritic cells and circulating tumor-antigen–specific CD8+ T cells, decreased tumor growth, and improved survival. These effects were absent in Batf3−/− mice and in mice in which the DNA-damaging drug was injected directly into the tumor, due to DNA damage in the immune cells. The combination treatment induced complete tumor regression in a subset of mice that were then able to reject tumor rechallenge, indicating that the injured cell adjuvant treatment induced durable antitumor immunological memory. These results provide a strategy for enhancing the efficacy of immune checkpoint inhibition in tumor types that do not respond to this treatment modality by itself.

Role of the p38MAPK signaling pathway in hippocampal neuron autophagy in rats with chronic intermittent hypoxia

This study explored the role of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway in hippocampal neuron autophagy in rats with chronic intermittent hypoxia (CIH). Male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided to normoxic control (CON), CIH (optimal modeling time was determined prior by measuring the expression of several proteins after 2-, 4-, and 6-wk intermittent hypoxia), solvent (CIH+Veh), or p38MAPK inhibitor (CIH+SB203580) groups. DMSO and SB203580 were injected intraperitoneally 30 min before hypoxia in CIH+Veh and CIH+SB203580 group rats, respectively. Rat learning and memory were evaluated via the Morris water maze test. Ultrastructural changes in the hippocampal CA1 region autophagic vesicles and neurons were observed under transmission electron and light microscopy. Hippocampal microtubule-associated proteins were detected by western blot. Morris water maze test showed that CIH+SB203580 group rats spent significantly more time on the platform quadrant and crossed the platform more times than CIH+Veh group rats (P < 0.01). Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining showed greater rat cell damage in the CIH+SB group than in the CIH and CIH+Veh groups. Western blot analysis showed that CIH+SB group rats had significantly lower p-p38MAPK/p38MAPK, LC3I, and p62 expression and higher beclin-1 expression than CIH+Veh group rats (P < 0.01). Electron microscopy showed that CIH+SB203580 group rats had several small hippocampal neuron autophagic vesicles. On immunofluorescence analyses, it showed a higher LC3II expression in CIH+SB203580 group rats than in CIH+Veh group rats (P < 0.01). These results indicate that inhibition of the CIH p38MAPK signaling pathway can activate autophagy and protect hippocampal neurons in rats.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The pathophysiological processes related to autophagy obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAHS) are unclear. This study clarified that the inhibition of the p38MAPK signaling pathway could further activate autophagy in hippocampal nerve cells, thus reducing nerve cell injury.

Short-term transcriptomic response to plasma membrane injury

Plasma membrane repair mechanisms are activated within seconds post-injury to promote rapid membrane resealing in eukaryotic cells and prevent cell death. However, less is known about the regeneration phase that follows and how cells respond to injury in the short-term. Here, we provide a genome-wide study into the mRNA expression profile of MCF-7 breast cancer cells exposed to injury by digitonin, a mild non-ionic detergent that permeabilizes the plasma membrane. We focused on the early transcriptional signature and found a time-dependent increase in the number of differentially expressed (> twofold, P < 0.05) genes (34, 114 and 236 genes at 20-, 40- and 60-min post-injury, respectively). Pathway analysis highlighted a robust and gradual three-part transcriptional response: (1) prompt activation of immediate-early response genes, (2) activation of specific MAPK cascades and (3) induction of inflammatory and immune pathways. Therefore, plasma membrane injury triggers a rapid and strong stress and immunogenic response. Our meta-analysis suggests that this is a conserved transcriptome response to plasma membrane injury across different cell and injury types. Taken together, our study shows that injury has profound effects on the transcriptome of wounded cells in the regeneration phase (subsequent to membrane resealing), which is likely to influence cellular status and has been previously overlooked.

The effect of serum starvation on tight junctional proteins and barrier formation in Caco-2 cells

Assessing the ability of pharmaceutics to cross biological barriers and reach the site-of-action requires faithful representation of these barriers in vitro. Difficulties have arisen in replicating in vivo resistance in vitro. This paper investigated serum starvation as a method to increase Caco-2 barrier stability and resistance. The effect of serum starvation on tight junction production was examined using transwell models; specifically, transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER), and the expression and localization of tight junction proteins, occludin and zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1), were studied using western blotting and immunofluorescence. Changing cells to serum-free media 2 days post-seeding resulted in TEER readings of nearly 5000 Ω cm² but the TEER rapidly declined subsequently. Meanwhile, exchanging cells to serum-free media 4–6 days post-seeding produced barriers with resistance readings between 3000 and 4000 Ω cm², which could be maintained for 18 days. This corresponded to an increase in occludin levels. Serum starvation as a means of barrier formation is simple, reproducible, and cost-effective. It could feasibly be implemented in a variety of pre-clinical pharmaceutical assessments of drug permeability across various biological barriers with the view to improving the clinical translation of novel therapeutics.

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Serum starvation increases the intracellular resistance of Caco-2 cells.

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Max TEER values of 4783 ± 610 Ω cm² were achieved in serum free conditions.

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A barrier of 3000–4000 Ω cm² could be maintained for up to 18 days.

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Serum starvation leads to a significant increase in occludin expression.

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Occludin levels correlate significantly with corresponding TEER values.

Hypomethylating Chemotherapeutic Agents as Therapy for Myelodysplastic Syndromes and Prevention of Acute Myeloid Leukemia

Myelodysplastic Syndromes (MDSs) affect the elderly and can progress to Acute Myeloid Leukemia (AML). Epigenetic alterations including DNA methylation and chromatin modification may contribute to the initiation and progression of these malignancies. DNA hypomethylating agents such as decitabine and azacitidine are used as therapeutic treatments and have shown to promote expression of genes involved in tumor suppression, apoptosis, and immune response. Another anti-cancer drug, the proteasome inhibitor bortezomib, is used as a chemotherapeutic treatment for multiple myeloma (MM). Phase III clinical trials of decitabine and azacitidine used alone and in combination with other chemotherapeutics demonstrated their capacity to treat hematological malignancies and prolong the survival of MDS and AML patients. Although phase III clinical trials examining bortezomib's role in MDS and AML patients are limited, its underlying mechanisms in MM highlight its potential as a chemotherapeutic for such malignancies. Further research is needed to better understand how the epigenetic mechanisms mediated by these chemotherapeutic agents and their targeted gene networks are associated with the development and progression of MDS into AML. This review discusses the mechanisms by which decitabine, azacitidine, and bortezomib alter epigenetic programs and their results from phase III clinical trials.

Distinctive Properties and Powerful Neuromodulation of Nav1.6 Sodium Channels Regulates Neuronal Excitability

Voltage-gated sodium channels (Navs) are critical determinants of cellular excitability. These ion channels exist as large heteromultimeric structures and their activity is tightly controlled. In neurons, the isoform Na_v1.6 is highly enriched at the axon initial segment and nodes, making it critical for the initiation and propagation of neuronal impulses. Changes in Na_v1.6 expression and function profoundly impact the input-output properties of neurons in normal and pathological conditions. While mutations in Na_v1.6 may cause channel dysfunction, aberrant changes may also be the result of complex modes of regulation, including various protein-protein interactions and post-translational modifications, which can alter membrane excitability and neuronal firing properties. Despite decades of research, the complexities of Na_v1.6 modulation in health and disease are still being determined. While some modulatory mechanisms have similar effects on other Nav isoforms, others are isoform-specific. Additionally, considerable progress has been made toward understanding how individual protein interactions and/or modifications affect Na_v1.6 function. However, there is still more to be learned about how these different modes of modulation interact. Here, we examine the role of Na_v1.6 in neuronal function and provide a thorough review of this channel’s complex regulatory mechanisms and how they may contribute to neuromodulation.

Oxidative Stress and Pathways of Molecular Hydrogen Effects in Medicine

There are many situations of excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as radiation, ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), and inflammation. ROS contribute to and arises from numerous cellular pathologies, diseases, and aging. ROS can cause direct deleterious effects by damaging proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids as well as exert detrimental effects on several cell signaling pathways. However, ROS are important in many cellular functions. The injurious effect of excessive ROS can hypothetically be mitigated by exogenous antioxidants, but clinically this intervention is often not favorable. In contrast, molecular hydrogen provides a variety of advantages for mitigating oxidative stress due to its unique physical and chemical properties. H₂ may be superior to conventional antioxidants, since it can selectively reduce ●OH radicals while preserving important ROS that are otherwise used for normal cellular signaling. Additionally, H₂ exerts many biological effects, including antioxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, and anti-shock. H₂ accomplishes these effects by indirectly regulating signal transduction and gene expression, each of which involves multiple signaling pathways and crosstalk. The Keap1-Nrf2-ARE signaling pathway, which can be activated by H₂, plays a critical role in regulating cellular redox balance, metabolism, and inducing adaptive responses against cellular stress. H₂ also influences the crosstalk among the regulatory mechanisms of autophagy and apoptosis, which involve MAPKs, p53, Nrf2, NF-κB, p38 MAPK, mTOR, etc. The pleiotropic effects of molecular hydrogen on various proteins, molecules and signaling pathways can at least partly explain its almost universal pluripotent therapeutic potential.

Serotonin Transporter Ala276 Mouse: Novel Model to Assess the Neurochemical and Behavioral Impact of Thr276 Phosphorylation In Vivo

The serotonin (5-HT) transporter (SERT) is a key regulator of 5-HT signaling and is a major target for antidepressants and psychostimulants. Human SERT coding variants have been identified in subjects with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) that impact transporter phosphorylation, cell surface trafficking and/or conformational dynamics. Prior to an initial description of a novel mouse line expressing the non-phosphorylatable SERT substitution Thr276Ala, we review efforts made to elucidate the structure and conformational dynamics of SERT with a focus on research implicating phosphorylation at Thr276 as a determinant of SERT conformational dynamics. Using the high-resolution structure of human SERT in inward- and outward-open conformations, we explore the conformation dependence of SERT Thr276 exposure, with results suggesting that phosphorylation is likely restricted to an inward-open conformation, consistent with prior biochemical studies. Assessment of genotypes from SERT/Ala276 heterozygous matings revealed a deviation from Mendelian expectations, with reduced numbers of Ala276 offspring, though no genotype differences were seen in growth or physical appearance. Similarly, no genotype differences were evident in midbrain or hippocampal 5-HT levels, midbrain and hippocampal SERT mRNA or midbrain protein levels, nor in midbrain synaptosomal 5-HT uptake kinetics. Behaviorally, SERT Ala276 homozygotes appeared normal in measures of anxiety and antidepressant-sensitive stress coping behavior. However, these mice displayed sex-dependent alterations in repetitive and social interactions, consistent with circuit-dependent requirements for Thr276 phosphorylation underlying these behaviors. Our findings indicate the utility of SERT Ala276 mice in evaluation of developmental, functional and behavioral consequences of regulatory SERT phosphorylation in vivo.

Role of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling in virus replication and potential for developing broad spectrum antiviral drugs

Mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) play a key role in complex cellular processes such as proliferation, development, differentiation, transformation and apoptosis. Mammals express at least four distinctly regulated groups of MAPKs which include extracellular signal-related kinases (ERK)-1/2, p38 proteins, Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNK1/2/3) and ERK5. p38 MAPK is activated by a wide range of cellular stresses and modulates activity of several downstream kinases and transcription factors which are involved in regulating cytoskeleton remodeling, cell cycle modulation, inflammation, antiviral response and apoptosis. In viral infections, activation of cell signalling pathways is part of the cellular defense mechanism with the basic aim of inducing an antiviral state. However, viruses can exploit enhanced cell signalling activities to support various stages of their replication cycles. Kinase activity can be inhibited by small molecule chemical inhibitors, so one strategy to develop antiviral drugs is to target these cellular signalling pathways. In this review, we provide an overview on the current understanding of various cellular and viral events regulated by the p38 signalling pathway, with a special emphasis on targeting these events for antiviral drug development which might identify candidates with broad spectrum activity.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis ESX-1-secreted substrate protein EspC promotes mycobacterial survival through endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated apoptosis

EsxA, secreted by the ESAT-6 secretion system 1 (ESX-1) secretion system, is considered the major Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) virulence determinant. However, the roles of the individual ESX-1 substrates, such as EspC, remain unclear due to their interdependency for secretion with EsxA. Here, we validated that EspC triggered ER stress-mediated apoptosis in macrophages. The EspC-mediated ER stress was involved in pro-inflammatory cytokines generation, intracellular Ca₂₊ release, and reactive oxygen species accumulation. Mitochondrial transmembrane potential dissipation and mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization occurred in EspC-treated macrophages, causing apoptosis. Furthermore, ER stress-mediated apoptosis was effectively induced in EspC-overexpressing Mycobacterium smegmatis-infected macrophages and mice. EspC overexpression caused a significant increase in bacterial survival in the macrophages, spleens, and lungs, and accelerated mouse death was observed. Moreover, the increased viability of bacteria in the macrophages was significantly reduced by pretreatment with the apoptosis inhibitor. Overall, our results revealed that EspC is an essential ESX-1 protein for Mtb–host interactions and EspC-induced ER stress-mediated apoptosis may be employed by Mtb to establish and spread infection. Given the critical roles of the ESX systems in Mtb pathogenesis and immunity, our findings offer new perspectives on the complex host-pathogen interactions and mechanisms underlying ESX-1-mediated pathogenesis.

Peptides from Extruded Lupin (Lupinus albus L.) Regulate Inflammatory Activity via the p38 MAPK Signal Transduction Pathway in RAW 264.7 Cells

In this study, protein was extracted from extruded lupin and submitted to gastroduodenal digests to obtain lupin peptides, which were characterized using ultraperformance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). After this, IQDKEGIPPDQQR (IQD), the lupine peptide monomer characterized after UPLC-MS/MS, was screened out by macrophage inflammatory cytokine production assay. RNA-sequencing analysis was performed to explore the mechanisms underlying the anti-inflammatory activity associated with this peptide. The results indicated that lupin peptides effectively inhibited the lipopolysaccharide-induced overproduction of proinflammatory mediators. IQD inhibited the production of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 by 51.20, 38.52, 44.70, and 40.43%, respectively. RNA-sequencing results showed that IQD inhibited the inflammatory response by regulating the gene expression of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway and inhibiting downstream inflammatory cytokines. These bioactive peptides may be used to develop new ingredients for anti-inflammatory nutritional supplements.

Control of fetal globin expression in man: new opportunities to challenge past discoveries

Decades-old findings supporting origin of F cells in adult life from adult-type progenitors and the in vitro and in vivo enhancement of fetal globin under stress conditions have been juxtaposed against recent mechanistic underpinnings. An updated molecular interrogation did not debunk prior conclusions on the origin of F cells. Although fetal globin reactivation by widely diverse approaches in vitro and in response to anemic stresses in vivo is a work in progress, accumulating evidence converges toward an integrated stress response pathway. The newly uncovered developmental regulators of globin gene switching not only have provided answers to the long-awaited quest of transregulation of switching, they are also reaching a clinical threshold. Although the effect of fetal globin silencers has been robustly validated in adult cells, the response of cells at earlier developmental stages has been unclear and inadequately studied.

STAT3 Mediated miR-30a-5p Inhibition Enhances Proliferation and Inhibits Apoptosis in Colorectal Cancer Cells

Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), a transcriptional factor involved in tumorigenesis and cancer stemness formation, contributes to drug resistance in cancer therapies. STAT3 not only mediates gene transcription but also participates in microRNA suppression. This study identified a STAT3-downstream micro RNA (miRNA) involved in drug resistance against regorafenib in colorectal cancer stem-like tumorspheres. Small RNAseq was used to investigate differential microRNAs in colorectal cancer cell-derived tumorspheres and in a STAT3-knockdown strain. The miRNA-mediated genes were identified by comparing RNAseq data with gene targets predicted using TargetScan. Assays for detecting cell viability and apoptosis were used to validate findings. The formation of colorectal cancer stem-like tumorspheres was inhibited by BBI608, a STAT3 inhibitor, but not by regorafenib. Additional investigations for microRNA expression demonstrated an increase in 10 miRNAs and a decrease in 13 miRNAs in HT29-derived tumorspheres. A comparison of small RNAseq results between tumorspheres and HT29shSTAT3 cells revealed the presence of four STAT3-mediated miRNAs in HT29-derived tumorspheres: hsa-miR-215-5p, hsa-miR-4521, and hsa-miR-215-3p were upregulated, whereas miR-30a-5p was downregulated. Furthermore, hsa-miR-4521 was associated with poor overall survival probability, and miR-30a-5p was associated with better overall survival probability in patients with rectum cancer. Comparisons of RNAseq findings between HCT116- and HT29-derived tumorspheres revealed that HSPA5 were mediated by the STAT3-miR-30a-5p axis, which is overexpressed in colorectal tumorspheres associating to anti-apoptosis. In addition, the transfection of miR-30a-5p and inhibition of HSPA5 by HA15 significantly reduced cell viability and increased apoptosis in HT29 cells. In conclusion, a STAT3-miR-30a-5p-HSPA5 axis was observed against regorafenib-mediated apoptosis in colorectal cancer tumorspheres. The expression of miR-30a-5p was repressed by STAT3; in addition, HSPA5 was identified as the target gene of miR-30a-5p and contributed to both tumorsphere formation and anti-apoptosis.

Biochanin A impedes STAT3 activation by upregulating p38δ MAPK phosphorylation in IL-6-stimulated macrophages

OBJECTIVE

IL-6-induced STAT3 activation is associated with various chronic inflammatory diseases. In this study, we investigated the anti-STAT3 mechanism of the dietary polyphenol, biochanin A (BCA), in IL-6-treated macrophages.

METHODS

The effect of BCA on STAT3 and p38 MAPK was analyzed by immunoblot. The localization of both these transcription factors was determined by immunofluorescence and fractionation studies. The impact on DNA-binding activity of STAT3 was studied by luciferase assay. To understand which of the isoforms of p38 MAPK was responsible for BCA-mediated regulation of STAT3, overexpression of the proteins, site-directed mutagenesis, pull-down assays and computational analysis were performed. Finally, adhesion-migration assays and semi-quantitative PCR were employed to understand the biological effects of BCA-mediated regulation of STAT3.

RESULTS

BCA prevented STAT3 phosphorylation (Tyr⁷⁰⁵) and increased p38 MAPK phosphorylation (Thr¹⁸⁰/Tyr¹⁸²) in IL-6-stimulated differentiated macrophages. This opposing modulatory effect of BCA was not observed in cells treated with other stress-inducing stimuli that activate p38 MAPK. BCA abrogated IL-6-induced nuclear translocation of phospho-STAT3 and its transcriptional activity, while increasing the cellular abundance of phospho-p38 MAPK. BCA-induced phosphorylation of p38δ, but not α, β, or γ was responsible for impeding IL-6-induced STAT3 phosphorylation. Interestingly, interaction with phospho-p38δ masked the Tyr⁷⁰⁵ residue of STAT3, preventing its phosphorylation. BCA significantly reduced STAT3-dependent expression of icam-1 and mcp-1 diminishing IL-6-mediated monocyte adhesion and migration.

CONCLUSION

This differential regulation of STAT3 and p38 MAPK in macrophages establishes a novel anti-inflammatory mechanism of BCA which could be important for the prevention of IL-6-associated chronic inflammatory diseases.

The molecular mechanisms associated with the physiological responses to inflammation and oxidative stress in cardiovascular diseases

The complex physiological signal transduction networks that respond to the dual challenges of inflammatory and oxidative stress are major factors that promote the development of cardiovascular pathologies. These signaling networks contribute to the development of age-related diseases, suggesting crosstalk between the development of aging and cardiovascular disease. Inhibition and/or attenuation of these signaling networks also delays the onset of disease. Therefore, a concept of targeting the signaling networks that are involved in inflammation and oxidative stress may represent a novel treatment paradigm for many types of heart disease. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms associated with the physiological responses to inflammation and oxidative stress especially in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction and emphasize the nature of the crosstalk of these signaling processes as well as possible therapeutic implications for cardiovascular medicine.

An overview of mammalian p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases, central regulators of cell stress and receptor signaling

The p38 family is a highly evolutionarily conserved group of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) that is involved in and helps co-ordinate cellular responses to nearly all stressful stimuli. This review provides a succinct summary of multiple aspects of the biology, role, and substrates of the mammalian family of p38 kinases. Since p38 activity is implicated in inflammatory and other diseases, we also discuss the clinical implications and pharmaceutical approaches to inhibit p38.

The Thioredoxin System: A Promising Target for Cancer Drug Development

The thioredoxin system is highly conserved system found in all living cells and comprises NADPH, thioredoxin, and thioredoxin reductase. This system plays a critical role in preserving a reduced intracellular environment, and its involvement in regulating a wide range of cellular functions makes it especially vital to cellular homeostasis. Its critical role is not limited to healthy cells, it is also involved in cancer development, and is overexpressed in many cancers. This makes the thioredoxin system a promising target for cancer drug development. As such, over the last decade, many inhibitors have been developed that target the thioredoxin system, most of which are small molecules targeting the thioredoxin reductase C-terminal redox center. A few inhibitors of thioredoxin have also been developed. We believe that more efforts should be invested in developing protein/peptide-based inhibitors against both thioredoxin reductase and/or thioredoxin.

Resveratrol protects human bronchial epithelial cells against nickel-induced toxicity via suppressing p38 MAPK, NF-κB signaling, and NLRP3 inflammasome activation

Nickel is a common environmental pollutant that can impair the lung, but the underlying mechanisms have not yet been fully elucidated. Furthermore, natural products are generally used to inhibit cell damage induced by heavy metal. Resveratrol possesses wide biological activities, including anti-inflammation and antioxidative stress. This study was conducted to explore the toxicity of nickel on human bronchial epithelial (BEAS-2B) cells and evaluate the protective effect of resveratrol. The results showed that nickel could induce cell apoptosis, increase oxidative stress, and promote the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, IL-8, C-reaction protein. Western blot analysis showed that nickel activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), nuclear factor-kappa B, and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor pyrin-domain-containing protein 3 pathways, while resveratrol could reverse these effects. Our results suggested that resveratrol could protect BEAS-2B cells from nickel-induced cytotoxicity. Therefore, resveratrol is a potential chemopreventive agent against nickel-induced lung disease.

Network Pharmacology Approach Reveals the Potential Immune Function Activation and Tumor Cell Apoptosis Promotion of Xia Qi Decoction in Lung Cancer

As the leading cause of cancer death worldwide, lung cancer (LC) has seriously affected human health and longevity. Chinese medicine is a complex system guided by traditional Chinese medicine theories (TCM). Nowadays, the clinical application of TCM for LC patients has become the focus for its effectiveness and security. In this paper, we will analyze and study the mechanism of Xia Qi Decoction (XQD) in the treatment of LC. The results collectively show that XQD could act on 41 therapeutic targets of LC. At the same time, 8 of 41 targets were significantly expressed in immune tissues and cells by activating CD8+T cells to promote apoptosis of cancer cells. It reveals the molecular mechanism of XQD in the treatment of LC from the perspective of network pharmacology. In addition, in the treatment of LC, XQD can activate (up-regulate) the function of immune cells, promote the apoptosis of tumor cells, and have an active anti-tumor immune effect. In conclusion, this study reveals the unique advantages of traditional Chinese medicine in the treatment of cancer, in reinforcing the healthy qi and eliminating the pathogenic factors. More research, however, is needed to verify the potential mechanisms.

Mechanism Underlying the Protective Effect of Selenium on NO-Induced Oxidative Damage in Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells

This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects and mechanism of selenium (Se) on antioxidant and immune function of bovine mammary epithelial cells (BMEC) damaged by nitric oxide (NO). The third-generation BMEC was randomly divided into eight treatments with six replicates. The BMEC in the control group was cultured in the medium without Se and diethylenetriamine/NO (DETA/NO) for 30 h. For the DETA/NO group and Se protection group BMEC were exposed to different concentrations of Se (0, 10, 20, 50, 100, 150, and 200 nmol/L) for 24 h, followed by treatment with DETA/NO (1000 μmol/L) for 6 h. Compared with the control group, DETA/NO decreased proliferation rate and activity of thioredoxin reductase (TrxR; P < 0.05). Additionally, DETA/NO decreased the gene expression of both nuclear factor-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and TrxR, as well as the protein expression level of TrxR. However, the activity, and expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), as well as the concentration and gene expression level of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and the concentration of NO significantly increased (P < 0.05). The gene expression levels of indexes related to the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway showed similar changes. Treatment of BMEC with Se significantly reversed DETA/NO-induced changes in a linear or quadratic dose-dependent manner (P < 0.05), with greatest benefit at 50 nmol/L. These data suggests that Se improves the antioxidant function of BMEC, and protects cells from DETA/NO-induced oxidative damage, primarily by enhancing the activity of TrxR and decreasing the concentration of NO through modulation of Nrf2 and MAPK signaling pathways.

Exosomes Derived from Bovine Mammary Epithelial Cells Treated with Transforming Growth Factor-β1 Inhibit the Proliferation of Bovine Macrophages

Transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 is a multifunctional cytokine that plays an important role in regulating immune cell proliferation. We speculate that high expression of TGF-β1 may affect the immunity of dairy cows. In this study, untreated exosomes (un-exo) derived from an untreated bovine mammary epithelial cell line (MAC-T) and TGF-β1-treated exosomes (t-exo) derived from TGF-β1-treated MAC-T cells were isolated by ultracentrifugation and identified by electron microscopy and Western blotting. Then, un-exo and t-exo were used to treat a bovine macrophage cell line (BOSMAC), and the proliferative ability of BOSMAC cells was detected by an 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide assay and flow cytometry. The expression and phosphorylation levels of p38 were analyzed by q-PCR and Western blotting. The results showed that both exosome types exhibited the basic characteristics of exosomes. In BOSMAC cells treated with t-exo, significant inhibition of cell proliferation was observed, and the cell cycle progression was inhibited, while no difference was found between the un-exo and control groups. Only treatment with t-exo increased the expression and phosphorylation of p38, and the addition of the p38 inhibitor SB203580 abrogated the inhibition of BOSMAC cell proliferation by t-exo. Our results demonstrated that t-exo inhibited the proliferation of bovine macrophages by stimulating p38 MAPK and might interfere with immunity in dairy cattle. This finding may provide a new strategy for improving immunity and preventing breast-related diseases in dairy cows.

JLP-centrosome is essential for the microtubule-mediated nucleocytoplasmic transport induced by extracellular stimuli

JLP belongs to the JIP family whose members serve as scaffolding proteins that link motor proteins and their cargo for intracellular transport. Although JLP is mainly cytoplasmic, it accumulates as a focus in the perinuclear region when stimulated by extracellular stimuli. Focus formation, which changes the nucleus shape and concentrates the nuclear pores, depends on p38MAPK activation and the dynein retrograde motor protein complex. Extracellular stimuli trigger the tethering of PLK1 to the centrosome by JLP, leading to centrosome maturation and microtubule array formation. The centrosome localization domain of JLP is important for the binding of the centrosome and the formation of the JLP focus and the microtubule array. Furthermore, the formation of the JLP focus and the microtubule array is interdependent and important for the transport of NF-κB p65 to the nucleus and its unloading therein. In conclusion, JLP exhibits multiple functions in the nuclear translocation of NF-κB p65.

Mode of photoexcited C60 fullerene involvement in potentiating cisplatin toxicity against drug-resistant L1210 cells

Introduction: C₆₀ fullerene has received great attention as a candidate for biomedical applications. Due to unique structure and properties, C₆₀ fullerene nanoparticles are supposed to be useful in drug delivery, photodynamic therapy (PDT) of cancer, and reversion of tumor cells’ multidrug resistance. The aim of this study was to elucidate the possible molecular mechanisms involved in photoexcited C₆₀ fullerene-dependent enhancement of cisplatin toxicity against leukemic cells resistant to cisplatin.

Methods: Stable homogeneous pristine C₆₀ fullerene aqueous colloid solution (10^-4 М, purity 99.5%) was used in the study. The photoactivation of C₆₀ fullerene accumulated by L1210R cells was done by irradiation in microplates with light-emitting diode lamp (420-700 nm light, 100 mW·cm^-2). Cells were further incubated with the addition of Cis-Pt to a final concentration of 1 μg/mL. Activation of p38 MAPK was visualized by Western blot analysis. Flow cytometry was used for the estimation of cells distribution on cell cycle. Mitochondrial membrane potential (Δψ_m) was estimated with the use of fluorescent potential-sensitive probe TMRE (Tetramethylrhodamine Ethyl Ester).

Results: Cis-Pt applied alone at 1 μg/mL concentration failed to affect mitochondrial membrane potential in L1210R cells or cell cycle distribution as compared with untreated cells. Activation of ROS-sensitive proapoptotic p38 kinase and enhanced content of cells in subG1 phase were detected after irradiation of L1210R cells treated with 10^-5M C₆₀ fullerene. Combined treatment with photoexcited C₆₀ fullerene and Cis-Pt was followed by the dissipation of Δψ_m at early-term period, blockage of cell transition into S phase, and considerable accumulation of cells in proapoptotic subG1 phase at prolonged incubation.

Conclusion: The effect of the synergic cytotoxic activity of both agents allowed to suppose that photoexcited C₆₀ fullerene promoted Cis-Pt accumulation in leukemic cells resistant to Cis-Pt. The data obtained could be useful for the development of new approaches to overcome drug-resistance of leukemic cells.

Low‑intensity pulsed ultrasound promotes apoptosis and inhibits angiogenesis via p38 signaling‑mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress in human endothelial cells

Aberrant increase in angiogenesis contributes to the progression of malignant solid tumors. An alternative anti-angiogenesis therapy is critical for cancer, since the current anti-angiogenesis drugs lack specificity for tumor cells. In the present study, the effects and mechanisms of low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) on human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) and human microvascular endothelial cells (HMECs) were investigated, and the therapeutic potential of this technology was assessed. HUVECs and HMECs were treated with LIPUS (0.5 MHz; 210 mW/cm²) for 1 min and cultured for 24 h. Flow cytometry and Cell Counting Kit-8 assays demonstrated that LIPUS treatment at a dose of 210 mW/cm² promoted apoptosis and decreased the viability in HUVECs and HMECs. Real-time cell analysis also revealed that LIPUS did not affect the proliferation or migration of HUVECs. An endothelial cell tube formation assay indicated that LIPUS treatment inhibited the angiogenic ability of HUVECs and HMECs. Furthermore, LIPUS increased the protein levels of the apoptosis-associated cleaved Caspase-3 and decreased the B-cell lymphoma-2 levels. LIPUS increased the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and the levels of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-associated markers, including activating transcription factor-4 (ATF-4) and phosphorylated eukaryotic initiation factor 2α (eIF2α). The p38 inhibitor SB203580 reversed the pro-apoptotic and anti-angiogenic effects of LIPUS in cells. Finally, inhibition of p38 decreased the LIPUS-induced elevation of p-eIF2α and ATF-4 levels. Taken together, these results suggested that LIPUS promoted apoptosis and inhibited angiogenesis in human endothelial cells via the activation of p38 MAPK-mediated ER stress signaling.

Correlation of P38 Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Expression to Clinical Stage in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is uncommon and usually diagnosed at the advanced stage. A subfamily of mitogen-activated protein kinase which is called p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) involved in response to stress, and plays an important role in cell regulation. There is a suggestion that p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase could be a potential biomarker to determine the clinical stage of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

AIM

The aim of this study is for observing and analysing the correlation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase expression in regards to nasopharyngeal carcinoma patient's clinical stage.

METHODS

This study involved 126 nasopharyngeal carcinoma patients admitted to Haji Adam Malik General Hospital.

RESULTS

The result of this study indicates that nasopharyngeal carcinoma mostly found in the age group 41-60 years, male, non-keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma, and stage IV group. In immunohistochemistry evaluation, most of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase overexpressed in non-keratinizing squamous cell carcinoma, T3-T4, N2-N3 and clinical stage III-IV. Spearman's test for categorical correlation yield p-value of < 0.001.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, there is a significant correlation between p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase expression and the clinical stage of nasopharyngeal carcinoma.

Inhibition of NKCC1 Modulates Alveolar Fluid Clearance and Inflammation in Ischemia-Reperfusion Lung Injury via TRAF6-Mediated Pathways

Background: The expression of Na-K-2Cl cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) in the alveolar epithelium is responsible for fluid homeostasis in acute lung injury (ALI). Increasing evidence suggests that NKCC1 is associated with inflammation in ALI. We hypothesized that inhibiting NKCC1 would attenuate ALI after ischemia-reperfusion (IR) by modulating pathways that are mediated by tumor necrosis-associated factor 6 (TRAF6).

Methods: IR-ALI was induced by producing 30 min of ischemia followed by 90 min of reperfusion in situ in an isolated and perfused rat lung model. The rats were randomly allotted into four groups comprising two control groups and two IR groups with and without bumetanide. Alveolar fluid clearance (AFC) was measured for each group. Mouse alveolar MLE-12 cells were cultured in control and hypoxia-reoxygenation (HR) conditions with or without bumetanide. Flow cytometry and transwell monolayer permeability assay were carried out for each group.

Results: Bumetanide attenuated the activation of p-NKCC1 and lung edema after IR. In the HR model, bumetanide decreased the cellular volume and increased the transwell permeability. In contrast, bumetanide increased the expression of epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) via p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38 MAPK), which attenuated the reduction of AFC after IR. Bumetanide also modulated lung inflammation via nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). TRAF6, which is upstream of p38 MAPK and NF-κB, was attenuated by bumetanide after IR and HR.

Conclusions: Inhibition of NKCC1 by bumetanide reciprocally modulated epithelial p38 MAPK and NF-κB via TRAF6 in IR-ALI. This interaction attenuated the reduction of AFC via upregulating ENaC expression and reduced lung inflammation.

Maternal exposure to nonylphenol during pregnancy and lactation induces microglial cell activation and pro-inflammatory cytokine production in offspring hippocampus

Recently, environmental nonylphenol (NP) exposure in the fetus and child has received increasing attention because of its potentially deleterious effects on the central nervous system (CNS). Microglia (MG), resident immune cells in the CNS, are vital to CNS homeostasis and defense against exogenous chemicals, which makes them a potentially sensitive target of NP. The present study aims to explore the effects of maternal NP exposure during pregnancy and lactation on MG in offspring hippocampus, the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by MG, and associated underlying mechanisms. We found that maternal NP exposure increased the production of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) in offspring hippocampus. Increases in both activation and number of MG were observed in offspring hippocampus. Increased phosphorylation of Akt was found to co-localize with hippocampal MG, while increased phosphorylation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) were observed in offspring hippocampus. Activator protein 1 (AP-1), an inflammatory transcription factor, was also activated in the hippocampus of pups subjected to maternal NP exposure. These results suggest that maternal NP exposure might activate MG in offspring hippocampus. This activation seems to subsequently increase the production of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α. Furthermore, Akt/MAPK/AP-1 signaling may be involved in this activation of MG and increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Involvement of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) in the mechanism of neuroleptic drugs

BACKGROUND

Recent evidence suggests that the mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK)-associated signaling pathway in the frontal cortical areas demonstrates abnormal activity in cases of schizophrenia. Moreover, schizophrenia patients often display alterations in the regional cellular energy metabolism and blood flow of the brain; these are shown to parallel changes in angiogenesis primarily mediated by vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF).

METHODS

The present study examines the differential effects of time-dependent treatment with haloperidol, olanzapine and amisulpride (20μM) on VEGF and MAPK mRNA expression and VEGF level, using the T98 cell line as an example of nerve cells. For the purposes of comparison, the effect of neuroprotective pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) on the expression of VEGF mRNA and secretion were also evaluated in this cell model.

RESULTS

RT-PCR analysis revealed that all the tested neuroleptics increased VEGF mRNA expression after 72-h incubation; however, only haloperidol and olanzapine also increased the level of VEGF detected by ELISA, and they demonstrated significantly stronger effects than PACAP. Haloperidol and olanzapine, but not amisulpride, decreased MAPK14 mRNA expression in T98G cells after 72-h incubation.

CONCLUSION

The obtained results suggest that haloperidol and olanzapine can trigger the MAPK and VEGF signaling pathway, which may contribute to their neuroprotective mechanism of action.