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Pozzi S, Satchi-Fainaro R. The role of CCL2/CCR2 axis in cancer and inflammation: The next frontier in nanomedicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2024; 209:115318. [PMID: 38643840 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2024.115318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 04/17/2024] [Accepted: 04/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
The communication between cells and their microenvironment represents an intrinsic and essential attribute that takes place in several biological processes, including tissue homeostasis and tissue repair. Among these interactions, inflammation is certainly a central biological response that occurs through cytokines and the crosstalk with their respective receptors. In particular, the interaction between CCL2 and its main receptor, CCR2, plays a pivotal role in both harmful and protective inflammatory states, including cancer-mediated inflammation. The activation of the CCL2/CCR2 axis was shown to dictate the migration of macrophages with immune-suppressive phenotype and to aggravate the progression of different cancer types. In addition, this interaction mediates metastasis formation, further limiting the potential therapeutic outcome of anti-cancer drugs. Attempts to inhibit pharmacologically the CCL2/CCR2 axis have yet to show its anti-cancer efficacy as a single agent, but it sheds light on its role as a powerful tool to selectively alleviate pro-tumorigenic and anti-repair inflammation. In this review, we will elucidate the role of CCL2/CCR2 axis in promoting cancer inflammation by activating the host pro-tumorigenic phenotype. Moreover, we will provide some insight into the potential therapeutic benefit of targeting the CCL2/CCR2 axis for cancer and inflammation using novel delivery systems, aiming to sensitize non-responders to currently approved immunotherapies and offer new combinatory approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Pozzi
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Ronit Satchi-Fainaro
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel; Sagol School of Neurosciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel.
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Ishijima T, Nakajima K. Restoration of injured motoneurons reduces microglial proliferation in the adult rat facial nucleus. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2024; 83:168-180. [PMID: 38263471 DOI: 10.1093/jnen/nlad116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2024] Open
Abstract
In the axotomized facial nucleus (axotFN), the levels of choline acetyltransferase, vesicular acetylcholine transporter, and gamma amino butyric acid A receptor α1 are decreased, after which the microglia begin to proliferate around injured motoneuron cell bodies. We conjectured that an injury signal released from the injured motoneurons triggers the microglial proliferation in the axotFN. However, it is unclear whether the level of microglial proliferation is dependent on the degree of motoneuronal insult. In this study, we investigated the relationship between the extents of motoneuronal injury and microglial proliferation in a rat axotFN model. Administration of glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor, N-acetyl L-cysteine, or salubrinal at the transection site ameliorated the increase in c-Jun and the reductions in levels of phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein (p-CREB) and functional molecules in the injured motoneurons. Concurrently, the levels of the microglial marker ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1 and of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (cFms), proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and p-p38/p38 were significantly downregulated in microglia. These results demonstrate that the recovery of motoneuron function resulted in the reduction in microglial proliferation. We conclude that the degree of neuronal injury regulates the levels of microglial proliferation in the axotFN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Ishijima
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Soka University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Nakajima
- Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Soka University, Tokyo, Japan
- Glycan & Life Systems Integration Center, Soka University, Tokyo, Japan
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Goto A, Yamamoto S, Igari T, Matsumoto SI, Chisaki I, Iida K, Nakayama M, Oda A, Kakoi Y, Uchida A, Miyata K, Nishikawa M, Nagata T, Kusuhara H, Yokota T, Hirabayashi H. Quantitative Model Analysis and Simulation of Pharmacokinetics and Metastasis-Associated Lung Adenocarcinoma 1 RNA Knockdown Effect After Systemic Administration of Cholesterol-Conjugated DNA/RNA Heteroduplex Oligonucleotide Crossing Blood-Brain Barrier of Mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2023; 384:197-204. [PMID: 36273821 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.122.001331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The cholesterol-conjugated heteroduplex oligonucleotide (Chol-HDO) is a double-stranded complex; it comprises an antisense oligonucleotide (ASO) and its complementary strand with a cholesterol ligand. Chol-HDO is a powerful tool for achieving target RNA knockdown in the brains of mice after systemic injection. Here, a quantitative model analysis was conducted to characterize the relationship between the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamics (PD), non-coding RNA metastasis-associated lung adenocarcinoma 1 (Malat1) RNA, of Chol-HDO, in a time-dependent manner. The established PK model could describe regional differences in the observed brain concentration-time profiles. Incorporating the PD model enabled the unique knockdown profiles in the brain to be explained in terms of the time delay after single dosing and enhancement following repeated dosing. Moreover, sensitivity analysis of PK exposure/persistency, target RNA turnover, and knockdown potency identified key factors for the efficient and sustained target RNA knockdown in the brain. The simulation of an adequate dosing regimen quantitatively supported the benefit of Chol-HDO in terms of achieving a suitable dosing interval. This was achieved via sufficient and sustained brain exposure and subsequent strong and sustained target RNA knockdown in the brain, even after systemic injection. The present study provides new insights into drug discoveries and development strategies for HDO in patients with neurogenic disorders. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The quantitative model analysis presented here characterized the PK/PD relationship of Chol-HDO, enabled its simulation under various conditions or assumptions, and identified key factors for efficient and sustained RNA knockdown, such as PK exposure and persistency. Chol-HDO appears to be an efficient drug delivery system for the systemic administration of desired drugs to brain targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akihiko Goto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Syunsuke Yamamoto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Tomoko Igari
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Shin-Ichi Matsumoto
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Ikumi Chisaki
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Koichi Iida
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Miyu Nakayama
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Akira Oda
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Yuuichi Kakoi
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Akio Uchida
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Kenichi Miyata
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Makiya Nishikawa
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Tetsuya Nagata
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Hiroyuki Kusuhara
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Takanori Yokota
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
| | - Hideki Hirabayashi
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Research Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.G., S.Y., T.I., S.M., I.C., K.I., Mi.N., H.H.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery Unit, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.O., Y.K.); Asia New Chemical Entity Production Laboratories, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Limited, Kanagawa, Japan (A.U., K.M.); Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Chiba, Japan (Ma.N.); Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacokinetics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan (H.K.); and Department of Neurology and Neurologic Science, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan. (T.N., T.Y.)
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4
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Quaranta DV, Weaver RR, Baumann KK, Fujimoto T, Williams LM, Kim HC, Logsdon AF, Omer M, Reed MJ, Banks WA, Erickson MA. Transport of the Proinflammatory Chemokines C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 (MCP-1) and C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 5 (RANTES) across the Intact Mouse Blood-Brain Barrier Is Inhibited by Heparin and Eprodisate and Increased with Systemic Inflammation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2023; 384:205-223. [PMID: 36310035 PMCID: PMC9827507 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.122.001380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
One important function of the vascular blood-brain barrier (BBB) is to facilitate neuroimmune communication. The BBB fulfills this function, in part, through its ability to transport cytokines and chemokines. C-C motif chemokine receptor 2 (CCL2) (MCP-1) and C-C motif chemokine receptor 5 (CCL5) (RANTES) are proinflammatory chemokines that mediate neuroimmune responses to acute insults and aspects of brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases; however, a blood-to-brain transport system has not been evaluated for either chemokine in vivo. Therefore, we determined whether CCL2 and CCL5 in blood can cross the intact BBB and enter the brain. Using CD-1 mice, we found that 125I-labeled CCL2 and CCL5 crossed the BBB and entered the brain parenchyma. We next aimed to identify the mechanisms of 125I-CCL2 and 125I-CCL5 transport in an in situ brain perfusion model. We found that both heparin and eprodisate inhibited brain uptake of 125I-CCL2 and 125I-CCL5 in situ, whereas antagonists of their receptors, CCR2 or CCR5, respectively, did not, suggesting that heparan sulfates at the endothelial surface mediate BBB transport. Finally, we showed that CCL2 and CCL5 transport across the BBB increased following a single injection of 0.3 mg/kg lipopolysaccharide. These data demonstrate that CCL2 and CCL5 in the brain can derive, in part, from the circulation, especially during systemic inflammation. Further, binding to the BBB-associated heparan sulfate is a mechanism by which both chemokines can cross the intact BBB, highlighting a novel therapeutic target for treating neuroinflammation. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Our work demonstrates that C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) and C-C motif chemokine ligand 5 (CCL5) can cross the intact blood-brain barrier and that transport is robustly increased during inflammation. These data suggest that circulating CCL2 and CCL5 can contribute to brain levels of each chemokine. We further show that the transport of both chemokines is inhibited by heparin and eprodisate, suggesting that CCL2/CCL5-heparan sulfate interactions could be therapeutically targeted to limit accumulation of these chemokines in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel V Quaranta
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Riley R Weaver
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Kristen K Baumann
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Takashi Fujimoto
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Lindsey M Williams
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Hyung Chan Kim
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Aric F Logsdon
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Mohamed Omer
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - May J Reed
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - William A Banks
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
| | - Michelle A Erickson
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Healthcare System, Seattle, Washington (D.V.Q., R.R.W., K.K.B., T.F., L.M.W., H.C.K., A.F.L., M.O., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.); Department of Neurosurgery, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan (T.F.); and Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington (H.C.K., A.F.L., M.J.R., W.A.B., M.A.E.)
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5
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Abdullah NAH, Sainik NQAV, Esa E, Muhamad Hendri NA, Ahmad Rusmili MR, Hodgson WC, Shaikh MF, Othman I. Neuroprotective effect of phospholipase A 2 from Malaysian Naja sumatrana venom against H 2O 2-induced cell damage and apoptosis. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:935418. [PMID: 36313292 PMCID: PMC9614335 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.935418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 10/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress is one of the factors involved in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases. It has been reported that a secretory phospholipase A2 known as A2-EPTX-NSm1a has lower cytotoxicity in neuronal cells compared to its crude Naja sumatrana venom. In this study, A2-EPTX-NSm1a was tested for its neuroprotective activity on human neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) differentiated into cholinergic neurons against oxidative stress induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). H2O2 treatment alone increased the caspase-3 and caspase-8 activities, whereas pre-treatment with A2-EPTX-NSm1a reduced the activity of these apoptosis-associated proteins. Moreover, A2-EPTX-NSm1a protects the morphology and ultrastructure of differentiated SH-SY5Y cells in the presence of H2O2. Oxidative stress increased the number of small mitochondria. Further evaluation showed the size of mitochondria with a length below 0.25 µm in oxidative stress conditions is higher than the control group, suggesting mitochondria fragmentation. Pre-treatment with A2-EPTX-NSm1a attenuated the number of mitochondria in cells with H2O2 Furthermore, A2-EPTX-NSm1a altered the expression of several neuroprotein biomarkers of GDNF, IL-8, MCP-1, TIMP-1, and TNF-R1 in cells under oxidative stress induced by H2O2. These findings indicate that anti-apoptosis with mitochondria-related protection, anti-inflammatory effect, and promote expression of important markers for cell survival may underlie the neuroprotective effect of A2-EPTX-NSm1a in cholinergic rich human cells under oxidative stress, a vital role in the neuronal disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Atiqah Haizum Abdullah
- Neuropharmacology Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
- Faculty of Medicine, Centre for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nur Qisya Afifah Veronica Sainik
- Haematology Unit, Cancer Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health Malaysia, Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | - Ezalia Esa
- Haematology Unit, Cancer Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health Malaysia, Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | - Nur Afrina Muhamad Hendri
- Department of Electron Microscopy, Institute for Medical Research, National Institutes of Health Malaysia, Shah Alam, Malaysia
| | | | - Wayne C. Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Monash Venom Group, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Mohd Farooq Shaikh
- Neuropharmacology Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Iekhsan Othman
- Neuropharmacology Research Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
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6
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Events Occurring in the Axotomized Facial Nucleus. Cells 2022; 11:cells11132068. [PMID: 35805151 PMCID: PMC9266054 DOI: 10.3390/cells11132068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Transection of the rat facial nerve leads to a variety of alterations not only in motoneurons, but also in glial cells and inhibitory neurons in the ipsilateral facial nucleus. In injured motoneurons, the levels of energy metabolism-related molecules are elevated, while those of neurofunction-related molecules are decreased. In tandem with these motoneuron changes, microglia are activated and start to proliferate around injured motoneurons, and astrocytes become activated for a long period without mitosis. Inhibitory GABAergic neurons reduce the levels of neurofunction-related molecules. These facts indicate that injured motoneurons somehow closely interact with glial cells and inhibitory neurons. At the same time, these events allow us to predict the occurrence of tissue remodeling in the axotomized facial nucleus. This review summarizes the events occurring in the axotomized facial nucleus and the cellular and molecular mechanisms associated with each event.
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7
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Santos J, Dalla PV, Milthorpe BK. Molecular Dynamics of Cytokine Interactions and Signalling of Mesenchymal Stem Cells Undergoing Directed Neural-like Differentiation. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12030392. [PMID: 35330143 PMCID: PMC8948714 DOI: 10.3390/life12030392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells are a continually expanding area in research and clinical applications. Their usefulness and capacity to differentiate into various cells, particularly neural types, has driven the research area for several years. Neural differentiation has considerable usefulness. There are several successful differentiation techniques of mesenchymal stem cells that employ the use of small molecules, growth factors and commercially available kits and supplements. Phenotyping, molecular biology, genomics and proteomics investigation revealed a wealth of data about these cells during neurogenic differentiation. However, there remain large gaps in the knowledge base, particularly related to cytokines and how their role, drive mechanisms and the downstream signalling processes change with their varied expression throughout the differentiation process. In this study, adult mesenchymal stem cells were induced with neurogenic differentiation media, the cellular changes monitored by live-cell microscopy and the changes in cytokine expression in the intracellular region, secretion into the media and in the extracellular vesicle cargo were examined and analysed bioinformatically. Through this analysis, the up-regulation of key cytokines was revealed, and several neuroprotective and neurotrophic roles were displayed. Statistically significant molecules IFN-G, IL1B, IL6, TNF-A, have roles in astrocyte development. Furthermore, the cytokine bioinformatics suggests the Janus Kinase/Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (JAK/STAT) pathway is upregulated, supporting differentiation toward an astroglial lineage.
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8
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Amorfrutins Relieve Neuropathic Pain through the PPAR γ/CCL2 Axis in CCI Rats. PPAR Res 2021; 2021:8894752. [PMID: 33552153 PMCID: PMC7846402 DOI: 10.1155/2021/8894752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is a public health problem. Although many pharmaceuticals are used to treat neuropathic pain, effective and safe drugs do not yet exist. In this study, we tested nociceptive responses in CCI rats, and ELISA assay was performed to examine the expression of proinflammatory cytokines. We found that amorfrutins significantly reduce the pain behaviors in CCI rats and suppress the expression of proinflammatory cytokines (TNFα, IL-6, and IL-1β) and chemokines (CCL2/CCR2) in the spinal cord. However, concurrent administration of a PPARγ antagonist, GW9662, reversed the antihyperalgesic effect induced by amorfrutins. The results indicate that amorfrutins inhibit the inflammation and chemokine expression by activating PPARγ, thus relieving neuropathic pain in CCI rats. Therefore, PPARγ-CCL2/CCR2 pathway might represent a new treatment option for neuropathic pain.
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9
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Alvarez FJ, Rotterman TM, Akhter ET, Lane AR, English AW, Cope TC. Synaptic Plasticity on Motoneurons After Axotomy: A Necessary Change in Paradigm. Front Mol Neurosci 2020; 13:68. [PMID: 32425754 PMCID: PMC7203341 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2020.00068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Motoneurons axotomized by peripheral nerve injuries experience profound changes in their synaptic inputs that are associated with a neuroinflammatory response that includes local microglia and astrocytes. This reaction is conserved across different types of motoneurons, injuries, and species, but also displays many unique features in each particular case. These reactions have been amply studied, but there is still a lack of knowledge on their functional significance and mechanisms. In this review article, we compiled data from many different fields to generate a comprehensive conceptual framework to best interpret past data and spawn new hypotheses and research. We propose that synaptic plasticity around axotomized motoneurons should be divided into two distinct processes. First, a rapid cell-autonomous, microglia-independent shedding of synapses from motoneuron cell bodies and proximal dendrites that is reversible after muscle reinnervation. Second, a slower mechanism that is microglia-dependent and permanently alters spinal cord circuitry by fully eliminating from the ventral horn the axon collaterals of peripherally injured and regenerating sensory Ia afferent proprioceptors. This removes this input from cell bodies and throughout the dendritic tree of axotomized motoneurons as well as from many other spinal neurons, thus reconfiguring ventral horn motor circuitries to function after regeneration without direct sensory feedback from muscle. This process is modulated by injury severity, suggesting a correlation with poor regeneration specificity due to sensory and motor axons targeting errors in the periphery that likely render Ia afferent connectivity in the ventral horn nonadaptive. In contrast, reversible synaptic changes on the cell bodies occur only while motoneurons are regenerating. This cell-autonomous process displays unique features according to motoneuron type and modulation by local microglia and astrocytes and generally results in a transient reduction of fast synaptic activity that is probably replaced by embryonic-like slow GABA depolarizations, proposed to relate to regenerative mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Alvarez
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Travis M Rotterman
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Erica T Akhter
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Alicia R Lane
- Department of Physiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Arthur W English
- Department of Cellular Biology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Timothy C Cope
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
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10
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Natural killer cells modulate motor neuron-immune cell cross talk in models of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Nat Commun 2020; 11:1773. [PMID: 32286313 PMCID: PMC7156729 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-15644-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), immune cells and glia contribute to motor neuron (MN) degeneration. We report the presence of NK cells in post-mortem ALS motor cortex and spinal cord tissues, and the expression of NKG2D ligands on MNs. Using a mouse model of familial-ALS, hSOD1G93A, we demonstrate NK cell accumulation in the motor cortex and spinal cord, with an early CCL2-dependent peak. NK cell depletion reduces the pace of MN degeneration, delays motor impairment and increases survival. This is confirmed in another ALS mouse model, TDP43A315T. NK cells are neurotoxic to hSOD1G93A MNs which express NKG2D ligands, while IFNγ produced by NK cells instructs microglia toward an inflammatory phenotype, and impairs FOXP3+/Treg cell infiltration in the spinal cord of hSOD1G93A mice. Together, these data suggest a role of NK cells in determining the onset and progression of MN degeneration in ALS, and in modulating Treg recruitment and microglia phenotype. Neuroimmune interactions are important in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Here the authors characterize the role of NK cells in mouse models of ALS, and in patient tissue.
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11
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Shin SD, Shin A, Mayagoitia K, Siebold L, Rubini M, Wilson CG, Bellinger DL, Soriano S. Loss of amyloid precursor protein exacerbates early inflammation in Niemann-Pick disease type C. J Neuroinflammation 2019; 16:269. [PMID: 31847862 PMCID: PMC6918596 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-019-1663-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Niemann-Pick disease type C (NPC) is a progressive neurodegenerative condition that results in early fatality. NPC is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern from mutations in NPC1 or NPC2 genes. The etiology of NPC is poorly defined. In that regard, neuroinflammation occurs early in the disease and we have recently unveiled an atypical pattern of interferon signaling in pre-symptomatic Npc1-/- mice, with microglial activation, anti-viral response, activation of antigen-presenting cells, and activation and chemotaxis of T lymphocytes as the key affected pathologic pathways. Furthermore, IP-10/CXCL10, a potent IFN-γ-responsive cytokine, was identified as the potential mediator of these early inflammatory abnormalities. Here, we asked whether this aberrant signaling may be exacerbated by the loss of amyloid precursor protein (APP) function, a loss known to shorten lifespan and accelerate neurodegeneration in Npc1-/- mice. METHODS We carried out genome-wide comparative transcriptome analyses of pre-symptomatic Npc1+/+/App+/+, Npc1-/-/App+/+, Npc1+/+/App-/-, and Npc1-/-/App-/- mouse cerebella to identify biological pathways in the NPC brain further affected by the loss of APP. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis and Ingenuity Pathway Analysis were utilized for molecular mapping and functional upstream pathway analyses of highly differentially expressed genes. We simultaneously measured the expression of 32 inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the cerebella from these mice, including those identified in our genome-wide analyses. Finally, we used immunohistochemistry to measure T cell infiltration in the cerebellum. RESULTS Expression of IFN-γ- and IFN-α-responsive genes in pre-symptomatic Npc1-/-/App-/- cerebella is upregulated compared with Npc1-/-/App+/+ mice, compounding the dysregulation of microglial activation, anti-viral response, activation of antigen-presenting cells, and T-lymphocyte activation and chemotaxis pathways present in the NPC brain. Multiplex protein analysis further showed elevated expression of IP-10/CXCL10, a potent downstream effector of IFN-γ, as well as RANTES/CCL5, eotaxin/CCL11 and IL-10, prior to symptomatic onset in Npc1-/-/App-/- cerebella, compared with Npc1-/-/App+/+mice. In the terminal disease stage, loss of APP caused pleiotropic differential expression of the vast majority of cytokines evaluated. Finally, we present evidence of T cell infiltration in Npc1-/-/App-/- cerebella. CONCLUSIONS Loss of APP exacerbates the pathogenic neuroinflammation that occurs prior to symptomatic onset in the NPC brain. These findings shed new light on the function of APP as a cytoprotective modulator in the CNS, offering potential evidence-based therapies against NPC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel D Shin
- Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 24785 Stewart St, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Alexandra Shin
- Department of Biological Sciences, California Baptist University, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Karina Mayagoitia
- Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 24785 Stewart St, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Lorraine Siebold
- Lawrence D. Longo Center for Perinatal Biology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Marsilio Rubini
- Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 24785 Stewart St, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Christopher G Wilson
- Lawrence D. Longo Center for Perinatal Biology, Loma Linda University School of Medicine, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Denise L Bellinger
- Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 24785 Stewart St, Loma Linda, California, USA
| | - Salvador Soriano
- Department of Pathology and Human Anatomy, School of Medicine, Loma Linda University, 24785 Stewart St, Loma Linda, California, USA.
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12
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Zigmond RE, Echevarria FD. Macrophage biology in the peripheral nervous system after injury. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 173:102-121. [PMID: 30579784 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has positive and negative effects. This review focuses on the roles of macrophage in the PNS. Transection of PNS axons leads to degeneration and clearance of the distal nerve and to changes in the region of the axotomized cell bodies. In both locations, resident and infiltrating macrophages are found. Macrophages enter these areas in response to expression of the chemokine CCL2 acting on the macrophage receptor CCR2. In the distal nerve, macrophages and other phagocytes are involved in clearance of axonal debris, which removes molecules that inhibit nerve regeneration. In the cell body region, macrophage trigger the conditioning lesion response, a process in which neurons increase their regeneration after a prior lesion. In mice in which the genes for CCL2 or CCR2 are deleted, neither macrophage infiltration nor the conditioning lesion response occurs in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Macrophages exist in different phenotypes depending on their environment. These phenotypes have different effects on axonal clearance and neurite outgrowth. The mechanism by which macrophages affect neuronal cell bodies is still under study. Overexpression of CCL2 in DRG in uninjured animals leads to macrophage accumulation in the ganglia and to an increase in the growth potential of DRG neurons. This increased growth requires activation of neuronal STAT3. In contrast, in acute demyelinating neuropathies, macrophages are involved in stripping myelin from peripheral axons. The molecular mechanisms that trigger macrophage action after trauma and in autoimmune disease are receiving increased attention and should lead to avenues to promote regeneration and protect axonal integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-4975, USA.
| | - Franklin D Echevarria
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-4975, USA
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13
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Dubový P, Klusáková I, Hradilová-Svíženská I, Joukal M, Boadas-Vaello P. Activation of Astrocytes and Microglial Cells and CCL2/CCR2 Upregulation in the Dorsolateral and Ventrolateral Nuclei of Periaqueductal Gray and Rostral Ventromedial Medulla Following Different Types of Sciatic Nerve Injury. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 12:40. [PMID: 29515373 PMCID: PMC5825898 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2018.00040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries (PNIs) may result in cellular and molecular changes in supraspinal structures possibly involved in neuropathic pain (NPP) maintenance. Activated glial cells in specific supraspinal subregions may affect the facilitatory role of descending pathways. Sterile chronic compression injury (sCCI) and complete sciatic nerve transection (CSNT) in rats were used as NPP models to study the activation of glial cells in the subregions of periaqueductal gray (PAG) and rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM). Molecular markers for activated astrocytes (glial fibrillary acidic protein, GFAP) and microglial cells (OX42) were assessed by quantitative immunohistochemistry and western blotting. The cellular distribution of CCL2/CCR2 was monitored using immunofluorescence. sCCI induced both mechanical and thermal hypersensitivity from day 1 up to 3 weeks post-injury. Unilateral sCCI or CSNT for 3 weeks induced significant activation of astrocytes bilaterally in both dorsolateral (dlPAG) and ventrolateral PAG (vlPAG) compared to naïve or sham-operated rats. More extensive astrocyte activation by CSNT compared to sCCI was induced bilaterally in dlPAG and ipsilaterally in vlPAG. Significantly more extensive activation of astrocytes was also found in RVM after CSNT than sCCI. The CD11b immunopositive region, indicating activated microglial cells, was remarkably larger in dlPAG and vlPAG of both sides from sCCI- and CSNT-operated rats compared to naïve or sham-operated controls. No significant differences in microglial activation were detected in dlPAG or vlPAG after CSNT compared to sCCI. Both nerve injury models induced no significant differences in microglial activation in the RVM. Neurons and activated GFAP+ astrocytes displayed CCL2-immunoreaction, while activated OX42+ microglial cells were CCR2-immunopositive in both PAG and RVM after sCCI and CSNT. Overall, while CSNT induced robust astrogliosis in both PAG and RVM, microglial cell activation was similar in the supraspinal structures in both injury nerve models. Activated astrocytes in PAG and RVM may sustain facilitation of the descending system maintaining NPP, while microglial activation may be associated with a reaction to long-lasting peripheral injury. Microglial activation via CCR2 may be due to neuronal and astrocytal release of CCL2 in PAG and RVM following injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Dubový
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Ilona Klusáková
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Ivana Hradilová-Svíženská
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Marek Joukal
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
| | - Pere Boadas-Vaello
- Department of Anatomy, Division of Neuroanatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czechia
- Research Group of Clinical Anatomy, Embryology and Neuroscience (NEOMA), Department of Medical Sciences, Universitat de Girona, Girona, Spain
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14
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Lin CP, Lu DH. Role of Neuroinflammation in Opioid Tolerance: Translational Evidence from Human-to-Rodent Studies. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1099:125-139. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-1756-9_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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15
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Gey M, Wanner R, Schilling C, Pedro MT, Sinske D, Knöll B. Atf3 mutant mice show reduced axon regeneration and impaired regeneration-associated gene induction after peripheral nerve injury. Open Biol 2017; 6:rsob.160091. [PMID: 27581653 PMCID: PMC5008009 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Axon injury in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) induces a regeneration-associated gene (RAG) response. Atf3 (activating transcription factor 3) is such a RAG and ATF3's transcriptional activity might induce ‘effector’ RAGs (e.g. small proline rich protein 1a (Sprr1a), Galanin (Gal), growth-associated protein 43 (Gap43)) facilitating peripheral axon regeneration. We provide a first analysis of Atf3 mouse mutants in peripheral nerve regeneration. In Atf3 mutant mice, facial nerve regeneration and neurite outgrowth of adult ATF3-deficient primary dorsal root ganglia neurons was decreased. Using genome-wide transcriptomics, we identified a neuropeptide-encoding RAG cluster (vasoactive intestinal peptide (Vip), Ngf, Grp, Gal, Pacap) regulated by ATF3. Exogenous administration of neuropeptides enhanced neurite growth of Atf3 mutant mice suggesting that these molecules might be effector RAGs of ATF3's pro-regenerative function. In addition to the induction of growth-promoting molecules, we present data that ATF3 suppresses growth-inhibiting molecules such as chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2. In summary, we show a pro-regenerative ATF3 function during PNS nerve regeneration involving transcriptional activation of a neuropeptide-encoding RAG cluster. ATF3 is a general injury-inducible factor, therefore ATF3-mediated mechanisms identified herein might apply to other cell and injury types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Gey
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Renate Wanner
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Corinna Schilling
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Maria T Pedro
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bezirkskrankenhaus Günzburg, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Daniela Sinske
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Bernd Knöll
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
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Walter TJ, Crews FT. Microglial depletion alters the brain neuroimmune response to acute binge ethanol withdrawal. J Neuroinflammation 2017; 14:86. [PMID: 28427424 PMCID: PMC5439231 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-017-0856-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Recent studies have implicated microglia—the resident immune cells of the brain—in the pathophysiology of alcoholism. Indeed, post-mortem alcoholic brains show increased microglial markers and increased immune gene expression; however, the effects of ethanol on microglial functioning and how this impacts the brain remain unclear. In this present study, we investigate the effects of acute binge ethanol on microglia and how microglial depletion changes the brain neuroimmune response to acute binge ethanol withdrawal. Methods C57BL/6J mice were treated intragastrically with acute binge ethanol for time course and dose-response studies. Cultured mouse BV2 microglia-like cells were treated with ethanol in vitro for time course studies. Mice were also administered the colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) inhibitor PLX5622 to deplete microglia from the brain. These mice were subsequently treated with acute binge ethanol and sacrificed during withdrawal. Brain and BV2 mRNA were isolated and assessed using RT-PCR to examine expression of microglial and neuroimmune genes. Results Acute binge ethanol biphasically changed microglial (e.g., Iba1, CD68) gene expression, with initial decreases during intoxication and subsequent increases during withdrawal. Acute ethanol withdrawal dose dependently increased neuroimmune gene (e.g., TNFα, Ccl2, IL-1ra, IL-4) expression beginning at high doses. BV2 cells showed biphasic changes in pro-inflammatory (e.g., TNFα, Ccl2) gene expression following ethanol treatment in vitro. Administration of PLX5622 depleted microglia from the brains of mice. Although some neuroimmune genes were reduced by microglial depletion, many others were unchanged. Microglial depletion blunted pro-inflammatory (e.g., TNFα, Ccl2) gene expression and enhanced anti-inflammatory (e.g., IL-1ra, IL-4) gene expression during acute binge ethanol withdrawal. Conclusions These studies find acute binge ethanol withdrawal increases microglial and neuroimmune gene expression. Ethanol exposure also increases microglial pro-inflammatory gene expression in vitro. Furthermore, microglial depletion decreases expression of microglia-specific genes but has little effect on expression of many other neuroimmune signaling genes. Microglial depletion blunted the acute binge ethanol withdrawal induction of pro-inflammatory genes and enhanced induction of anti-inflammatory genes. These findings indicate microglia impact the brain response to acute binge ethanol withdrawal. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-017-0856-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Jordan Walter
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.,Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Thurston-Bowles Building, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA
| | - Fulton T Crews
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA. .,Bowles Center for Alcohol Studies, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Thurston-Bowles Building, Chapel Hill, NC, 27599, USA.
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Harrison-Brown M, Liu GJ, Banati R. Checkpoints to the Brain: Directing Myeloid Cell Migration to the Central Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E2030. [PMID: 27918464 PMCID: PMC5187830 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17122030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Myeloid cells are a unique subset of leukocytes with a diverse array of functions within the central nervous system during health and disease. Advances in understanding of the unique properties of these cells have inspired interest in their use as delivery vehicles for therapeutic genes, proteins, and drugs, or as "assistants" in the clean-up of aggregated proteins and other molecules when existing drainage systems are no longer adequate. The trafficking of myeloid cells from the periphery to the central nervous system is subject to complex cellular and molecular controls with several 'checkpoints' from the blood to their destination in the brain parenchyma. As important components of the neurovascular unit, the functional state changes associated with lineage heterogeneity of myeloid cells are increasingly recognized as important for disease progression. In this review, we discuss some of the cellular elements associated with formation and function of the neurovascular unit, and present an update on the impact of myeloid cells on central nervous system (CNS) diseases in the laboratory and the clinic. We then discuss emerging strategies for harnessing the potential of site-directed myeloid cell homing to the CNS, and identify promising avenues for future research, with particular emphasis on the importance of untangling the functional heterogeneity within existing myeloid subsets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith Harrison-Brown
- Discipline of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2141, Australia.
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Sydney, NSW 2234, Australia.
| | - Guo-Jun Liu
- Discipline of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2141, Australia.
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Sydney, NSW 2234, Australia.
| | - Richard Banati
- Discipline of Medical Imaging & Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2141, Australia.
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Sydney, NSW 2234, Australia.
- Brain and Mind Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Lee JH, Wei ZZ, Cao W, Won S, Gu X, Winter M, Dix TA, Wei L, Yu SP. Regulation of therapeutic hypothermia on inflammatory cytokines, microglia polarization, migration and functional recovery after ischemic stroke in mice. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 96:248-260. [PMID: 27659107 PMCID: PMC5161414 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 08/30/2016] [Accepted: 09/17/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Stroke is a leading threat to human life and health in the US and around the globe, while very few effective treatments are available for stroke patients. Preclinical and clinical studies have shown that therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is a potential treatment for stroke. Using novel neurotensin receptor 1 (NTR1) agonists, we have demonstrated pharmacologically induced hypothermia and protective effects against brain damages after ischemic stroke, hemorrhage stroke, and traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rodent models. To further characterize the mechanism of TH-induced brain protection, we examined the effect of TH (at ±33°C for 6h) induced by the NTR1 agonist HPI-201 or physical (ice/cold air) cooling on inflammatory responses after ischemic stroke in mice and oxygen glucose deprivation (OGD) in cortical neuronal cultures. Seven days after focal cortical ischemia, microglia activation in the penumbra reached a peak level, which was significantly attenuated by TH treatments commenced 30min after stroke. The TH treatment decreased the expression of M1 type reactive factors including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-12, IL-23, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) measured by RT-PCR and Western blot analyses. Meanwhile, TH treatments increased the expression of M2 type reactive factors including IL-10, Fizz1, Ym1, and arginase-1. In the ischemic brain and in cortical neuronal/BV2 microglia cultures subjected to OGD, TH attenuated the expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α), two key chemokines in the regulation of microglia activation and infiltration. Consistently, physical cooling during OGD significantly decreased microglia migration 16h after OGD. Finally, TH improved functional recovery at 1, 3, and 7days after stroke. This study reveals the first evidence for hypothermia mediated regulation on inflammatory factor expression, microglia polarization, migration and indicates that the anti-inflammatory effect is an important mechanism underlying the brain protective effects of a TH therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin Hwan Lee
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, United States
| | - Zheng Z Wei
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, United States
| | - Wenyuan Cao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Soonmi Won
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Xiaohuan Gu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, United States
| | - Megan Winter
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Thomas A Dix
- JT Pharmaceuticals, Mt. Pleasant, SC 29464, United States; Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29401, United States
| | - Ling Wei
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - Shan Ping Yu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States; Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Decatur, GA 30033, United States.
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19
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Chen D, Lee J, Gu X, Wei L, Yu SP. Intranasal Delivery of Apelin-13 Is Neuroprotective and Promotes Angiogenesis After Ischemic Stroke in Mice. ASN Neuro 2015; 7:7/5/1759091415605114. [PMID: 26391329 PMCID: PMC4580122 DOI: 10.1177/1759091415605114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Apelin is a peptide originally isolated from bovine stomach tissue extracts and identified as an endogenous ligand of the APJ receptor; recent work showed that apelin ameliorates the ischemic injury in the heart and the brain. Being an analogue to the angiotensin II receptor, the apelin/APJ signaling may mediate angiogenesis process. We explored the noninvasive intranasal brain delivery method and investigated therapeutic effects of apelin-13 in a focal ischemic stroke model of mice. Intranasal administration of apelin-13 (4 mg/kg) was given 30 min after the onset of stroke and repeated once daily. Three days after stroke, mice received apelin-13 had significantly reduced infarct volume and less neuronal death in the penumbra. Western blot analyses showed upregulated levels of apelin, apelin receptor APLNR, and Bcl-2 and decreased caspase-3 activation in the apelin-13-treated brain. The proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1β, and chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 mRNA increased in the ischemic brain, which were significantly attenuated by apelin-13. Apelin-13 remarkably reduced microglia recruitment and activation in the penumbra according to morphological features of Iba-1-positive cells 3 days after ischemia. Apelin-13 significantly increased the expression of angiogenic factor vascular endothelial growth factor and matrix metalloproteinase-9 14 days after stroke. Angiogenesis illustrated by collagen IV + /5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridin + colabeled cells was significantly increased by the apelin-13 treatment 21 days after stroke. Finally, apelin-13 promoted the local cerebral blood flow restoration and long-term functional recovery. This study demonstrates a noninvasive intranasal delivery of apelin-13 after stroke, suggesting that the reduced inflammatory activities, decreased cell death, and increased angiogenesis contribute to the therapeutic benefits of apelin-13.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongdong Chen
- Deptartment of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Jinhwan Lee
- Deptartment of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Xiaohuan Gu
- Deptartment of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
| | - Ling Wei
- Deptartment of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Shan Ping Yu
- Deptartment of Anesthesiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA Center for Visual and Neurocognitive Rehabilitation, Atlanta Veterans Affair Medical Center, Decatur, GA, USA
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20
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DeFrancesco-Lisowitz A, Lindborg JA, Niemi JP, Zigmond RE. The neuroimmunology of degeneration and regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. Neuroscience 2015; 302:174-203. [PMID: 25242643 PMCID: PMC4366367 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral nerves regenerate following injury due to the effective activation of the intrinsic growth capacity of the neurons and the formation of a permissive pathway for outgrowth due to Wallerian degeneration (WD). WD and subsequent regeneration are significantly influenced by various immune cells and the cytokines they secrete. Although macrophages have long been known to play a vital role in the degenerative process, recent work has pointed to their importance in influencing the regenerative capacity of peripheral neurons. In this review, we focus on the various immune cells, cytokines, and chemokines that make regeneration possible in the peripheral nervous system, with specific attention placed on the role macrophages play in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - J A Lindborg
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - J P Niemi
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - R E Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
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21
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Anastasiadou S, Liebenehm S, Sinske D, Meyer zu Reckendorf C, Moepps B, Nordheim A, Knöll B. Neuronal expression of the transcription factor serum response factor modulates myelination in a mouse multiple sclerosis model. Glia 2015; 63:958-76. [PMID: 25639799 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 01/08/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS), neurons in addition to inflammatory cells are now considered to mediate disease origin and progression. So far, molecular and cellular mechanisms of neuronal MS contributions are poorly understood. Herein we analyzed whether neuron-restricted signaling by the neuroprotective transcription factor serum response factor (SRF) modulates de- and remyelination in a rodent MS model. In the mouse cuprizone model, neuron- (Srf (flox/flox;CaMKCreERT2)) but not glia-specific (Srf (flox/flox;PlpCreERT2)) SRF depletion impaired demyelination suggesting impaired debris clearance by astrocytes and microglia. This supports an important role of SRF expression in neurons but not oligodendrocytes in de- and remyelination. During remyelination, NG2- and OLIG2-positive cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage as well as de novo mRNA synthesis of myelin genes were also reduced in neuron-specific Srf mutants. Using the stripe assay, we demonstrate that cortices of cuprizone-fed wild-type mice elicited astrocyte and microglia activation whereas this was abrogated in cuprizone-fed neuron-specific Srf mutants. We identified CCL chemokines (e.g. CCL2) as neuron-derived SRF-regulated paracrine signals rescuing immune cell activation upon neuronal SRF deletion. In summary, we uncovered important roles of neurons and neuronally expressed SRF in MS associated de- and remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Anastasiadou
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081, Ulm, Germany
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22
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Freitag CM, Miller RJ. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor agonists modulate neuropathic pain: a link to chemokines? Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:238. [PMID: 25191225 PMCID: PMC4138931 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic pain presents a widespread and intractable medical problem. While numerous pharmaceuticals are used to treat chronic pain, drugs that are safe for extended use and highly effective at treating the most severe pain do not yet exist. Chronic pain resulting from nervous system injury (neuropathic pain) is common in conditions ranging from multiple sclerosis to HIV-1 infection to type II diabetes. Inflammation caused by neuropathy is believed to contribute to the generation and maintenance of neuropathic pain. Chemokines are key inflammatory mediators, several of which (MCP-1, RANTES, MIP-1α, fractalkine, SDF-1 among others) have been linked to chronic, neuropathic pain in both human conditions and animal models. The important roles chemokines play in inflammation and pain make them an attractive therapeutic target. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are a family of nuclear receptors known for their roles in metabolism. Recent research has revealed that PPARs also play a role in inflammatory gene repression. PPAR agonists have wide-ranging effects including inhibition of chemokine expression and pain behavior reduction in animal models. Experimental evidence suggests a connection between the pain ameliorating effects of PPAR agonists and suppression of inflammatory gene expression, including chemokines. In early clinical research, one PPARα agonist, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), shows promise in relieving chronic pain. If this link can be better established, PPAR agonists may represent a new drug therapy for neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline M Freitag
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Richard J. Miller Laboratory, Northwestern University Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Richard J Miller
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, Richard J. Miller Laboratory, Northwestern University Chicago, IL, USA
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23
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Sajjan S, Holsinger RMD, Fok S, Ebrahimkhani S, Rollo JL, Banati RB, Graeber MB. Up-regulation of matrix metallopeptidase 12 in motor neurons undergoing synaptic stripping. Neuroscience 2014; 274:331-40. [PMID: 24907602 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.05.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2014] [Revised: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/23/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Axotomy of the rodent facial nerve represents a well-established model of synaptic plasticity. Post-traumatic "synaptic stripping" was originally discovered in this system. We report upregulation of matrix metalloproteinase MMP12 in regenerating motor neurons of the mouse and rat facial nucleus. Matrix metalloproteinases (matrix metallopeptidases, MMPs) are zinc-binding proteases capable of degrading components of the extracellular matrix and of regulating extracellular signaling networks including within synapses. MMP12 protein expression in facial motor neurons was enhanced following axotomy and peaked at day 3 after the operation. The peak of neuronal MMP12 expression preceded the peak of experimentally induced synaptic plasticity. At the same time, MMP12 redistributed intracellularly and became predominantly localized beneath the neuronal somatic cytoplasmic membrane. Both findings point to a role of MMP12 in the neuronal initiation of the synaptic stripping process. MMP12 is the first candidate molecule for such a trigger function and has potential as a therapeutic target. Moreover, since statins have been shown to increase the expression of MMP12, interference with synaptic stability may represent one mechanism by which these widely used drugs exert their side effects on higher CNS functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Sajjan
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - R M D Holsinger
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; Discipline of Biomedical Science, School of Medical Sciences, Sydney Medical School, The University of Sydney, Lidcombe, NSW, Australia
| | - S Fok
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - S Ebrahimkhani
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - J L Rollo
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia
| | - R B Banati
- Discipline of Medical Radiation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Cumberland, NSW, Australia; Ramaciotti Imaging Center, Brain and Mind Research Institute, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia; Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organization, Lucas Heights, NSW, Australia
| | - M B Graeber
- Brain Tumor Research and Molecular Neuroscience & Neuropathology Laboratories, Brain and Mind Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine and Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Camperdown, NSW, Australia.
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24
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Bellavance MA, Gosselin D, Yong VW, Stys PK, Rivest S. Patrolling monocytes play a critical role in CX3CR1-mediated neuroprotection during excitotoxicity. Brain Struct Funct 2014; 220:1759-76. [PMID: 24706067 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-014-0759-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Excitotoxicity underlies neuronal death in many neuropathological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and multiple sclerosis. In murine models of these diseases, disruption of CX3CR1 signaling has thus far generated data either in favor or against a neuroprotective role of this crucial regulator of microglia and monocyte functions. In this study, we investigated the recruitment of circulating PU.1-expressing cells following sterile excitotoxicity and delineated the CX3CR1-dependent neuroprotective functions of circulating monocytes versus that of microglia in this context. WT, Cx3cr1-deficient and chimeric mice were subjected to a sterile excitotoxic insult via an intrastriatal injection of kainic acid (KA), a conformational analog of glutamate. Following KA administration, circulating monocytes physiologically engrafted the brain and selectively accumulated in the vicinity of excitotoxic lesions where they gave rise to activated macrophages depicting strong Iba1 and CD68 immunoreactivity 7 days post-injury. Monocyte-derived macrophages completely vanished upon recovery and did thus not permanently seed the brain. Furthermore, Cx3cr1 deletion significantly exacerbated neuronal death, behavioral deficits and activation of microglia cells following sterile excitotoxicity. Cx3cr1 disruption also markedly altered the blood levels of patrolling monocytes 24 h after KA administration. The specific elimination of patrolling monocytes using Nr4a1(-/-) chimeric mice conditioned with chemotherapy provided direct evidence that these circulating monocytes are essential for neuroprotection. Taken together, these data support a beneficial role of CX3CR1 signaling during excitotoxicity and highlight a novel and pivotal role of patrolling monocytes in neuroprotection. These findings open new research and therapeutic avenues for neuropathological disorders implicating excitotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc-André Bellavance
- Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, CHU de Québec Research Center, Laval University, 2705 Laurier Blvd., Quebec, G1V 4G2, Canada,
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25
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Böttcher C, Fernández-Klett F, Gladow N, Rolfes S, Priller J. Targeting myeloid cells to the brain using non-myeloablative conditioning. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80260. [PMID: 24244666 PMCID: PMC3820653 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 10/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) are able to colonize the central nervous system (CNS) at sites of damage. This ability makes BMDCs an ideal cellular vehicle for transferring therapeutic genes/molecules to the CNS. However, conditioning is required for bone marrow-derived myeloid cells to engraft in the brain, which so far has been achieved by total body irradiation (TBI) and by chemotherapy (e.g. busulfan treatment). Unfortunately, both regimens massively disturb the host’s hematopoietic compartment. Here, we established a conditioning protocol to target myeloid cells to sites of brain damage in mice using non-myeloablative focal head irradiation (HI). This treatment was associated with comparatively low inflammatory responses in the CNS despite cranial radiation doses which are identical to TBI, as revealed by gene expression analysis of cytokines/chemokines such as CCL2, CXCL10, TNF-α and CCL5. HI prior to bone marrow transplantation resulted in much lower levels of blood chimerism defined as the percentage of donor-derived cells in peripheral blood (< 5%) compared with TBI (> 95%) or busulfan treatment (>50%). Nevertheless, HI effectively recruited myeloid cells to the area of motoneuron degeneration in the brainstem within 7 days after facial nerve axotomy. In contrast, no donor-derived cells were detected in the lesioned facial nucleus of busulfan-treated animals up to 2 weeks after transplantation. Our findings suggest that myeloid cells can be targeted to sites of brain damage even in the presence of very low levels of peripheral blood chimerism. We established a novel non-myeloablative conditioning protocol with minimal disturbance of the host’s hematopoietic system for targeting BMDCs specifically to areas of pathology in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chotima Böttcher
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Francisco Fernández-Klett
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nadine Gladow
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Simone Rolfes
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Josef Priller
- Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence NeuroCure, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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26
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Abstract
Inflammation is the process by which an organism responds to tissue injury involving both immune cell recruitment and mediator release. Diverse causes of neuropathic pain are associated with excessive inflammation in both the peripheral and central nervous system which may contribute to the initiation and maintenance of persistent pain. Chemical mediators, such as cytokines, chemokines, and lipid mediators, released during an inflammatory response have the undesired effect of sensitizing and stimulating nociceptors, their central synaptic targets or both. These changes can promote long-term maladaptive plasticity resulting in persistent neuropathic pain. This review aims to provide an overview of inflammatory mechanisms at differing levels of the sensory neuroaxis with a focus on neuropathic pain. We will compare and contrast neuropathic pain states such as traumatic nerve injury which is associated with a vigorous inflammatory response and chemotherapy induced pain in which the inflammatory response is much more modest. Targeting excessive inflammation in neuropathic pain provides potential therapeutic opportunities and we will discuss some of the opportunities but also the clinical challenges in such an approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ellis
- King's College London, Wolfson Wing, Hodgkin Building, Guy's Campus, London SE1 1UL, UK.
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27
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Rosenzweig S, Carmichael ST. Age-dependent exacerbation of white matter stroke outcomes: a role for oxidative damage and inflammatory mediators. Stroke 2013; 44:2579-86. [PMID: 23868277 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.113.001796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Subcortical white matter stroke (WMS) constitutes up to 30% of all stroke subtypes. Mechanisms of oligodendrocyte and axon injury and repair play a central role in the damage and recovery after this type of stroke, and a comprehensive study of these processes requires a specialized experimental model that is different from common large artery, gray matter stroke models. Diminished recovery from stroke in aged patients implies that damage and repair processes are affected by advanced age, but such effects have not been studied in WMS. METHODS WMS was produced with focal microinjection of the vasoconstrictor N5-(1-iminoethyl)-L-ornithine into the subcortical white matter ventral to the mouse forelimb motor cortex in young adult (2 months), middle-aged (15 months), and aged mice (24 months). RESULTS WMS produced localized oligodendrocyte cell death with higher numbers of apoptotic cells and greater oxidative damage in aged brains than in young-adult brains. Increased expression of monocyte chemotactic protein-1 and tumor necrosis factor-α in motor cortex neurons correlated with a more distributed microglial activation in aged brains 7 days after WMS. At 2 months, aged mice displayed increased white matter atrophy and greater loss of corticostriatal connections compared with young-adult mice. Behavioral testing revealed an age-dependent exacerbation of forelimb motor deficits caused by the stroke, with decreased long-term functional recovery in aged animals. CONCLUSIONS Age has a profound effect on the outcome of WMS, with more prolonged cell death and oxidative damage, increased inflammation, greater secondary white matter atrophy, and a worse behavioral effect in aged versus young-adult mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shira Rosenzweig
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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Zhang R, Miller RG, Madison C, Jin X, Honrada R, Harris W, Katz J, Forshew DA, McGrath MS. Systemic immune system alterations in early stages of Alzheimer's disease. J Neuroimmunol 2013; 256:38-42. [PMID: 23380586 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2013.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2012] [Revised: 12/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Immune activation and inflammation play significant roles in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). To test whether AD patients showed systemic manifestations of inflammation, blood from 41 patients with early stages of AD and 31 aged-match elderly controls were evaluated. Cellular markers for monocyte/macrophage (MO) activation and CD8 T lymphocyte were increased in early AD patients. Expression of monocyte CCR2, the receptor for monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), was decreased; however, plasma MCP-1 levels were significantly increased and were related to the degree of MO activation in AD. These findings suggest that AD pathogenesis may be influenced by systemic immunologic dysfunction and provides potential immunologic targets for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongzhen Zhang
- University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94110, USA
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29
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Guo W, Wang H, Zou S, Dubner R, Ren K. Chemokine signaling involving chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 plays a role in descending pain facilitation. Neurosci Bull 2012; 28:193-207. [PMID: 22466130 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-012-1218-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Despite accumulating evidence on a role of immune cells and their associated chemicals in mechanisms of pain, few studies have addressed the potential role of chemokines in the descending facilitation of persistent pain. The present study was undertaken to test the hypothesis that the chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2 (CCL2) (commonly known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1) signaling in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM), a pivotal structure in brainstem pain modulatory circuitry, is involved in descending pain facilitation in rats. METHODS An L5 spinal nerve ligation (SNL) was produced in rats under pentobarbital anesthesia. Western blot and immunohistochemistry were used to detect the expression levels of CCL2 and CCL2 receptor (CCR2), and examine their distributions compared with the neuronal marker NeuN as well as glial markers glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP, astroglial) and CD11b (microglial), respectively. RESULTS SNL induced an increase in CCL2 expression in the RVM, and this returned to the control level at 4 weeks after injury. The induced CCL2 colocalized with NeuN, but not with GFAP and CD11b. CCR2 was also upregulated by SNL in the RVM, and this increase lasted for at least 4 weeks. CCR2 was colocalized with CD11b but not GFAP. Few RVM neurons also exhibited CCR2 staining. Neutralizing CCL2 with an anti-CCL2 antibody (0.2-20 ng) or injecting RS-102895 (0.1-10 pmol), a CCR2b chemokine receptor antagonist, into the RVM on day 1 after SNL, significantly attenuated the established thermal and mechanical hypersensitivity. In addition, injection of recombinant rat CCL2 (0.03-3 pmol) into the RVM induced dose-dependent hyperalgesia, which was prevented by pretreatment with RS-102895 (10 pmol). Interleukin-1β (IL-1β), a potent inducer of neuronal CCL2, was also selectively upregulated in RVM reactive astrocytes. Injection of IL-1β (120 fmol) into the RVM induced behavioral hyperalgesia, which was blocked by RS-102895 (10 pmol). However, an IL-1 receptor antagonist (3 pmol) did not prevent CCL2 (3 pmol)-induced hyperalgesia. These results suggest that the effect of CCL2 is downstream to IL-1β signaling. CONCLUSION The IL-1β and CCL2-CCR2 signaling cascades play a role in neuron-glia-cytokine interactions and the descending facilitation of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Guo
- Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, School of Dentistry & Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
| | - Hu Wang
- Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, School of Dentistry & Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
| | - Shiping Zou
- Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, School of Dentistry & Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
| | - Ronald Dubner
- Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, School of Dentistry & Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
| | - Ke Ren
- Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, School of Dentistry & Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, USA
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Bray JG, Reyes KC, Roberts AJ, Ransohoff RM, Gruol DL. Synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus shows resistance to acute ethanol exposure in transgenic mice with astrocyte-targeted enhanced CCL2 expression. Neuropharmacology 2012; 67:115-25. [PMID: 23164616 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2012.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Revised: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 11/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
It has been shown that ethanol exposure can activate astrocytes and microglia resulting in the production of neuroimmune factors, including the chemokine CCL2. The role of these neuroimmune factors in the effects of ethanol on the central nervous system has yet to be elucidated. To address this question, we investigated the effects of ethanol on synaptic transmission and plasticity in the hippocampus from mice that express elevated levels of CCL2 in the brain and their non-transgenic littermate controls. The brains of the transgenic mice simulate one aspect of the alcoholic brain, chronically increased levels of CCL2. We used extracellular field potential recordings in acutely isolated hippocampal slices to identify neuroadaptive changes produced by elevated levels of CCL2 and how these neuroadaptive changes affect the actions of acute ethanol. Results showed that synaptic transmission and the effects of ethanol on synaptic transmission were similar in the CCL2-transgenic and non-transgenic hippocampus. However, long-term potentiation (LTP), a cellular mechanism thought to underlie learning and memory, in the CCL2-transgenic hippocampus was resistant to the ethanol-induced depression of LTP observed in the non-transgenic hippocampus. Consistent with these results, ethanol pretreatment significantly impaired cued and contextual fear conditioning in non-transgenic mice, but had no effect in CCL2-transgenic mice. These data show that chronically elevated levels of CCL2 in the hippocampus produce neuroadaptive changes that block the depressing effects of ethanol on hippocampal synaptic plasticity and support the hypothesis that CCL2 may provide a neuroprotective effect against the devastating actions of ethanol on hippocampal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer G Bray
- Molecular and Integrative Neuroscience Department, SP30-1522, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Kim E, Febbraio M, Bao Y, Tolhurst AT, Epstein JM, Cho S. CD36 in the periphery and brain synergizes in stroke injury in hyperlipidemia. Ann Neurol 2012; 71:753-64. [PMID: 22718544 DOI: 10.1002/ana.23569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hyperlipidemia exacerbates ischemic stroke outcome and increases CD36 expression in the postischemic brain as well as in peripheral monocytes/macrophages. By exchanging bone marrow-derived cells between CD36-expressing and CD36-deficient mice, this study investigates the contribution of peripheral CD36 in comparison with that of brain CD36 to stroke pathology in hyperlipidemia. METHODS Following bone marrow transplantation, mice were fed a high-fat diet for 11 weeks and then subjected to ischemic stroke. Stroke outcome, expression of brain CD36, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), CCR2, and plasma MCP-1 levels were determined at 3 days postischemia. CD36 and CCR2 expression were also determined in splenocytes incubated with serum obtained from CD36-expressing or CD36-deficient mice. RESULTS Infiltrating immune cells from the periphery are the major source of CD36 in the postischemic brain and contribute to stroke-induced brain injury. This CD36 effect was dependent on the modulation of MCP-1 and CCR2 expression in peripheral immune cells as well as CD36-expressing cells in the host brain. INTERPRETATION This study demonstrates that CD36 expressed in the periphery and brain synergize in ischemic brain injury through regulation of the MCP-1/CCR2 chemokine axis in hyperlipidemic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunhee Kim
- Burke-Cornell Medical Research Institute, White Plains, NY
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Huang Z, Meola D, Petitto JM. Dissecting the effects of endogenous brain IL-2 and normal versus autoreactive T lymphocytes on microglial responsiveness and T cell trafficking in response to axonal injury. Neurosci Lett 2012; 526:138-43. [PMID: 22922129 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2012] [Revised: 07/25/2012] [Accepted: 08/05/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
IL-2 is essential for T-helper regulatory (Treg) cell function and self-tolerance, and dysregulation of both endogenous brain and peripheral IL-2 gene expression may have important implications for neuronal injury and repair. We used an experimental approach combining mouse congenic breeding and immune reconstitution to test the hypothesis that the response of motoneurons to injury is modulated by the combined effects of IL2-mediated processes in the brain that modulate its endogenous neuroimmunological milieu, and IL2-mediated processes in the peripheral immune system that regulate T cell function (i.e., normal versus autoreactive Treg-deficient T cells). This experimental strategy enabled us to test our hypothesis by disentangling the effect of normal versus autoreactive T lymphocytes from the effect of endogenous brain IL-2 on microglial responsiveness (microglial phagocytic clusters normally associated with dead motoneurons and MHC2(+) activated microglia) and T cell trafficking, using the facial nerve axotomy model of injury. The results demonstrate that the loss of both brain and peripheral IL-2 had an additive effect on numbers of microglial phagocytic clusters at day 14 following injury, whereas the autoreactive status of peripheral T cells was the primary factor that determined the degree to which T cells entered the injured brain and contributed to increased microglial phagocytic clusters. Changes in activated MHC2(+) microglial in the injured FMN were associated with loss of endogenous brain IL-2 and/or peripheral IL-2. This model may provide greater understanding of the mechanisms involved in determining if T cells entering the injured central nervous system (CNS) have damaging or proregenerative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Huang
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Ruff CA, Staak N, Patodia S, Kaswich M, Rocha-Ferreira E, Da Costa C, Brecht S, Makwana M, Fontana X, Hristova M, Rumajogee P, Galiano M, Bohatschek M, Herdegen T, Behrens A, Raivich G. Neuronal c-Jun is required for successful axonal regeneration, but the effects of phosphorylation of its N-terminus are moderate. J Neurochem 2012; 121:607-18. [PMID: 22372722 PMCID: PMC4491308 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2012.07706.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2012] [Revised: 02/05/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Although neural c-Jun is essential for successful peripheral nerve regeneration, the cellular basis of this effect and the impact of c-Jun activation are incompletely understood. In the current study, we explored the effects of neuron-selective c-Jun deletion, substitution of serine 63 and 73 phosphoacceptor sites with non-phosphorylatable alanine, and deletion of Jun N-terminal kinases 1, 2 and 3 in mouse facial nerve regeneration. Removal of the floxed c-jun gene in facial motoneurons using cre recombinase under control of a neuron-specific synapsin promoter (junΔS) abolished basal and injury-induced neuronal c-Jun immunoreactivity, as well as most of the molecular responses following facial axotomy. Absence of neuronal Jun reduced the speed of axonal regeneration following crush, and prevented most cut axons from reconnecting to their target, significantly reducing functional recovery. Despite blocking cell death, this was associated with a large number of shrunken neurons. Finally, junΔS mutants also had diminished astrocyte and microglial activation and T-cell influx, suggesting that these non-neuronal responses depend on the release of Jun-dependent signals from neighboring injured motoneurons. The effects of substituting serine 63 and 73 phosphoacceptor sites (junAA), or of global deletion of individual kinases responsible for N-terminal c-Jun phosphorylation were mild. junAA mutants showed decrease in neuronal cell size, a moderate reduction in post-axotomy CD44 levels and slightly increased astrogliosis. Deletion of Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)1 or JNK3 showed delayed functional recovery; deletion of JNK3 also interfered with T-cell influx, and reduced CD44 levels. Deletion of JNK2 had no effect. Thus, neuronal c-Jun is needed in regeneration, but JNK phosphorylation of the N-terminus mostly appears to not be required for its function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal A Ruff
- Perinatal Brain Repair Group, Inst Women's Health, University College London, London, UK
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Hinojosa AE, García-Bueno B, Leza JC, Madrigal JLM. Regulation of CCL2/MCP-1 production in astrocytes by desipramine and atomoxetine: involvement of α2 adrenergic receptors. Brain Res Bull 2011; 86:326-33. [PMID: 21963947 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2011.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Revised: 09/12/2011] [Accepted: 09/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Having previously observed that noradrenaline activation of β adrenergic receptors induces the synthesis of the chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein (CCL2/MCP-1) in astrocytes, it is our interest to analyze the mechanisms involved in this process, particularly the possible effect of noradrenaline-modulating drugs. The treatment of primary rat astrocyte cultures with the noradrenaline transporter inhibitors desipramine or atomoxetine induced the expression and synthesis of CCL2/MCP-1 in these cells. This effect of both drugs in vitro suggests that CCL2/MCP-1 expression could also be modulated by some mechanism independent of the elevation of brain noradrenaline levels. This was confirmed by measuring a reduction in CCL2/MCP-1 production by the treatment with the α2 adrenergic receptor agonist clonidine. Accordingly, the blockade of α2 adrenergic receptors with yohimbine potentiated the production of MCP-1 stimulated by the activation of β receptors. While the activation of β adrenergic receptors and the subsequent elevation of cAMP levels seem to be the main pathway for noradrenaline to induce CCL2/MCP-1 in astrocytes, our data indicate that the α2 adrenergic receptors also regulate CCL2/MCP-1 expression working as inhibitory mediators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ara E Hinojosa
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense de Madrid and Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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Tunici P, Pellegatta S, Finocchiaro G. The potential of stem cells for the treatment of brain tumors and globoid cell leukodystrophy. Cytotechnology 2011; 41:93-101. [PMID: 19002946 DOI: 10.1023/a:1024818621377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Stem cells of different origin are under careful scrutiny as potential new tools for the treatment of several neurological diseases. The major focus of these reaserches have been neurodegenerative disorders, such as Huntington Chorea or Parkinson Disease (Shihabuddin et al., 1999). More recently attention has been devoted to their use for brain repair after stroke (Savitz et al., 2002). In this review we will focus on the potential of stem cell treatments for glioblastoma multiforme (Holland, 2000), the most aggressive primary brain tumor, and globoid cell leukodystrophy (Krabbe disease), a metabolic disorder of the white matter (Berger et al., 2001). These two diseases may offer a paradigm of what the stem cell approach may offer in term of treatment, alone or in combination with other therapeutic approaches. Two kinds of stem cells will be consideredhere: neural stem cells and hematopoietic stem cells, both obtained after birth. The review will focus on experimental models, with an eye on clinical perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Tunici
- Istituto Nazionale Neurologico Besta, Unit of Neuro-Oncology and Gene Therapy, Milan, Italy (Author for correspondence)
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Beers DR, Zhao W, Liao B, Kano O, Wang J, Huang A, Appel SH, Henkel JS. Neuroinflammation modulates distinct regional and temporal clinical responses in ALS mice. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25:1025-35. [PMID: 21176785 PMCID: PMC3096756 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2010.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2010] [Revised: 12/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/15/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
An inflammatory response is a pathological hallmark of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a relentless and devastating degenerative disease of motoneurons. This response is not simply a late consequence of motoneuron degeneration, but actively contributes to the balance between neuroprotection and neurotoxicity; initially infiltrating lymphocytes and microglia slow disease progression, while later, they contribute to the acceleration of disease. Since motor weakness begins in the hindlimbs of ALS mice and only later involves the forelimbs, we determined whether differential protective versus injurious inflammatory responses in the cervical and lumbar spinal cords explained the temporally distinct clinical disease courses between the limbs of these mice. Densitometric evaluation of immunohistochemical sections and quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) demonstrated that CD68 and CD11c were differentially increased in their spinals cords. qRT-PCR revealed that protective and anti-inflammatory factors, including BDNF, GDNF, and IL-4, were increased in the cervical region compared with the lumbar region. In contrast, the toxic markers TNF-α, IL-1β and NOX2 were not different between ALS mice cervical and lumbar regions. T lymphocytes were observed infiltrating lumbar spinal cords of ALS mice prior to the cervical region; mRNA levels of the transcription factor gata-3 (Th2 response) were differentially elevated in the cervical cord of ALS mice whereas t-bet (Th1 response) was increased in the lumbar cord. These results reinforce the important balance between specific protective/injurious inflammatory immune responses in modulating clinical outcomes and suggest that the delayed forelimb motor weakness in ALS mice is partially explained by augmented protective responses in the cervical spinal cords.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Beers
- Department of Neurology, Methodist Neurological Institute, The Methodist Hospital Research Institute, The Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Jeon SM, Sung JK, Cho HJ. Expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and its induction by tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 in sensory neurons in the ventral rhizotomy model of neuropathic pain. Neuroscience 2011; 190:354-66. [PMID: 21712071 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2010] [Revised: 06/07/2011] [Accepted: 06/11/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The expression and role of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in the rat dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and spinal cord was evaluated in the lumbar 5 ventral rhizotomy (L5 VR) model of neuropathic pain. MCP-1 protein expression in the L4/L5 DRG neurons following L5 VR peaked after 3 days, and then declined. Immunohistochemistry showed that no MCP-1 immunoreactivity was observed in the spinal cord after L5 VR, while enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) revealed a small but significant increase in MCP-1 protein content. L5 VR resulted in robust and prolonged mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia. Administration of anti-MCP-1 neutralizing antibody before and at early time points after L5 VR resulted in a significant attenuation of mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia, while post-treatment had a weaker effect on established neuropathic pain. Extensive colocalization of tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) and MCP-1 was observed in the L5 DRG following L5 VR, and treatment with TNFR1 antisense oligonucleotide reduced L5 VR-induced MCP-1 expression in L5 DRG neurons and neuropathic pain behaviors. MCP-1/chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 signaling has been proposed as a major regulator of macrophage trafficking. In contrast to the effect on pain behaviors, however, intrathecal administration of anti-MCP-1 neutralizing antibody had no effect on the L5 VR-induced increase in ED-1-immunoreactive macrophages in the L5 DRG and the distal stump of the transected L5 ventral root. These data indicate that increased MCP-1 in DRG neurons might participate in the initiation, rather than the maintenance, of neuropathic pain induced by L5 VR. Furthermore, increased MCP-1 in the DRG is induced by TNF-α/TNFR1 and has no effect on the infiltration of macrophages into the DRG following L5 VR.
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Affiliation(s)
- S-M Jeon
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Kyungpook National University, 2-101, Dongin Dong, Daegu 700-422, South Korea
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Huang Z, Meola D, Petitto JM. Loss of CNS IL-2 gene expression modifies brain T lymphocyte trafficking: response of normal versus autoreactive Treg-deficient T cells. Neurosci Lett 2011; 499:213-8. [PMID: 21669253 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.05.230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/25/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Emerging data from our lab and others suggested that dysregulation of the brain's endogenous neuroimmunological milieu may occur with the loss of brain IL-2 gene expression and be involved in initiating processes that lead to CNS autoimmunity. We sought to test our working hypothesis that IL-2 deficiency induces endogenous changes in the CNS that play a key role in eliciting T cell homing into the brain. To accomplish this goal, we used an experimental approach that combined mouse congenic breeding and immune reconstitution. In congenic mice without brain IL-2 (two IL-2 KO alleles) that were reconstituted with a normal wild-type immune system, the loss of brain IL-2 doubled the number of T cells that trafficked into the brain in all regions quantified (hippocampus, septum, and cerebellum) compared to mice with two wild-type brain IL-2 alleles and a wild-type peripheral immune system. Congenic mice with normal brain IL-2 (two wild-type IL-2 alleles) that were immune reconstituted with autoreactive Treg-deficient T cells from IL-2 KO mice developed the expected peripheral autoimmunity (splenomegaly) and had a comparable doubling of T cell trafficking into the hippocampus and septum, whereas they exhibited an additional twofold proclivity for the cerebellum over the septohippocampal regions. Unlike brain trafficking of wild-type T cells, the increased homing of IL-2 KO T cells to the cerebellum was independent of brain IL-2 gene expression. These findings demonstrate that brain IL-2 deficiency induces endogenous CNS changes that may lead to the development of brain autoimmunity, and that autoreactive Treg-deficient IL-2 KO T cells trafficking to the brain could have a proclivity to induce cerebellar neuropathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhi Huang
- Department of Psychiatry, McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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Nelson TE, Hao C, Manos J, Ransohoff R, Gruol DL. Altered hippocampal synaptic transmission in transgenic mice with astrocyte-targeted enhanced CCL2 expression. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25 Suppl 1:S106-19. [PMID: 21356306 PMCID: PMC4467826 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2010] [Revised: 02/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/18/2011] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Elevated expression of neuroinflammatory factors in the central nervous system (CNS) contributes to the cognitive impairment in CNS disorders such as injury, disease and neurodegenerative disorders. However, information on the role of specific neuroimmune factors in normal and abnormal CNS function is limited. In this study, we investigated the effects of chronic exposure to the chemokine CCL2 on hippocampal synaptic function at the Schaffer collateral-CA1 synapse, a synapse that is known to play an important role in cognitive functions such as memory and learning. Synaptic function was measured in vitro using hippocampal slices obtained from transgenic mice that express elevated levels of CCL2 in the CNS through astrocyte expression and their non-transgenic littermate controls. Extracellular field potential electrophysiological recordings showed a significant reduction in the magnitude of synaptic responses in hippocampal slices from the CCL2 transgenic mice compared with slices from non-transgenic littermate controls. Two forms of short-term synaptic plasticity (post-tetanic potentiation and short-term potentiation) thought to be important cellular mechanisms of short-term memory were enhanced in hippocampal slices from CCL2 transgenic mice compared to non-transgenic hippocampal slices, whereas long-term synaptic plasticity (LTP), which is critical to long-term memory formation, was not altered. Western blot analysis of hippocampus from the CCL2 transgenic mice and non-transgenic mice showed no change in level of neuronal specific enolase, a neuronal specific protein, GFAP, an astrocyte specific protein, and several synaptic proteins compared with non-transgenic littermate controls. These results show that CCL2, which is known to be chronically produced at elevated levels within the CNS in a number of CNS disorders, can significantly alter hippocampal function and implicate a role for CCL2 in the cognitive dysfunction associated with these CNS disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E. Nelson
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Dept., The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Christine Hao
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Dept., The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Jessica Manos
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Dept., The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - R.M. Ransohoff
- Neuroinflammation Research Center, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio, USA
| | - Donna L. Gruol
- Molecular and Integrative Neurosciences Dept., The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
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Johnson EA, Dao TL, Guignet MA, Geddes CE, Koemeter-Cox AI, Kan RK. Increased expression of the chemokines CXCL1 and MIP-1α by resident brain cells precedes neutrophil infiltration in the brain following prolonged soman-induced status epilepticus in rats. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:41. [PMID: 21535896 PMCID: PMC3104356 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2011] [Accepted: 05/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Exposure to the nerve agent soman (GD) causes neuronal cell death and impaired behavioral function dependent on the induction of status epilepticus (SE). Little is known about the maturation of this pathological process, though neuroinflammation and infiltration of neutrophils are prominent features. The purpose of this study is to quantify the regional and temporal progression of early chemotactic signals, describe the cellular expression of these factors and the relationship between expression and neutrophil infiltration in damaged brain using a rat GD seizure model. Methods Protein levels of 4 chemokines responsible for neutrophil infiltration and activation were quantified up to 72 hours in multiple brain regions (i.e. piriform cortex, hippocampus and thalamus) following SE onset using multiplex bead immunoassays. Chemokines with significantly increased protein levels were localized to resident brain cells (i.e. neurons, astrocytes, microglia and endothelial cells). Lastly, neutrophil infiltration into these brain regions was quantified and correlated to the expression of these chemokines. Results We observed significant concentration increases for CXCL1 and MIP-1α after seizure onset. CXCL1 expression originated from neurons and endothelial cells while MIP-1α was expressed by neurons and microglia. Lastly, the expression of these chemokines directly preceded and positively correlated with significant neutrophil infiltration in the brain. These data suggest that following GD-induced SE, a strong chemotactic response originating from various brain cells, recruits circulating neutrophils to the injured brain. Conclusions A strong induction of neutrophil attractant chemokines occurs following GD-induced SE resulting in neutrophil influx into injured brain tissues. This process may play a key role in the progressive secondary brain pathology observed in this model though further study is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik A Johnson
- Research Division, Pharmacology Branch, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010, USA.
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Fil D, Borysiewicz E, Konat GW. A broad upregulation of cerebral chemokine genes by peripherally-generated inflammatory mediators. Metab Brain Dis 2011; 26:49-59. [PMID: 21258854 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-010-9231-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/21/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Previously, we have shown that peripheral challenge of mice with double stranded RNA (dsRNA), a viral mimic, evokes global upregulation of cerebral inflammatory genes and, particularly, genes encoding chemokines. Because chemokine networks are potent modulators of brain function, the present study was undertaken to comprehensively characterize the cerebral response of chemokine ligand and receptor genes to peripheral immune system stimulation. Briefly, C57BL/6 mice were intraperitoneally injected with 12 mg/kg of polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (PIC) and the expression of 39 mouse chemokine ligand and 20 receptor genes was monitored in the cerebellum by real time quantitative RT-PCR within 24 h. Almost half of the ligand genes featured either transient or sustained upregulation from several- to several thousand-fold. Five CXC type genes, i.e., Cxcl9, Cxcl11, Cxcl10, Cxcl2 and Cxcl1, were the most robustly upregulated, and were followed by six CC type genes, i.e., Ccl2, Ccl7, Ccl5, Ccl12, Ccl4 and Ccl11. Seven genes showed moderate upregulation, whereas the remaining genes were unresponsive. Six receptor genes, i.e., Cxcr2, Ccr7, Cxcr5, Ccr6, Ccr1 and Ccr5, featured a several-fold upregulation. Similar chemokine gene response was observed in the forebrain and brainstem. This upregulation of chemokine genes could be induced in naïve mice by transfer of blood plasma from PIC-challenged mice. Employing oligodeoxynucleotide-labeled PIC we further showed that intraperitoneally injected PIC was not transferred to the blood. In conclusion, peripheral PIC challenge elicits a broad upregulation of cerebral chemokine genes, and this upregulation is mediated by blood-borne agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Fil
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, West Virginia University School of Medicine, 4052 HSN, P.O. Box 9128, Morgantown, WV 26506-9128, USA
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Serrano A, Paré M, McIntosh F, Elmes SJR, Martino G, Jomphe C, Lessard E, Lembo PMC, Vaillancourt F, Perkins MN, Cao CQ. Blocking spinal CCR2 with AZ889 reversed hyperalgesia in a model of neuropathic pain. Mol Pain 2010; 6:90. [PMID: 21143971 PMCID: PMC3009975 DOI: 10.1186/1744-8069-6-90] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/10/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The CCR2/CCL2 system has been identified as a regulator in the pathogenesis of neuropathy-induced pain. However, CCR2 target validation in analgesia and the mechanism underlying antinociception produced by CCR2 antagonists remains poorly understood. In this study, in vitro and in vivo pharmacological approaches using a novel CCR2 antagonist, AZ889, strengthened the hypothesis of a CCR2 contribution to neuropathic pain and provided confidence over the possibilities to treat neuropathic pain with CCR2 antagonists. Results We provided evidence that dorsal root ganglia (DRG) cells harvested from CCI animals responded to stimulation by CCL2 with a concentration-dependent calcium rise involving PLC-dependent internal stores. This response was associated with an increase in evoked neuronal action potentials suggesting these cells were sensitive to CCR2 signalling. Importantly, treatment with AZ889 abolished CCL2-evoked excitation confirming that this activity is CCR2-mediated. Neuronal and non-neuronal cells in the spinal cord were also excited by CCL2 applications indicating an important role of spinal CCR2 in neuropathic pain. We next showed that in vivo spinal intrathecal injection of AZ889 produced dose-dependent analgesia in CCI rats. Additionally, application of AZ889 to the exposed spinal cord inhibited evoked neuronal activity and confirmed that CCR2-mediated analgesia involved predominantly the spinal cord. Furthermore, AZ889 abolished NMDA-dependent wind-up of spinal withdrawal reflex pathway in neuropathic animals giving insight into the spinal mechanism underlying the analgesic properties of AZ889. Conclusions Overall, this study strengthens the important role of CCR2 in neuropathic pain and highlights feasibility that interfering on this mechanism at the spinal level with a selective antagonist can provide new analgesia opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Serrano
- AstraZeneca R&D Montréal, 7171 Frédérick Banting, Ville St-Laurent (Montréal) Québec, Canada, H4S 1Z9
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Le Dréau G, Kular L, Nicot AB, Calmel C, Melik-Parsadaniantz S, Kitabgi P, Laurent M, Martinerie C. NOV/CCN3 upregulates CCL2 and CXCL1 expression in astrocytes through beta1 and beta5 integrins. Glia 2010; 58:1510-21. [PMID: 20648642 DOI: 10.1002/glia.21025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggests that CCN matricellular proteins play important roles in inflammation. One of the major cell types that handle inflammation in the brain is the astrocyte, which, upon activation, dramatically increases its production of cytokines and chemokines. Here, we report that NOV/CCN3, added to primary cultured rat brain astrocytes, markedly increased the expression of CCL2 and CXCL1 chemokines, as indicated by ELISA and RT-qPCR assays. This effect was selective, as the production of thirteen other cytokines and chemokines was not affected by NOV. NOV expression by astrocytes was demonstrated by immunocytochemistry and Western blot analysis, and astrocyte transfection with NOV small interfering RNA (siRNA) markedly decreased CXCL1 and CCL2 production, indicating that endogenous NOV played a major role in the control of astrocytic chemokine synthesis. NOV was shown to mediate several of its actions through integrins. Here, we observed that siRNAs against integrins beta1 and beta5 decreased basal and abrogated NOV-stimulated astrocyte expression of CCL2 and CXCL1, respectively. Using a panel of kinase inhibitors, we demonstrated that NOV action on CCL2 and CXCL1 production involved a Rho/ROCK/JNK/NF-kappaB and a Rho/qROCK/p38/NF-kappaB pathway, respectively. Thus, distinct integrins and signaling mechanisms are involved in NOV-induced production of CCL2 and CXCL1 in astrocytes. Finally, astrocytic expression of NOV was detected in rat brain tissue sections, and NOV intracerebral injection increased CCL2 and CXCL1 brain levels in vivo. Altogether, our data shed light on the signaling pathways operated by NOV and strongly suggest that NOV mediates astrocyte activation and, therefore, might play a role in neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Le Dréau
- INSERM, UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche de Saint-Antoine, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Paris, France
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Yang G, Meng Y, Li W, Yong Y, Fan Z, Ding H, Wei Y, Luo J, Ke ZJ. Neuronal MCP-1 mediates microglia recruitment and neurodegeneration induced by the mild impairment of oxidative metabolism. Brain Pathol 2010; 21:279-97. [PMID: 21029241 DOI: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2010.00445.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines are implicated in the neuroinflammation of several chronic neurodegenerative disorders. However, the precise role of chemokines in neurodegeneration is unknown. Thiamine deficiency (TD) causes abnormal oxidative metabolism in the brain as well as a well-defined microglia activation and neurodegeneration in the submedial thalamus nucleus (SmTN), which are common features of neurodegenerative diseases. We evaluated the role of chemokines in neurodegeneration and the underlying mechanism in a TD model. Among the chemokines examined, TD selectively induced neuronal expression of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) in the SmTN prior to microglia activation and neurodegeneration. The conditioned medium collected from TD-induced neurons caused microglia activation. With a neuron/microglia co-culture system, we showed that MCP-1-induced neurotoxicity required the presence of microglia, and exogenous MCP-1 was able to activate microglia and stimulated microglia to produce cytokines. A MCP-1 neutralizing antibody inhibited MCP-1-induced microglia activation and neuronal death in culture and in the thalamus. MCP-1 knockout mice were resistant to TD-induced neuronal death in SmTN. TD selectively induced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in neurons, and antioxidants blocked TD-induced MCP-1 expression. Together, our results indicated an induction of neuronal MCP-1 during mild impairment of oxidative metabolism caused by microglia recruitment/activation, which exacerbated neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang Yang
- Key Laboratory of Nutrition and Metabolism, Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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Abstract
Chemokines and their receptors have crucial roles in the trafficking of leukocytes, and are of particular interest in the context of the unique immune responses elicited in the central nervous system (CNS). The chemokine system CC ligand 2 (CCL2) with its receptor CC receptor 2 (CCR2), as well as the receptor CXCR2 and its multiple ligands CXCL1, CXCL2 and CXCL8, have been implicated in a wide range of neuropathologies, including trauma, ischemic injury and multiple sclerosis. This review aims to overview the current understanding of chemokines as mediators of leukocyte migration into the CNS under neuroinflammatory conditions. We will specifically focus on the involvement of two chemokine networks, namely CCL2/CCR2 and CXCL8/CXCR2, in promoting macrophage and neutrophil infiltration, respectively, into the lesioned parenchyma after focal traumatic brain injury. The constitutive brain expression of these chemokines and their receptors, including their recently identified roles in the modulation of neuroprotection, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission, will be discussed. In conclusion, the value of evidence obtained from the use of Ccl2- and Cxcr2-deficient mice will be reported, in the context of potential therapeutics inhibiting chemokine activity which are currently in clinical trial for various inflammatory diseases.
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Wainwright DA, Xin J, Mesnard NA, Politis CM, Sanders VM, Jones KJ. Effects of facial nerve axotomy on Th2- and Th1-associated chemokine expression in the facial motor nucleus of wild-type and presymptomatic mSOD1 mice. J Neuroimmunol 2009; 216:66-75. [PMID: 19818514 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2009.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2009] [Revised: 09/12/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
We have previously demonstrated a neuroprotective mechanism of facial motoneuron (FMN) survival after facial nerve axotomy that is dependent on CD4(+) Th2 cell interaction with peripheral antigen-presenting cells, as well as CNS resident microglia. To investigate this mechanism, we chose to study the Th2-associated chemokine, CCL11, and Th1-associated chemokine, CXCL11, in wild-type and presymptomatic mSOD1 mice after facial nerve axotomy. In this report, the results indicate that CCL11 is constitutively expressed in the uninjured facial motor nucleus, but CXCL11 is not expressed at all. Facial nerve axotomy induced a shift in CCL11 expression from FMN to astrocytes, whereas CXCL11 was induced in FMN. Differences in the number of CCL11- and CXCL11-expressing cells were observed between WT and mSOD1 mice after facial nerve axotomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek A Wainwright
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
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Richardson PM, Miao T, Wu D, Zhang Y, Yeh J, Bo X. RESPONSES OF THE NERVE CELL BODY TO AXOTOMY. Neurosurgery 2009; 65:A74-9. [DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000352378.26755.c3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
OBJECTIVE
Peripheral nerve injury causes retrograde changes in the damaged neurons, which are beneficial to axonal regeneration. Better understanding of the mechanisms of induction and mediation of these conditioning responses would help to design strategies to invoke stronger regenerative responses in neurons in situations when these responses are inadequate.
METHODS
Relevant literature is reviewed.
RESULTS
Experimental preparations that measure the influence of peripheral axotomy on regeneration in the central axons of primary sensory neurons are useful to examine mechanisms of conditioning neurons. Despite 4 decades of speculation, the nature of the damage signals from injured nerves that initiate axonal signals to the nerve cell body remains elusive. Members of the family of neuropoietic cytokines are clearly implicated, but what induces them is unknown. Multiple changes in gene regulation in axotomized neurons have been described, and dozens of growth-associated genes have been identified: neurotrophic factors, transcription factors, molecules participating in axonal transport, and molecules active in the growth cone. The mechanisms of interaction of a few regeneration-associated molecules with the signaling cascades that lead to actin and tubulin remodeling at the growth cone are understood in some detail. In animals, viral gene therapy to deliver regeneration-associated genes to neurons or other local measures to induce these genes can improve regeneration. A few pharmacological agents, administered systemically, have small beneficial effects on axonal regeneration.
CONCLUSION
Advances in laboratory research have provided knowledge of cell body responses to axotomy with clinical relevance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M. Richardson
- Department of Neurosurgery, Queen Mary, University of London, The Royal London Hospital, London, England
| | - Tizong Miao
- Neuroscience Centre, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary, University of London, London, England
| | - Dongsheng Wu
- Neuroscience Centre, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary, University of London, London, England
| | - Yi Zhang
- Neuroscience Centre, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary, University of London, London, England
| | - John Yeh
- Department of Neurosurgery, Queen Mary, University of London, The Royal London Hospital, London, England
| | - Xuenong Bo
- Neuroscience Centre, Institute of Cell and Molecular Science, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary, University of London, London, England
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Abstract
Chemokines and chemokine receptors are widely expressed in the nervous system, where they play roles in the regulation of stem cell migration, axonal path finding, and neurotransmission. Chemokine signaling is also of key importance in the regulation of neuroinflammatory responses. The expression of the chemokine monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1) and its receptor (CCR2) is upregulated by dorsal root ganglia neurons in rodent models of neuropathic pain. MCP1 increases the excitability of nociceptive neurons after a peripheral nerve injury, and disruption of MCP1 signaling blocks the development of neuropathic pain. In the spinal cord, microglial cells expressing CCR2 are thought to play an active role in the initiation and maintenance of pain hypersensitivity, and MCP1 may also alter the excitability of spinal neurons in some cases. Other predominant sites of CCR2 activation are found in the peripheral nervous system, thereby explaining, at least in some circumstances, the rapid anti-nociceptive effects of peripherally administered CCR2 antagonists. In this article we discuss the relative roles of CCR2 activation in the peripheral and central nervous systems in relation to the phenomenon of neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fletcher A White
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology & Anatomy, and Anesthesiology, Loyola University, Stritch School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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Godavarthi SK, Narender D, Mishra A, Goswami A, Rao SNR, Nukina N, Jana NR. Induction of chemokines, MCP-1, and KC in the mutant huntingtin expressing neuronal cells because of proteasomal dysfunction. J Neurochem 2009; 108:787-95. [PMID: 19187096 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2008.05823.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Huntington's disease is a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder caused by an aberrant polyglutamine expansion in the amino terminus of the huntingtin protein. The resultant mutant huntingtin form aggregates in neurons and causes neuronal dysfunction and degeneration in many ways including transcriptional dysregulation. Here, we report that the expression of mutant huntingtin in the mouse neuroblastoma cell results in massive transcriptional induction of several chemokines including monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and murine chemokine (KC). The mutant huntingtin expressing cells also exhibit proteasomal dysfunction and down-regulation of NF-kappaB activity in a time-dependent manner and both these phenomena regulate the expression of MCP-1 and KC. The expression of MCP-1 and KC are increased in the mutant huntingtin expressing cells in response to mild proteasome inhibition. However, the expression of MCP-1 and KC and proteasome activity are not altered and inflammation is rarely observed in the brain of 12-week-old Huntington's disease transgenic mice in comparison with their age-matched controls. Our result suggests that the mutant huntingtin-induced proteasomal dysfunction can up-regulate the expression of MCP-1 and KC in the neuronal cells and therefore might trigger the inflammation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swetha K Godavarthi
- Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience Laboratory, National Brain Research Centre, Manesar, Gurgaon, India
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G-protein-coupled receptor screen reveals a role for chemokine receptor CCR5 in suppressing microglial neurotoxicity. J Neurosci 2009; 28:11980-8. [PMID: 19005063 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2920-08.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) form the largest superfamily of membrane proteins, and several GPCRs have been implicated in signaling between neurons and glia to protect neurons from pathological stresses. Here, we have used a screening strategy to investigate GPCRs that are involved in neuronal protection. The real-time PCR was performed using 274 primers targeting nonsensory GPCR mRNAs, which were listed on the database. The cDNAs from control and nerve-injured hypoglossal nuclei of mouse brain were used, and the alterations of PCR products were compared. This screen and the subsequent in situ hybridization screen exhibited six GPCR mRNAs which were prominently and convincingly induced in nerve-injured hypoglossal nuclei. Among these candidates, the chemokine receptor CCR5 was selected, based on the marked induction in CCR5 mRNA in microglia after nerve injury. The mRNA expression of ligands for CCR5, such as regulated on activation normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES/CCL5), MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta, were induced in injured motor neurons, indicating that CCR5 and its ligands were expressed in microglia and neurons, respectively, in response to nerve injury. In vitro, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced expression of mRNAs for inflammatory cytokines (IL-1beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in microglia were all suppressed by RANTES. Those suppressions were not observed in microglia from CCR5 null mice. In addition, nerve injury-induced motor neuron death seen in wild type C56BL/6J mice was accelerated in CCR5 knock-out C57BL/6J. These results may suggest that CCR5-mediated neuron-glia signaling functions to protect neurons by suppressing microglia toxicity.
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