1
|
Størset E, Bråten LS, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Johansson I, Molden E, Kringen MK. Impact of CYP2D6*2, CYP2D6*35, rs5758550, and related haplotypes on risperidone clearance in vivo. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2024; 80:1531-1541. [PMID: 38963454 PMCID: PMC11393095 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-024-03721-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE The CYP2D6 gene exhibits significant polymorphism, contributing to variability in responses to drugs metabolized by CYP2D6. While CYP2D6*2 and CYP2D6*35 are presently designated as alleles encoding normal metabolism, this classification is based on moderate level evidence. Additionally, the role of the formerly called "enhancer" single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs5758550 is unclear. In this study, the impacts of CYP2D6*2, CYP2D6*35 and rs5758550 on CYP2D6 activity were investigated using risperidone clearance as CYP2D6 activity marker. METHODS A joint parent-metabolite population pharmacokinetic model was used to describe 1,565 serum concentration measurements of risperidone and 9-hydroxyrisperidone in 512 subjects. Risperidone population clearance was modeled as the sum of a CYP2D6-independent clearance term and the partial clearances contributed from each individually expressed CYP2D6 allele or haplotype. In addition to the well-characterized CYP2D6 alleles (*3-*6, *9, *10 and *41), *2, *35 and two haplotypes assigned as CYP2D6*2-rs5758550G and CYP2D6*2-rs5758550A were evaluated. RESULTS Each evaluated CYP2D6 allele was associated with significantly lower risperidone clearance than the reference normal function allele CYP2D6*1 (p < 0.001). Further, rs5758550 differentiated the effect of CYP2D6*2 (p = 0.005). The haplotype-specific clearances for CYP2D6*2-rs5758550A, CYP2D6*2-rs5758550G and CYP2D6*35 were estimated to 30%, 66% and 57%, respectively, relative to the clearance for CYP2D6*1. Notably, rs5758550 is in high linkage disequilibrium (R2 > 0.85) with at least 24 other SNPs and cannot be assigned as a functional SNP. CONCLUSION CYP2D6*2 and CYP2D6*35 encode reduced risperidone clearance, and the extent of reduction for CYP2D6*2 is differentiated by rs5758550. Genotyping of these haplotypes might improve the precision of genotype-guided prediction of CYP2D6-mediated clearance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisabet Størset
- Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | | | - Magnus Ingelman-Sundberg
- Section of Pharmacogenetics, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Inger Johansson
- Section of Pharmacogenetics, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Espen Molden
- Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Marianne Kristiansen Kringen
- Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Life Science and Health, Oslo Metropolitan University, Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Opazo-Toro V, Fortuna V, Jiménez W, Pazos López M, Royo MJM, Ventura-Abreu N, Brunet M, Milla E. Genotype and Phenotype Influence the Personal Response to Prostaglandin Analogues and Beta-Blockers in Spanish Glaucoma and Ocular Hypertension Patients. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032093. [PMID: 36768422 PMCID: PMC9916755 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Analysis of the genotype that predicts the phenotypic characteristics of a cohort of glaucoma and ocular hypertension patients, and the correlation with their personal pharmacological response to beta-blockers (BB) and prostaglandin analogues (PGA). Prospective study that included 139 eyes from 72 patients under BB and/or PGA treatment, and in some cases other types of ocular hypotensive treatments. Five single-nucleotide polymorphisms were genotyped by real-time PCR assays: prostaglandin-F2α receptor (rs3766355, rs3753380); cytochrome-P450 2D6 (rs16947, rs769258); and beta-2-adrenergic receptor (rs1042714). Other studied variables were mean deviation (MD) of visual field, previous ocular interventions, medical treatment, baseline (bIOP), and treated intraocular pressure (tIOP). From a total of 139 eyes, 71 (51.1%) were left eyes. The main diagnosis was primary open angle glaucoma (66.2%). A total of 57 (41%) eyes were under three or more medications (PGA + BB + other) and, additionally, 57 eyes (41%) had had some kind of glaucoma surgery. The mean bIOP and tIOP were 26.55 ± 8.19 and 21.01 ± 5.54 mmHg, respectively. Significant differences in tIOP were found between heterozygous (HT) (21.07 ± 0.607 mmHg) and homozygous (HM) (20.98 ± 0.639 mmHg) rs3766355 with respect to wildtype individuals (16 ± 1.08 mmHg) (p = 0.031). The MD values presented significant differences between wildtype rs3766355 (-2 ± 2.2 dB), HT (-3.87 ± 4 dB), and HM carriers (-9.37 ± 9.51 dB) (p = 0.009). Significant differences were also observed between the MD in wildtype rs3753380 (-6.1 ± 8.67 dB), HT (-9.02 ± 8.63 dB), and HM carriers (-9.51 ± 7.44 dB) (p = 0.017). Patients carrying the variant rs3766355 in HM or HT presented clinically-significantly higher tIOP than wildtype patients. Additionally, some differences in MD were found in rs3766355 and rs3753380 carriers, and the more alleles that were affected, the worse the MD value, meaning greater severity of the glaucoma. Poor response to treatment and more visual field damage may be associated with being a carrier of these mutated alleles.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Opazo-Toro
- Glaucoma Unit, Instituto Oftalmologico Integral, C/María Auxiliadora 25, 08017 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Virginia Fortuna
- Pharmacology and Toxicology Laboratory, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics Service, Biomedical Diagnostic Center, Hospital Clinic Barcelona, University of Barcelona, 08007 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Wladimiro Jiménez
- Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics Service, Center for Biomedical Diagnosis, Hospital Clinic Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- August Pí i Sunyer Research Institute (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Marta Pazos López
- Glaucoma Unit, Institut Clínic d’Oftalmologia, Hospital Clínic, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | | | - Mercè Brunet
- Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics Service, Center for Biomedical Diagnosis, Hospital Clinic Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- August Pí i Sunyer Research Institute (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Milla
- August Pí i Sunyer Research Institute (IDIBAPS), University of Barcelona, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
- Glaucoma Unit, Institut Clínic d’Oftalmologia, Hospital Clínic, 08036 Barcelona, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
de Andrés F, Altamirano-Tinoco C, Ramírez-Roa R, Montes-Mondragón CF, Dorado P, Peñas-Lledó EM, LLerena A. Relationships between CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6 and CYP3A4 metabolic phenotypes and genotypes in a Nicaraguan Mestizo population. THE PHARMACOGENOMICS JOURNAL 2020; 21:140-151. [PMID: 33024249 DOI: 10.1038/s41397-020-00190-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Interethnic variability in the drug-metabolizing capacity of CYP450 enzymes may lead to discrepancies in the relationship between genotypes and phenotypes worldwide. The present study was aimed to analyze for the first time whether there is a relationship between clinically relevant CYP450 genetic polymorphisms and their drug oxidation capacity (metabolic phenotype) in a population of healthy Nicaraguan volunteers. Two hundred and twelve participants were genotyped for CYP1A2, CYP2C9, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and CYP3A4, and their actual metabolic phenotype (evaluated by the Metabolic Ratio, MR) was analyzed by using the CEIBA cocktail approach. The results showed the wide interindividual variability in all the studied enzymes and a significant difference (p < 0.004) in the activity of CYP1A2 between male and female subjects. The number of CYP2C19 (p < 0.0001) and CYP2D6 (p < 0.0001) active alleles were shown inversely correlated with their corresponding MR, although there were marked genotype-phenotype discrepancies. There was an actual enzyme capacity overlapping (MR) between genotypically Poor (gPMs) and Extensive Metabolizers (gEMs) of 3.14% subjects for CYP2D6 and 0.94% for CYP2C9. Similarly, there was an overlapping for metabolic phenotypes of 11.48% of genotypically ultrarapid metabolizers (gUMs) for CYP2C19 and 2.09% for CYP2D6 and gEMs. Therefore, the current approach for metabolic phenotype prediction based just on genotype does not predict properly for all individuals within this Nicaraguan Mestizo population, thus representing a potential barrier for the clinical implementation of personalized medicine in this region. However, it is necessary to improve the prediction of phenotype from genotype in order to improve the pharmacogenetic implementation in populations with specific ethnic backgrounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando de Andrés
- INUBE Extremadura Biosanitary University Research Institute, CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Badajoz University Hospital; University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain.,RIBEF Ibero American Network of Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics, León, Nicaragua
| | - Catalina Altamirano-Tinoco
- RIBEF Ibero American Network of Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics, León, Nicaragua.,UNAN Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, León, Nicaragua
| | - Ronald Ramírez-Roa
- RIBEF Ibero American Network of Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics, León, Nicaragua. .,UNAN Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua, Facultad de Ciencias Médicas, León, Nicaragua.
| | | | - Pedro Dorado
- INUBE Extremadura Biosanitary University Research Institute, CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Badajoz University Hospital; University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain.,RIBEF Ibero American Network of Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics, León, Nicaragua.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Eva M Peñas-Lledó
- INUBE Extremadura Biosanitary University Research Institute, CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Badajoz University Hospital; University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain.,RIBEF Ibero American Network of Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics, León, Nicaragua.,Faculty of Medicine, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Adrián LLerena
- INUBE Extremadura Biosanitary University Research Institute, CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Badajoz University Hospital; University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. .,RIBEF Ibero American Network of Pharmacogenetics and Pharmacogenomics, León, Nicaragua. .,Faculty of Medicine, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, Spain. .,CIBERSAM, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Just KS, Dormann H, Schurig M, Böhme M, Fracowiak J, Steffens M, Scholl C, Seufferlein T, Gräff I, Schwab M, Stingl JC. Adverse Drug Reactions in the Emergency Department: Is There a Role for Pharmacogenomic Profiles at Risk?-Results from the ADRED Study. J Clin Med 2020; 9:jcm9061801. [PMID: 32527038 PMCID: PMC7355597 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9061801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Individual differences in required drug dosages exist based on the pharmacogenomic (PGx) profiles. This study aimed to assess associations between PGx profiles and adverse drug reactions (ADR) that lead to admissions to the emergency department (ED). ADR cases of the prospective multi-center observational trial in EDs (ADRED study) were analyzed (n = 776) together with the relevant PGx phenotypes of the enzymes CYP2D6, CYP2C19, CYP2C9, and VKORC1. Overall, the allele frequency distribution in this cohort did not differ from the population frequencies. We compared the frequencies of phenotypes in the subgroups with the drugs suspected of certain ADR, in the remaining cases. The frequency distribution of CYP2C19 differed for the ADR bleeding cases suspected of clopidogrel (p = 0.020). In a logistic regression analysis, higher CYP2C19 activity (OR (95% CI): 4.97 (1.73−14.27)), together with age (1.05 (1.02−1.08)), showed an impact on the clopidogrel-suspecting ADRs, when adjusting for the clinical parameters. There was a trend for an association of phenprocoumon-risk profiles (low VKORC1 or CYP2C9 activity) with phenprocoumon-suspecting ADRs (p = 0.052). The PGx impact on serious ADRs might be highest in drugs that cannot be easily monitored or those that do not provoke mild ADR symptoms very quickly. Therefore, patients that require the intake of those drugs with PGx variability such as clopidogrel, might benefit from PGx testing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katja S. Just
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of RWTH Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
| | - Harald Dormann
- Central Emergency Department, Hospital Fürth, 90766 Fürth, Germany;
| | - Marlen Schurig
- Research Department, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, 53175 Bonn, Germany; (M.S.); (M.B.); (J.F.); (M.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Miriam Böhme
- Research Department, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, 53175 Bonn, Germany; (M.S.); (M.B.); (J.F.); (M.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Jochen Fracowiak
- Research Department, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, 53175 Bonn, Germany; (M.S.); (M.B.); (J.F.); (M.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Michael Steffens
- Research Department, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, 53175 Bonn, Germany; (M.S.); (M.B.); (J.F.); (M.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Catharina Scholl
- Research Department, Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, 53175 Bonn, Germany; (M.S.); (M.B.); (J.F.); (M.S.); (C.S.)
| | - Thomas Seufferlein
- Internal Medicine Emergency Department, Ulm University Medical Centre, 89081 Ulm, Germany;
| | - Ingo Gräff
- Interdisciplinary Emergency Department (INZ), University Hospital of Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Matthias Schwab
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch-Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, 70376 Stuttgart, Germany;
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
- Department of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Tuebingen, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Julia C. Stingl
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital of RWTH Aachen, 52074 Aachen, Germany;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-241-8089-130
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Haslemo T, Eliasson E, Jukić MM, Ingelman-Sundberg M, Molden E. Significantly lower CYP2D6 metabolism measured as the O/N-desmethylvenlafaxine metabolic ratio in carriers of CYP2D6*41 versus CYP2D6*9 or CYP2D6*10: a study on therapeutic drug monitoring data from 1003 genotyped Scandinavian patients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2018; 85:194-201. [PMID: 30312494 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.13788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS CYP2D6*9, CYP2D6*10 and CYP2D6*41 are the most frequent reduced-function CYP2D6 alleles in Caucasians. Despite lacking in vivo evidence, they are collectively classified with an enzyme activity score of 0.5. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the functional impact of CYP2D6*9, CYP2D6*10 and CYP2D6*41 on CYP2D6 metabolism in a large patient population. METHODS A total of 1003 patients (mainly Caucasians) with data on CYP2D6 genotype and serum concentrations of venlafaxine and metabolites were included from a therapeutic drug monitoring service in Oslo, Norway. The O-desmethyl-to-N-desmethyl-venlafaxine metabolic ratio (MR) was applied as CYP2D6 biomarker and compared (Mann-Whitney) between carriers of CYP2D6*9-10 (merged) and CYP2D6*41, either combined with CYP2D6*1 or non-coding (null) alleles. MR subgroup estimates were obtained by multiple linear regression for calculations of CYP2D6*9-10 and CYP2D6*41 activity scores. RESULTS MR was significantly lower in carriers of CYP2D6*41 than CYP2D6*9-10 (P < 0.002). The majority of CYP2D6*41/null carriers (86.7%) had MR in the observed range of CYP2D6null/null carriers compared with the minority of CYP2D6*9-10/null carriers (17.4%). CYP2D6 genotype explained 60.7% of MR variability in the multivariate analysis providing subgroup estimates of 9.54 (95% CI; 7.45-12.20), 3.55 (2.06-6.10), 1.33 (0.87-2.05) and 0.47 (0.35-0.61) in carriers of CYP2D6*1/null (n = 269), CYP2D6*9-10/null (n = 17), CYP2D6*41/null (n = 30) and CYP2D6null/null (n = 95), respectively. Based on these estimates, the calculated activity score of CYP2D6*41 was 0.095 compared to 0.34 for CYP2D6*9-10. CONCLUSIONS CYP2D6 metabolism measured as the O/N-desmethylvenlafaxine ratio is significantly lower in Scandinavian carriers of CYP2D6*41 vs. CYP2D6*9-10. Thus, these alleles should be differentiated when classifying CYP2D6 phenotype from genotype.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tore Haslemo
- Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Erik Eliasson
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marin M Jukić
- Section of Pharmacogenetics, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Magnus Ingelman-Sundberg
- Section of Pharmacogenetics, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Espen Molden
- Center for Psychopharmacology, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Modak AS. Point-of-care companion diagnostic tests for personalizing psychiatric medications: fulfilling an unmet clinical need. J Breath Res 2017; 12:017101. [PMID: 28920579 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/aa8d2e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Over the last decade stable isotope-labeled substrates have been used as probes for rapid, point-of-care, non-invasive and user-friendly phenotype breath tests to evaluate activity of drug metabolizing enzymes. These diagnostic breath tests can potentially be used as companion diagnostics by physicians to personalize medications, especially psychiatric drugs with narrow therapeutic windows, to monitor the progress of disease severity, medication efficacy and to study in vivo the pharmacokinetics of xenobiotics. Several genotype tests have been approved by the FDA over the last 15 years for both cytochrome P450 2D6 and 2C19 enzymes, however they have not been cleared for use in personalizing medications since they fall woefully short in identifying all non-responders to drugs, especially for the CYP450 enzymes. CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 are among the most extensively studied drug metabolizing enzymes, involved in the metabolism of approximately 30% of FDA-approved drugs in clinical use, associated with large individual differences in medication efficacy or tolerability essentially due to phenoconversion. The development and commercialization via FDA approval of the non-invasive, rapid (<60 min), in vivo, phenotype diagnostic breath tests to evaluate polymorphic CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 enzyme activity by measuring exhaled 13CO2 as a biomarker in breath will effectively resolve the currently unmet clinical need for individualized psychiatric drug therapy. Clinicians could personalize treatment options for patients based on the CYP2D6 and CYP2C19 phenotype by selecting the optimal medication at the right initial and subsequent maintenance dose for the desired clinical outcome (i.e. greatest efficacy and minimal side effects).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anil S Modak
- Cambridge Isotope Laboratories, Inc., 3 Highwood Drive, Tewksbury, MA 01876, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
St Sauver JL, Olson JE, Roger VL, Nicholson WT, Black JL, Takahashi PY, Caraballo PJ, Bell EJ, Jacobson DJ, Larson NB, Bielinski SJ. CYP2D6 phenotypes are associated with adverse outcomes related to opioid medications. Pharmgenomics Pers Med 2017. [PMID: 28769582 DOI: 10.2147/pgpm.s136341.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Variation in the CYP2D6 gene may affect response to opioids in both poor and ultrarapid metabolizers, but data demonstrating such associations have been mixed, and the impact of variants on toxicity-related symptoms (e.g., nausea) is unclear. Therefore, we examined the association between CYP2D6 phenotype and poor pain control or other adverse symptoms related to the use of opioids in a sample of primary care patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS We identified all patients in the Mayo Clinic RIGHT Protocol who were prescribed an opioid medication between July 01, 2013 and June 30, 2015, and categorized patients into three phenotypes: poor, intermediate to extensive, or ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolizers. We reviewed the electronic health record of these patients for indications of poor pain control or adverse symptoms related to medication use. Associations between phenotype and outcomes were assessed using Chi-square tests and logistic regression. RESULTS Overall, 257 (25% of RIGHT Protocol participants) patients received at least one opioid prescription; of these, 40 (15%) were poor metabolizers, 146 (57%) were intermediate to extensive metabolizers, and 71 (28%) were ultrarapid metabolizers. We removed patients that were prescribed a CYP2D6 inhibitor medication (n=38). After adjusting for age and sex, patients with a poor or ultrarapid phenotype were 2.7 times more likely to experience either poor pain control or an adverse symptom related to the prescription compared to patients with an intermediate to extensive phenotype (odds ratio: 2.68; 95% CI: 1.39, 5.17; p=0.003). CONCLUSION Our results suggest that >30% of patients with a poor or ultrarapid CYP2D6 phenotype may experience an adverse outcome after being prescribed codeine, tramadol, oxycodone, or hydrocodone. These medications are frequently prescribed for pain relief, and ~39% of the US population is expected to carry one of these phenotypes, suggesting that the population-level impact of these gene-drug interactions could be substantial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L St Sauver
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester
| | - Janet E Olson
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Center for Individualized Medicine
| | - Veronique L Roger
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester.,Department of Cardiovascular Diseases
| | | | - John L Black
- Center for Individualized Medicine.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
| | - Paul Y Takahashi
- Department of Primary Care Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Pedro J Caraballo
- Department of Primary Care Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Bell
- Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester
| | - Debra J Jacobson
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
St Sauver JL, Olson JE, Roger VL, Nicholson WT, Black JL, Takahashi PY, Caraballo PJ, Bell EJ, Jacobson DJ, Larson NB, Bielinski SJ. CYP2D6 phenotypes are associated with adverse outcomes related to opioid medications. PHARMACOGENOMICS & PERSONALIZED MEDICINE 2017; 10:217-227. [PMID: 28769582 PMCID: PMC5533497 DOI: 10.2147/pgpm.s136341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Background Variation in the CYP2D6 gene may affect response to opioids in both poor and ultrarapid metabolizers, but data demonstrating such associations have been mixed, and the impact of variants on toxicity-related symptoms (e.g., nausea) is unclear. Therefore, we examined the association between CYP2D6 phenotype and poor pain control or other adverse symptoms related to the use of opioids in a sample of primary care patients. Materials and methods We identified all patients in the Mayo Clinic RIGHT Protocol who were prescribed an opioid medication between July 01, 2013 and June 30, 2015, and categorized patients into three phenotypes: poor, intermediate to extensive, or ultrarapid CYP2D6 metabolizers. We reviewed the electronic health record of these patients for indications of poor pain control or adverse symptoms related to medication use. Associations between phenotype and outcomes were assessed using Chi-square tests and logistic regression. Results Overall, 257 (25% of RIGHT Protocol participants) patients received at least one opioid prescription; of these, 40 (15%) were poor metabolizers, 146 (57%) were intermediate to extensive metabolizers, and 71 (28%) were ultrarapid metabolizers. We removed patients that were prescribed a CYP2D6 inhibitor medication (n=38). After adjusting for age and sex, patients with a poor or ultrarapid phenotype were 2.7 times more likely to experience either poor pain control or an adverse symptom related to the prescription compared to patients with an intermediate to extensive phenotype (odds ratio: 2.68; 95% CI: 1.39, 5.17; p=0.003). Conclusion Our results suggest that >30% of patients with a poor or ultrarapid CYP2D6 phenotype may experience an adverse outcome after being prescribed codeine, tramadol, oxycodone, or hydrocodone. These medications are frequently prescribed for pain relief, and ~39% of the US population is expected to carry one of these phenotypes, suggesting that the population-level impact of these gene–drug interactions could be substantial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L St Sauver
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester
| | - Janet E Olson
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Center for Individualized Medicine
| | - Veronique L Roger
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester.,Department of Cardiovascular Diseases
| | | | - John L Black
- Center for Individualized Medicine.,Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology
| | - Paul Y Takahashi
- Department of Primary Care Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Pedro J Caraballo
- Department of Primary Care Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Elizabeth J Bell
- Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester
| | - Debra J Jacobson
- Department of Health Sciences Research.,Kern Center for the Science of Health Care Delivery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Ruaño G, Larsen K, Kocherla M, Graydon JS, Kost J. Complications of Psychotropic and Pain Medications in an Ultrarapid Metabolizer Patient at the Upper 1% of Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) Function Quantified by Combinatorial CYP450 Genotyping. J Pain Palliat Care Pharmacother 2017; 31:126-138. [PMID: 28506184 DOI: 10.1080/15360288.2017.1304494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
A 44-year-old Caucasian woman presented with a history of empirical treatment with 20 pain and psychotropic medications, as well as dual comorbidity of intractable pain and depression. A multiple gain-of-function profile in the CYP450 family of cytochrome P450 (CYP450) drug metabolism isoenzymes was discovered. The patient was a homozygote of suprafunctional alleles for both CYP2D6 (*35/*35) and CYP2C19 (*17/*17) genes and functional alleles for CYP2C9 (*1/*1), which account for aggregate drug metabolism function at the upper 1% of the population. The patient improved clinically with discontinuation of psychotropics and pain medications that were substrates of CYP2D6 and/or CYP2C19, suggesting that much of her symptomatology was drug induced. Combinatorial genotyping of CYP450 genes is diagnostically useful in individuals with histories of multiple side effects or drug resistance, which could be avoided by genetically informed therapeutics in behavioral health.
Collapse
|
10
|
Ruaño G, Kocherla M, Graydon JS, Holford TR, Makowski GS, Goethe JW. Practical interpretation of CYP2D6 haplotypes: Comparison and integration of automated and expert calling. Clin Chim Acta 2016; 456:7-14. [PMID: 26908082 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2016.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Revised: 12/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
We describe a population genetic approach to compare samples interpreted with expert calling (EC) versus automated calling (AC) for CYP2D6 haplotyping. The analysis represents 4812 haplotype calls based on signal data generated by the Luminex xMap analyzers from 2406 patients referred to a high-complexity molecular diagnostics laboratory for CYP450 testing. DNA was extracted from buccal swabs. We compared the results of expert calls (EC) and automated calls (AC) with regard to haplotype number and frequency. The ratio of EC to AC was 1:3. Haplotype frequencies from EC and AC samples were convergent across haplotypes, and their distribution was not statistically different between the groups. Most duplications required EC, as only expansions with homozygous or hemizygous haplotypes could be automatedly called. High-complexity laboratories can offer equivalent interpretation to automated calling for non-expanded CYP2D6 loci, and superior interpretation for duplications. We have validated scientific expert calling specified by scoring rules as standard operating procedure integrated with an automated calling algorithm. The integration of EC with AC is a practical strategy for CYP2D6 clinical haplotyping.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gualberto Ruaño
- Laboratory of Personalized Health, Genomas Inc, United States.
| | - Mohan Kocherla
- Laboratory of Personalized Health, Genomas Inc, United States
| | - James S Graydon
- Laboratory of Personalized Health, Genomas Inc, United States
| | | | | | - John W Goethe
- Institute of Living, Hartford Hospital, United States
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Chang FC, Fung VS. Clinical significance of pharmacogenomic studies in tardive dyskinesia associated with patients with psychiatric disorders. PHARMACOGENOMICS & PERSONALIZED MEDICINE 2014; 7:317-28. [PMID: 25378945 PMCID: PMC4207069 DOI: 10.2147/pgpm.s52806] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacogenomics is the study of the effects of genetic polymorphisms on medication pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. It offers advantages in predicting drug efficacy and/or toxicity and has already changed clinical practice in many fields of medicine. Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a movement disorder that rarely remits and poses significant social stigma and physical discomfort for the patient. Pharmacokinetic studies show an association between cytochrome P450 enzyme-determined poor metabolizer status and elevated serum antipsychotic and metabolite levels. However, few prospective studies have shown this to correlate with the occurrence of TD. Many retrospective, case-control and cross-sectional studies have examined the association of cytochrome P450 enzyme, dopamine (receptor, metabolizer and transporter), serotonin (receptor and transporter), and oxidative stress enzyme gene polymorphisms with the occurrence and severity of TD. These studies have produced conflicting and confusing results secondary to heterogeneous inclusion criteria and other patient characteristics that also act as confounding factors. This paper aims to review and summarize the pharmacogenetic findings in antipsychotic-associated TD and assess its clinical significance for psychiatry patients. In addition, we hope to provide insight into areas that need further research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florence Cf Chang
- Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Victor Sc Fung
- Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Somogyi AA, Barratt DT, Ali RL, Coller JK. Pharmacogenomics of methadone maintenance treatment. Pharmacogenomics 2014; 15:1007-27. [DOI: 10.2217/pgs.14.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Methadone is the major opioid substitution therapy for opioid dependence. Dosage is highly variable and is often controlled by the patient and prescriber according to local and national policy and guidelines. Nevertheless many genetic factors have been investigated including those affecting its metabolism (CYP2B6-consistent results), efflux transport (P-gp-inconsistent results), target μ-opioid receptor (μ-opioid receptor-inconsistent results) and a host of other receptors (DRD2) and signaling elements (GIRK2 and ARRB2; not replicated). None by themselves have been able to substantially explain dosage variation (the major but not sole end point). When multiple genes have been combined such as ABCB1, CYP2B6, OPRM1 and DRD2 a greater contribution to dosage variation was found but not as yet replicated. As stabilization of dosage needs to be made rapidly, it is imperative that larger internationally based studies be instigated so that genetic contribution to dosage can be properly assessed, which may or may not tailor to different ethnic groups and each country’s policy towards an outcome that benefits all.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Somogyi
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Royal Adelaide Hospital, Adelaide, 5005, Australia
| | - Daniel T Barratt
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
| | - Robert L Ali
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
- DASSA World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Research in the Treatment of Drug & Alcohol Problems, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
| | - Janet K Coller
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5005, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Abstract
The US FDA has granted market approval for the first pharmacogenetic test using a DNA microarray, the AmpliChip CYP450, which genotypes cytochrome P450 (CYP)2D6 and CYP2C19. The test uses software to predict phenotypes and tests for 27 CYP2D6 alleles, including the deletions and duplications, and three CYP2C19 alleles. Other DNA microarray platforms are being developed for CYP testing, but none have been completely developed or approved by the FDA to date. The differences between an implementation of pharmacogenetic tests centered on the individual and implementation using a public health approach are discussed. In this review, the major obstacles to the wide implementation of pharmacogenetic testing in the clinical environment are summarized.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jose de Leon
- University of Kentucky, Mental Health Research Center at Eastern State Hospital, 627 West Fourth St., Lexington, KY 40508, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
LLerena A, Dorado P, Ramírez R, Calzadilla LR, Peñas-LLedó E, Álvarez M, Naranjo MEG, González I, Pérez B. CYP2D6 -1584C>G promoter polymorphism and debrisoquine ultrarapid hydroxylation in healthy volunteers. Pharmacogenomics 2013; 14:1973-7. [DOI: 10.2217/pgs.13.181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & aim: The CYP2D6 -1584C>G polymorphism (rs1080985) has been identified as a major factor for CYP2D6 expression and function, with the mutant -1584G promoter type being consistently associated with significantly greater expression than -1584C. It may therefore be associated with ultrarapid metabolism. The objective of the present study was to explore the relationship between the CYP2D6 -1584C>G polymorphism and the debrisoquine metabolic ratio in healthy volunteers in order to evaluate its potential impact on the ultrarapid CYP2D6 hydroxylation capacity. Materials & methods: The CYP2D6 -1584C>G polymorphism was analyzed in 320 unrelated healthy individuals who were previously phenotyped for debrisoquine hydroxylation. Results: The metabolic ratio (log10 mean ± standard deviation) of individuals with the -1584G allele was lower than that of individuals with the -1584C allele for carriers of one active CYP2D6 gene (-0.13 ± 0.33 and 0.17 ± 0.52, respectively; p < 0.05) or two active CYP2D6 genes (-0.32 ± 0.39 and -0.20 ± 0.44, respectively; p < 0.05). Conclusion: The presence of the -1584G allele in the promoter region of the CYP2D6 gene was related to a high CYP2D6 hydroxylation capacity. Original submitted 3 June 2013; Revision submitted 11 September 2013
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Pedro Dorado
- CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Extremadura University Hospital & Medical School, Badajoz 06080, Spain
| | | | | | - Eva Peñas-LLedó
- CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Extremadura University Hospital & Medical School, Badajoz 06080, Spain
| | - Mayra Álvarez
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas "Gral Calixto García", La Habana, Cuba
| | - María EG Naranjo
- CICAB Clinical Research Centre, Extremadura University Hospital & Medical School, Badajoz 06080, Spain
| | - Idilio González
- Hospital de Llerena, Servicio Extremeño de Salud, Llerena, Spain
| | - Bárbaro Pérez
- Facultad de Ciencias Médicas "Gral Calixto García", La Habana, Cuba
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
|
16
|
Ravyn D, Ravyn V, Lowney R, Nasrallah HA. CYP450 pharmacogenetic treatment strategies for antipsychotics: a review of the evidence. Schizophr Res 2013; 149:1-14. [PMID: 23870808 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2013] [Accepted: 06/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Although a number of first- and second-generation antipsychotics are available, achieving optimal therapeutic response for patients with schizophrenia can be challenging. The presence of polymorphic alleles for cytochrome P (CYP) 450 may result in lack of expression, altered levels of expression, or altered function of CYP450 enzymes. CYP2D6, CYP1A2, and CYP3A4/5 are major enzymes in the metabolism of antipsychotics and polymorphisms of alleles for these proteins are associated with altered plasma levels. Consequently, standard dosing may result in drug plasma concentrations that are subtherapeutic or toxic in some patients. Patient CYP450 genotype testing can predict altered pharmacokinetics, and is currently available and relatively inexpensive. Evidence-based guidelines provide dose recommendations for some antipsychotics. To date few studies have demonstrated a significant association with genotype-guided antipsychotic use and clinical efficacy. However, many studies have been small, retrospective or cohort designs, and many have not been adequately powered. Numerous studies have shown a significant association between genotype and adverse effects, such as CYP2D6 polymorphisms and tardive dyskinesia. This review summarizes evidence for the role of CYP450 genetic variants in the response to antipsychotic medications and the clinical implications of pharmacogenetics in the management of patients with schizophrenia.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dana Ravyn
- CMEology, West Hartford, CT, United States
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bauer M, Pfennig A, Severus E, Whybrow PC, Angst J, Möller HJ. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for biological treatment of unipolar depressive disorders, part 1: update 2013 on the acute and continuation treatment of unipolar depressive disorders. World J Biol Psychiatry 2013; 14:334-85. [PMID: 23879318 DOI: 10.3109/15622975.2013.804195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 382] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This 2013 update of the practice guidelines for the biological treatment of unipolar depressive disorders was developed by an international Task Force of the World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP). The goal has been to systematically review all available evidence pertaining to the treatment of unipolar depressive disorders, and to produce a series of practice recommendations that are clinically and scientifically meaningful based on the available evidence. The guidelines are intended for use by all physicians seeing and treating patients with these conditions. METHODS The 2013 update was conducted by a systematic update literature search and appraisal. All recommendations were approved by the Guidelines Task Force. RESULTS This first part of the guidelines (Part 1) covers disease definition, classification, epidemiology, and course of unipolar depressive disorders, as well as the management of the acute and continuation phase treatment. It is primarily concerned with the biological treatment (including antidepressants, other psychopharmacological medications, electroconvulsive therapy, light therapy, adjunctive and novel therapeutic strategies) of adults. CONCLUSIONS To date, there is a variety of evidence-based antidepressant treatment options available. Nevertheless there is still a substantial proportion of patients not achieving full remission. In addition, somatic and psychiatric comorbidities and other special circumstances need to be more thoroughly investigated. Therefore, further high-quality informative randomized controlled trials are urgently needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Bauer
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Carl Gustav Carus University Hospital, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Skierka JM, Walker DL, Peterson SE, O’Kane DJ, Black JL. CYP2D6*11 and challenges in clinical genotyping of the highly polymorphic CYP2D6 gene. Pharmacogenomics 2012; 13:951-4. [DOI: 10.2217/pgs.12.56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
CYP2D6 is genotyped clinically for prediction of response to tamoxifen, psychotropic drugs and other medications. Phenotype prediction is dependent upon accurate genotyping. The CYP Allele Nomenclature Committee maintains the allelic nomenclature for CYP2D6; however, in some cases, the list of polymorphisms associated with a given allele is incomplete. Clinical laboratories and in vitro diagnostic manufacturers rely upon this nomenclature, in addition to the literature, to infer allelic function and haplotypes and when they design CYP2D6-testing platforms. This article provides more complete sequencing data for the CYP2D6*11 allele and describes the difficulties encountered in genotyping CYP2D6 when incomplete data are available. The CYP Allele Nomenclature Committee should provide clear information about the completeness of the original data used to define each allele.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer M Skierka
- Nucleotide Polymorphism Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| | - Denise L Walker
- Functional Neurogenomics Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry & Psychology, Mayo Clinic & Mayo Medical School, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| | - Sandra E Peterson
- Nucleotide Polymorphism Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| | - Dennis J O’Kane
- Nucleotide Polymorphism Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| | - John Logan Black
- Nucleotide Polymorphism Laboratory, Department of Laboratory Medicine & Pathology, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW, Rochester, MN 55902, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Black JL, Walker DL, O'Kane DJ, Harmandayan M. Frequency of undetected CYP2D6 hybrid genes in clinical samples: impact on phenotype prediction. Drug Metab Dispos 2011; 40:111-9. [PMID: 22004686 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.111.040832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) is highly polymorphic. CYP2D6-2D7 hybrid genes can be present in samples containing CYP2D6*4 and CYP2D6*10 alleles. CYP2D7-2D6 hybrid genes can be present in samples with duplication signals and in samples with homozygous genotyping results. The frequency of hybrid genes in clinical samples is unknown. We evaluated 1390 samples for undetected hybrid genes by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, PCR fragment analysis, TaqMan copy number assays, DNA sequencing, and allele-specific primer extension assay. Of 508 CYP2D6*4-containing samples, 109 (21.5%) harbored CYP2D6*68 + *4-like, whereas 9 (1.8%) harbored CYP2D6*4N + *4-like. Of 209 CYP2D6*10-containing samples, 44 (21.1%) were found to have CYP2D6*36 + *10. Of 332 homozygous samples, 4 (1.2%) harbored a single CYP2D7-2D6 hybrid, and of 341 samples with duplication signals, 25 (7.3%) harbored an undetected CYP2D7-2D6 hybrid. Phenotype before and after accurate genotyping was predicted using a method in clinical use. The presence of hybrid genes had no effect on the phenotype prediction of CYP2D6*4- and CYP2D6*10-containing samples. Four of four (100%) homozygous samples containing a CYP2D7-2D6 gene had a change in predicted phenotype, and 23 of 25 (92%) samples with a duplication signal and a CYP2D7-2D6 gene had a change in predicted phenotype. Four novel genes were identified (CYP2D6*13A1 variants 1 and 2, CYP2D6*13G1, and CYP2D6*13G2), and two novel hybrid tandem structures consisting of CYP2D6*13B + *68×2 + *4-like and CYP2D6*13A1 variant 2 + *1×N were observed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John Logan Black
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic 200 1st Street SW, Rochester, Minnesota, NM 55902, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Porcelli S, Fabbri C, Spina E, Serretti A, De Ronchi D. Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 enzymes and antidepressant metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2011; 7:1101-15. [PMID: 21736534 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2011.597740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes are the major enzymes responsible for Phase I reactions in the metabolism of several substances, including antidepressant medications. Thus, it has been hypothesized that variants in the CYP network may influence antidepressant efficacy and safety. Nonetheless, data on this field are still contradictory. The authors aim to give an overview of the published studies analyzing the influence of CYP highly polymorphic loci on antidepressant treatment in order to translate the acquired knowledge to a clinical level. AREAS COVERED The authors collected and compared experimental works and reviews published from the 1980s to the present and included in the Medline database. The included studies pertain to the effects of CYP gene polymorphisms on antidepressant pharmacokinetic parameters and clinical outcomes (response and drug-related adverse effects), with a focus on applications in clinical practice. The authors focused mainly on in vivo studies in humans (patients or healthy volunteers). EXPERT OPINION Great variability in antidepressant metabolism among individuals has been demonstrated. Thus, with the current interest in individualized medicine, several genetic tests to detect CYP variants have been produced. They provide a potentially useful way to anticipate some clinical outcomes of antidepressant treatment, although they will only be extensively used in clinical practice if precise and specific treatment options and guidelines based on genetic tests can be provided.
Collapse
|
21
|
Do CYP2D6 genotypes reflect oxycodone requirements for cancer patients treated for cancer pain? A cross-sectional multicentre study. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2011; 68:55-64. [PMID: 21735164 PMCID: PMC3249195 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-011-1093-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Objective Opioids are recommended by the World Health Organization for moderate to severe cancer pain. Oxycodone is one of the most commonly used opioids and is metabolized in the liver by CYP3A4 and CYP2D6 enzymes. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to assess the relationship between oxycodone pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and the CYP2D6 genotypes “poor metaboliser” (PM), “extensive metaboliser” (EM) and “ultra-rapid metaboliser” (URM) in a cohort of patients with cancer pain. Methods The patients were genotyped for the most common CYP2D6 variants and serum concentrations of oxycodone and metabolites were determined. Pain was assessed using the Brief Pain Inventory (BPI). The EORTC QLQ-C30 was used to assess the symptoms of tiredness and nausea. Cognitive function was assessed by the Mini Mental State (MMS) examination. Associations were examined by analyses of variance (ANOVA) and covariance (ANCOVA), or ordinal logistic regressions with and without covariates. Results The sample consisted of 27 PM, 413 EM (including heterozygotes) and 10 URM. PM had lower oxymorphone and noroxymorphone serum concentrations and oxymorphone to oxycodone ratios than EM and URM. No differences between PM, EM and URM in pain intensity, nausea, tiredness or cognitive function was found. Conclusion CYP2D6 genotypes caused expected differences in pharmacokinetics, but they had no pharmacodynamic consequence. CYP2D6 genotypes did not influence pain control, the adverse symptoms nausea and sedation or the risk for cognitive failure in this study of patients treated with oxycodone for cancer pain.
Collapse
|
22
|
Sehrt D, Meineke I, Tzvetkov M, Gültepe S, Brockmöller J. Carvedilol pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in relation to CYP2D6 and ADRB pharmacogenetics. Pharmacogenomics 2011; 12:783-95. [PMID: 21599570 DOI: 10.2217/pgs.11.20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS Carvedilol is an effective treatment in hypertension and chronic heart failure. The medical impact of polymorphisms in CYP2D6 and in the β-adrenergic receptors ADRB1 and ADRB2 on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of carvedilol is controversial. METHODS After carvedilol 25 mg was administered to 110 volunteers, concentrations were enantioselectively quantified and effects on resting and exercise-induced heart rate and blood pressure were analyzed using population pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and pharmacogenetic modeling. RESULTS There were significant CYP2D6 allele-specific differences in carvedilol pharmacokinetics, but the CYP2D6 genotype had no effect on heart rate, blood pressure or adverse effects. ADRB1 Gly49 was associated with higher baseline heart rates and with greater carvedilol effects on exercise heart rates. Carriers of ADRB2 Gln27 had greater reduction in resting blood pressure by carvedilol compared with Glu27. CONCLUSION Carvedilol is a drug where CYP2D6-related pharmacokinetic variation is apparently not carried forward into pharmacodynamic variation. Although current knowledge does not allow utilizing ADRB1 and ADRB2 genotypes for clinical treatment decisions, our data should stimulate further research on the impact of these genotypes in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sehrt
- University Medicine Göttingen, Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
CYP2D6 genotype and debrisoquine hydroxylation phenotype in Cubans and Nicaraguans. THE PHARMACOGENOMICS JOURNAL 2010; 12:176-83. [DOI: 10.1038/tpj.2010.85] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
24
|
Wright GEB, Niehaus DJH, Drögemöller BI, Koen L, Gaedigk A, Warnich L. Elucidation of CYP2D6 genetic diversity in a unique African population: implications for the future application of pharmacogenetics in the Xhosa population. Ann Hum Genet 2010; 74:340-50. [PMID: 20597905 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-1809.2010.00585.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Genetic variation of the CYP2D6 gene has been associated with altered drug metabolism; however, limited studies have investigated CYP2D6 sequence diversity in African populations. We devised a CYP2D6 genotyping strategy to analyse the South African Xhosa population and genotype a Xhosa schizophrenia cohort, as CYP2D6 metabolises many antipsychotics and antidepressants. The entire CYP2D6 gene locus was sequenced in 15 Xhosa control individuals and the data generated were used to design a comprehensive genotyping strategy. Over 25 CYP2D6 alleles were genotyped in Xhosa controls and Xhosa schizophrenia patients using long-range PCR, DNA sequencing and single nucleotide primer extension analysis. Bioinformatic algorithms were used to predict the functional consequences of relevant mutations and samples were assigned CYP2D6 activity scores. A unique allele distribution was revealed and two rare novel alleles, CYP2D6*73 and CYP2D6*74, were identified. No significant differences in allele frequencies were detected between Xhosa controls and schizophrenia patients. This study provides i) comprehensive data on a poorly characterised population, ii) a valuable CYP2D6 genotyping strategy and iii) due to their unique genetic profile, provides the basis for pharmacogenetic intervention for Xhosa individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Galen E B Wright
- Department of Genetics, Stellenbosch University, Private bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Launiainen T, Rasanen I, Vuori E, Ojanperä I. Fatal venlafaxine poisonings are associated with a high prevalence of drug interactions. Int J Legal Med 2010; 125:349-58. [PMID: 20432045 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-010-0461-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2009] [Accepted: 04/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Venlafaxine (VEN) is an antidepressant found to possess a higher fatal toxicity index (FTI, i.e., deaths in proportion to consumption) than other newer antidepressants and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The aim of this study was to elucidate using post-mortem cases whether the apparent high toxicity of VEN is associated with adverse drug interactions, pharmacogenetic factors and/or the manner of death. Within a 2-year period, a comprehensive post-mortem database and death certificates were searched for cases with laboratory findings of VEN, findings of other drugs, associated background information and the cause and manner of death. In 123 cases, the concentrations of VEN and its two metabolites, O-desmethylvenlafaxine (O-VEN) and N-desmethylvenlafaxine (N-VEN), and the CYP2D6 genotype were determined in post-mortem blood. The median concentrations of VEN, O-VEN and N-VEN were 560, 420 and 49 µg/l, respectively. A prominent feature of the VEN-positive cases was the high abundance of interacting drugs (46%), being more common with higher VEN concentrations. Compared to other common antidepressants, VEN-positive cases showed the highest suicide frequency, but also the proportion of suicidal VEN poisonings of all suicides was substantially higher than that of mirtazapine or SSRIs. Relative CYP2D6 activity did not predispose to high VEN concentrations, and the frequency of the extreme phenotypes followed the general population. In conclusion, the high suicide potential of VEN in combination with the high prevalence of drugs causing adverse interactions could be the reason for the observed high FTI.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Terhi Launiainen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 40, FI-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
Abstract
Background: Tamoxifen is a standard endocrine therapy for the prevention and treatment of steroid hormone receptor–positive breast cancer.
Content: Tamoxifen requires enzymatic activation by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes for the formation of active metabolites 4-hydroxytamoxifen and endoxifen. As compared with the parent drug, both metabolites have an approximately 100-fold greater affinity for the estrogen receptor and the ability to inhibit cell proliferation. The polymorphic CYP2D6 is the key enzyme in this biotransformation, and recent mechanistic, pharmacologic, and clinical evidence suggests that genetic variants and drug interaction by CYP2D6 inhibitors influence the plasma concentrations of active tamoxifen metabolites and the outcomes of tamoxifen-treated patients. In particular, nonfunctional (poor metabolizer) and severely impaired (intermediate metabolizer) CYP2D6 alleles are associated with higher recurrence rates.
Summary: Accordingly, CYP2D6 (cytochrome P450, family 2, subfamily D, polypeptide 6) genotyping before treatment to predict metabolizer status may open new avenues for individualizing endocrine treatment, with the maximum benefit being expected for extensive metabolizers. Moreover, strong CYP2D6 inhibitors such as the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors paroxetine and fluoxetine, which are used to treat hot flashes, should be avoided because they severely impair formation of the active metabolites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiltrud Brauch
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany
- University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Thomas E Mürdter
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany
- University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michel Eichelbaum
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany
- University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Matthias Schwab
- Dr. Margarete Fischer-Bosch Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Stuttgart, Germany
- University Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Brauch H, Jordan VC. Targeting of tamoxifen to enhance antitumour action for the treatment and prevention of breast cancer: The ‘personalised’ approach? Eur J Cancer 2009; 45:2274-83. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejca.2009.05.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2009] [Accepted: 05/22/2009] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
|
28
|
|
29
|
Hines RN, Koukouritaki SB, Poch MT, Stephens MC. Regulatory Polymorphisms and their Contribution to Interindividual Differences in the Expression of Enzymes Influencing Drug and Toxicant Disposition. Drug Metab Rev 2008; 40:263-301. [DOI: 10.1080/03602530801952682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
|
30
|
Zhang WY, Tu YB, Haining RL, Yu AM. Expression and functional analysis of CYP2D6.24, CYP2D6.26, CYP2D6.27, and CYP2D7 isozymes. Drug Metab Dispos 2008; 37:1-4. [PMID: 18838503 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.108.023663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to compare the drug-metabolizing activity of human CYP2D6.24 (I297L), CYP2D6.26 (I369T), and CYP2D6.27 (E410K) allelic isoforms with wild-type CYP2D6.1 and to express the CYP2D7 protein derived from an indel polymorphism (CYP2D7 138delT) and investigate its possible codeine O-demethylase activity. Successful creation of individual cDNAs corresponding to CYP2D6*24 (2853 A>C), CYP2D6*26 (3277 T>C), and CYP2D6*27 (3853 G>A) allelic variants and CYP2D7 was achieved via molecular cloning. The corresponding proteins, CYP2D6.24, CYP2D6.26, CYP2D6.27, and CYP2D7, were expressed in insect cells by using a baculovirus-mediated expression system. All CYP2D proteins showed the empirical carbon monoxide difference spectra. We were surprised to find that the CYP2D7 protein was detected mainly in mitochondrial fractions, whereas all CYP2D6 allelic isoforms were present in the microsomal fraction. Furthermore, CYP2D7 did not produce any morphine from codeine. In contrast, CYP2D6.24, CYP2D6.26, and CYP2D6.27 allelic isoforms all showed active drug-metabolizing activities toward both codeine and dextromethorphan O-demethylation. Whereas CYP2D6.24 exhibited the highest intrinsic clearance in dextromethorphan O-demethylation (approximately 6-fold higher than that by CYP2D6.1), it had the lowest enzyme efficiency in codeine O-demethylation (approximately 50% lower than that by CYP2D6.1). Overall, the enzymatic consequences of CYP2D6 allelic isozymes are substrate dependent. These data would help preclinical and clinical assessments of the metabolic elimination of drugs that are mediated by human CYP2D enzyme.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Yan Zhang
- Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, Robert C. Byrd Health Sciences Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, West Virginia 26506, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ecstasy) is a widely abused substituted amphetamine. MDMA is predominantly O-demethylenated in humans by cytochrome P450 isoforms 2D6 and 1A2 (CYP2D6 and CYP CYP1A2, respectively). MDMA is also a mechanism-based inhibitor of CYP2D6. A controlled clinical trial was conducted in 15 healthy male subjects whereby a probe drug, dextromethorphan (DEX), was administered after an oral dose of 1.5 mg/kg MDMA. The pharmacokinetics of DEX and its metabolites were used to evaluate changes in CYP2D6 activity. The urinary metabolic ratio of DEX and dextrorphan was used to calculate a recovery half-life of CYP2D6. After MDMA, DEX Cmax and area under the curve increased approximately 10-fold with corresponding decreases in dextrorphan pharmacokinetic parameters. The metabolic ratio increased almost 100-fold from 0.0061 +/- 0.0056 to 0.4322 +/- 0.2848 after MDMA administration, with 67% of the subjects having a value greater than the antimode of 0.3 for assigning the poor metabolizer phenotype. CYP2D6 activity recovered after 10 days with a recovery half-life of 46.6 hours. In addition to the possible long-term serotonergic effects of MDMA, users must be warned of the consequences of such an inhibition.
Collapse
|
32
|
Nielsen M, Olsen N. Genetic polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 system and efficacy of 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 receptor antagonists for postoperative nausea and vomiting. Br J Anaesth 2008; 101:441-5. [DOI: 10.1093/bja/aen246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
|
33
|
Rebsamen MC, Desmeules J, Daali Y, Chiappe A, Diemand A, Rey C, Chabert J, Dayer P, Hochstrasser D, Rossier MF. The AmpliChip CYP450 test: cytochrome P450 2D6 genotype assessment and phenotype prediction. THE PHARMACOGENOMICS JOURNAL 2008; 9:34-41. [DOI: 10.1038/tpj.2008.7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
34
|
|
35
|
Bijl MJ, Visser LE, Hofman A, Vulto AG, van Gelder T, Stricker BHC, van Schaik RHN. Influence of the CYP2D6*4 polymorphism on dose, switching and discontinuation of antidepressants. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2007; 65:558-64. [PMID: 18070221 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2007.03052.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ABOUT THIS SUBJECT * Most antidepressants are metabolized by CYP2D6. The variant allele CYP2D6*4 is the main polymorphism resulting in reduced enzyme activity in Caucasians. * Reduced enzyme activity potentially leads to increased toxicity of antidepressants, but the relevance of genotyping for clinical practice is unclear. Most clinical studies suffer from small numbers of patients. WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS * This large population-based cohort study in 1198 elderly Dutch patients examines the influence of the CYP2D6*4 polymorphism on intolerability of antidepressants. * The risk of switching to another antidepressant in tricyclic antidepressant users is higher in poor metabolizers (PMs), but not in SSRI users. PMs require a lower maintenance dose of antidepressants compared with extensive metabolizers (EMs). * Antidepressants were initiated in a relatively low dose, with gradual dose increments thereafter, reducing the risk of adverse drug reactions. Therefore, the question remains whether genotyping prior to the start of antidepressant therapy contributes substantially to the optimization of pharmacotherapy. AIMS To study the effect of CYP2D6*4 on antidepressant dose, switching and discontinuation of therapy. METHODS The study consisted of all subjects in the Rotterdam Study, who received a first antidepressant prescription between April 1st 1991 and July 1st 2005 and for whom data on CYP2D6 genotype were available. Binary logistic regression was performed to study the association between CYP2D6*4 and switching to any other antidepressant or discontinuation of therapy within 45 days. The difference in mean antidepressant dose was compared between CYP2D6 genotypes using t-tests and repeated measurements analyses. RESULTS In users of tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) the risk of switching to another antidepressant was significantly higher in poor metabolizers (PMs:*4/*4) compared with extensive metabolizers (EMs:*1/*1), with an adjusted OR of 5.77 (95% CI 1.59, 21.03; P = 0.01). In SSRI users there was no significant difference (OR 0.91; 95% CI 0.20, 4.15; P = 0.90). Heterozygous patients did not have an increased risk of switching in both TCA and SSRI users. The mean TCA dose was significantly lower in PMs than in EMs at the third and fourth prescription (difference 0.11 DDD, P = 0.03). In SSRI users the difference in mean dose between PMs and EMs was significant at the third prescription (0.17 DDD; P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS The risk of switching to another antidepressant in TCA users is higher in PMs than in EMs. The maintenance doses of antidepressants were significantly lower in PMs. However, the question whether genotyping prior to the start of antidepressant therapy contributes substantially to the optimization of pharmacotherapy, requires further study.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Monique J Bijl
- Department of Epidemiology & Biostatistics, Erasmus MC, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
36
|
de Leon J. The crucial role of the therapeutic window in understanding the clinical relevance of the poor versus the ultrarapid metabolizer phenotypes in subjects taking drugs metabolized by CYP2D6 or CYP2C19. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2007; 27:241-5. [PMID: 17502769 DOI: 10.1097/jcp.0b013e318058244d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
37
|
Bhathena A, Mueller T, Grimm DR, Idler K, Tsurutani A, Spear BB, Katz DA. Frequency of the frame-shifting CYP2D7 138delT polymorphism in a large, ethnically diverse sample population. Drug Metab Dispos 2007; 35:1251-3. [PMID: 17494644 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.107.014993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 2D7 (CYP2D7) has long been considered a pseudogene. A recent report described an indel polymorphism (CYP2D7 138delT) that causes a frameshift generating an open reading frame and functional protein. This polymorphism was observed in 6 of 12 samples from an Indian population. Individuals with the 138delT polymorphism expressed CYP2D7 protein from a brain-specific, alternatively spliced transcript (J Biol Chem 279:27383-27389, 2004). The unexpectedly high frequency of the variant allele and resulting CYP2D7 expression could have important implications for brain-specific metabolism of CYP2D substrates including many psychoactive drugs. However, the 138delT variant has not been detected in other studies (Pharmacogenetics 11:45-55, 2001; Biochem Biophys Res Commun 336:1241-1250, 2005). Our goal was to determine the frequency of this variant in a larger, ethnically diverse population. CYP2D7 138delT genotypes for 163 Caucasians, 95 East Asians, 50 Indians, 68 Hispanic Latinos, and 68 African Americans were determined by Pyrosequencing. The 138delT allele was observed at a frequency of 1.0% in East Asians and 0.74% in Hispanic Latinos. The deletion was not observed in Indians or the other ethnic populations. In addition, in each of the three samples with 138delT, the putative brain-specific transcript contains a premature stop codon that would preclude protein expression. The low frequency of the CYP2D7 138delT polymorphism in our ethnically diverse sample, and particularly the absence from 50 Indian samples, is in contrast to the high frequency previously reported. Our results suggest that CYP2D7 138delT is unlikely to be highly relevant for population variation of pharmacokinetics or drug response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anahita Bhathena
- Pharmacogenetics, Global Pharmaceutical Research & Development, Abbott Laboratories, Abbott Park, Illinois 60064-6098, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
38
|
Abstract
Opioids are used for acute and chronic pain and dependency. They have a narrow therapeutic index and large interpatient variability in response. Genetic factors regulating their pharmacokinetics (metabolizing enzymes, transporters) and pharmacodynamics (receptors and signal transduction elements) are contributors to such variability. The polymorphic CYP2D6 regulates the O-demethylation of codeine and other weak opioids to more potent metabolites with poor metabolizers having reduced antinociception in some cases. Some opioids are P-glycoprotein substrates, whereas, ABCB1 genotypes inconsistently influence opioid pharmacodynamics and dosage requirements. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms in the mu opioid receptor gene are associated with increasing morphine, but not methadone dosage requirements and altered efficacy of mu opioid agonists and antagonists. As knowledge regarding the interplay between genes affecting opioid pharmacokinetics including cerebral kinetics and pharmacodynamics increases, our understanding of the role of pharmacogenomics in mediating interpatient variability in efficacy and side effects to this important class of drugs will be better informed. Opioid drugs as a group have withstood the test of time in their ability to attenuate acute and chronic pain. Since the isolation of morphine in the early 1800s by Friedrich Sertürner, a large number of opioid drugs beginning with modification of the 4,5-epoxymorphinan ring structure were developed in order to improve their therapeutic margin, including reducing dependence and tolerance, ultimately without success.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew A Somogyi
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
39
|
de Leon J, Susce MT, Murray-Carmichael E. The AmpliChip CYP450 genotyping test: Integrating a new clinical tool. Mol Diagn Ther 2006; 10:135-51. [PMID: 16771600 DOI: 10.1007/bf03256453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The AmpliChip CYP450 Test, which analyzes patient genotypes for cytochrome P450 (CYP) genes CYP2D6 and CYP2C19, is a major step toward introducing personalized prescribing into the clinical environment. Interest in adverse drug reactions (ADRs), the genetic revolution, and pharmacogenetics have converged with the introduction of this tool, which is anticipated to be the first of a new wave of such tools to follow over the next 5-10 years. The AmpliChip CYP450 Test is based on microarray technology, which combines hybridization in precise locations on a glass microarray and a fluorescent labeling system. It classifies individuals into two CYP2C19 phenotypes (extensive metabolizers [EMs] and poor metabolizers [PMs]) by testing three alleles, and into four CYP2D6 phenotypes (ultrarapid metabolizers [UMs], EMs, intermediate metabolizers [IMs], and PMs) by testing 27 alleles, including seven duplications. CYP2D6 is a metabolic enzyme with four activity levels (or phenotypes): UMs with unusually high activity; normal subjects, known as EMs; IMs with low activity; and PMs with no CYP2D6 activity (7% of Caucasians and 1-3% in other ethnic groups). Levels of evidence for the association between CYP2D6 PMs and ADRs are relatively reasonable and include systematic reviews of case-control studies of some typical antipsychotics and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Evidence for other phenotypes is considerably more limited. The CYP2D6 PM phenotype may be associated with risperidone ADRs and discontinuation due to ADRs. Venlafaxine, aripiprazole, duloxetine, and atomoxetine are newer drugs metabolized by CYP2D6 but studies of the clinical relevance of CYP2D6 genotypes are needed. Non-psychiatric drugs metabolized by CYP2D6 include metoprolol, tamoxifen, and codeine-like drugs. CYP2C19 PMs (3-4% of Caucasians and African Americans, and 14-21% of Asians) may require dose adjustment for some TCAs, moclobemide, and citalopram. Other drugs metabolized by CYP2C19 are diazepam and omeprazole. The future of pharmacogenetics depends on the ability to overcome serious obstacles, including the difficulties of conducting and publishing studies in light of resistance from grant agencies, pharmaceutical companies, and some scientific reviewers. Assuming more studies are published, pharmacogenetic clinical applications may be compromised by economic factors and the lack of physician education. The combination of a US FDA-approved test, such as the AmpliChip CYP450 Test, and an FDA definition of CYP2D6 as a 'valid biomarker' makes CYP2D6 genotyping a prime candidate to be the first successful pharmacogenetic test in the clinical environment. One can use microarray technology to test for hundreds of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) but, taking into account the difficulties for single gene approaches such as CYP2D6, it is unlikely that very complex pharmacogenetic approaches will reach the clinical market in the next 5-10 years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jose de Leon
- University of Kentucky Mental Health Research Center at Eastern State Hospital, Lexington, Kentucky 40508, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
40
|
Heller T, Kirchheiner J, Armstrong VW, Luthe H, Tzvetkov M, Brockmöller J, Oellerich M. AmpliChip CYP450 GeneChip®: A New Gene Chip That Allows Rapid and Accurate CYP2D6 Genotyping. Ther Drug Monit 2006; 28:673-7. [PMID: 17038884 DOI: 10.1097/01.ftd.0000246764.67129.2a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Methods for Cytochrome P450-2D6 (CYP2D6) genotyping are often time-consuming and laborious, which can restrict their use in pretherapeutic screening programs. Gene chip technology could overcome this problem. The aim of this study was to evaluate CYP2D6 genotyping by a new improved gene chip compared to a PCR-RFLP method. AmpliChip CYP450 GeneChip(R) (AmpliChip) is a microarray hybridization method for genotyping CYP2D6 and CYP2C19. One hundred fifty-nine DNA samples were genotyped both by AmpliChip as well as by PCR-RFLP and, where applicable, by a SNaPshot technique which detects single nucleotide polymorphisms based on the single base extension principle. In 152 of the 159 samples, CYP2D6 genotypes determined with the AmpliChip were in accordance with the results of PCR-RFLP. All seven discrepant samples had gene duplications and were subjected to SNaPshot analysis. SNaPshot results concurred with those of the AmpliChip for six out of seven samples. In the one divergent result, DNA sequencing confirmed that the AmpliChip had assigned the correct genotype. In conclusion, AmpliChip is a highly reliable method for CYP2D6 genotyping that allows the correct determination of all relevant CYP2D6 alleles in one single run. It therefore represents a very efficient and fast method, offering new perspectives for the application of pharmacogenetics in clinical medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Heller
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Georg-August-University Göttingen, Robert-Koch-Str. 40, 37099 Göttingen, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
41
|
Davies BJ, Coller JK, James HM, Somogyi AA, Horowitz JD, Sallustio BC. The influence of CYP2D6 genotype on trough plasma perhexiline and cis-OH-perhexiline concentrations following a standard loading regimen in patients with myocardial ischaemia. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2006; 61:321-5. [PMID: 16487226 PMCID: PMC1885028 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2005.02570.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS CYP2D6 protein expression is determined by the number of functional CYP2D6 alleles. It is also higher in individuals with at least one CYP2D6*2 allele. This study has investigated the effect of the number of functional CYP2D6 alleles and the influence of CYP2D6*2 alleles on plasma perhexiline concentrations in patients administered a standard loading regimen over 3 days. METHODS Eighteen patients with myocardial ischaemia who were not taking any drugs known to inhibit CYP2D6 metabolism in vivo commenced treatment with 200 mg of perhexiline twice per day. On the fourth day, blood was drawn for genotyping and the measurement of trough plasma concentrations of perhexiline and its major metabolite, cis-OH-perhexiline. RESULTS The only genotypic CYP2D6 poor metabolizer had a trough plasma perhexiline concentration of 2.70 mg l-1 and no detectable cis-OH-perhexiline. The mean+/-SD trough plasma perhexiline concentration in patients with one functional allele was significantly higher (0.63+/-0.31 mg l-1, n=8, P=0.05) than in patients with two functional alleles (0.37+/-0.17 mg l-1, n=9). Conversely, the mean metabolic ratio was significantly lower in patients with one functional allele (2.90+/-1.76, P<0.01) compared with patients with two functional alleles (6.52+/-3.26). Patients with at least one CYP2D6*2 allele had a lower plasma perhexiline concentration (0.20+/-0.09 mg l-1, n=5, P<0.001) and a higher metabolic ratio (7.86+/-2.51, P<0.01) than the non-poor metabolizer patients with no CYP2D6*2 alleles (0.62+/-0.23 mg l-1 and 3.55+/-2.54, respectively, n=12). CONCLUSION Patients with only one functional allele and not CYP2D6*2 have diminished CYP2D6 metabolic capacity for perhexiline.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J Davies
- Department of Cardiology and Clinical Pharmacology, The Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Woodville, and Department of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology, The University of Adelaide, South Australia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
42
|
Swinney R, Hsu S, Tomlinson G. Phase I and Phase II Enzyme Polymorphisms and Childhood Cancer. J Investig Med 2006; 54:303-20. [PMID: 17134614 DOI: 10.2310/6650.2006.05062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Childhood cancers continue to be challenging clinical entities whose etiology, demographic characteristics, clinical progression, treatment efficacy, and outcomes remain incompletely understood. Research suggests that multiple environmental and genetic factors may play crucial roles in the pathophysiology of many of these malignancies. Recent attention has been directed to the role of carcinogen metabolizing enzymes in the etiology and progression of cancer in both adults and children due to their multitude of polymorphic variants and their intimate interaction with environmental factors. In particular, xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes (XME), which are intimately involved in the activation and deactivation of many environmental carcinogens, have become an area of significant interest. Traditionally, these enzymes have been classified into either phase I or phase II enzymes depending on their substrates, activity, and occasionally based on their sequence in the metabolic pathways, and have been demonstrated to have numerous polymorphic variants. Phase I enzymes predominantly consist of cytochrome enzymes responsible for mixed function oxidase activity, whereas phase II enzymes are frequently conjugation reactions necessary for drug metabolism or the further metabolism of phase I enzyme products. Current research has discovered numerous interactions between polymorphisms in these enzymes and changes in cancer susceptibility, treatment efficacy, and clinical outcomes in childhood cancer. Furthermore, studies of polymorphisms in these enzymes have demonstrated to have synergistic/antagonistic interactions with other XME polymorphisms and demonstrate variable influences on disease pathophysiology depending on the patient's ethnic background and environmental milieu. Continuing research on the role of polymorphisms in phase I and phase II enzymes will likely further elucidate the intimate role of these polymorphisms with environmental factors in the etiology of childhood cancer.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Swinney
- University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
43
|
Hoskins JM, Marsh S, McLeod HL. Comment on "A frameshift mutation and alternate splicing in human brain generate a functional form of the pseudogene cytochrome P4502d7 that demethylates codeine to morphine", J Biol Chem 279: 27383-27389. Drug Metab Dispos 2006; 33:1564-5; author reply 1566. [PMID: 16166400 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.105.005736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
|
44
|
Janicki PK, Schuler HG, Jarzembowski TM, Rossi M. Prevention of Postoperative Nausea and Vomiting with Granisetron and Dolasetron in Relation to CYP2D6 Genotype. Anesth Analg 2006; 102:1127-33. [PMID: 16551910 DOI: 10.1213/01.ane.0000200364.55798.3f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the efficacy of granisetron and dolasetron in preventing postoperative nausea and vomiting. Because the metabolism of the various antiemetic 5-hydroxytryptamine type 3 (5-HT3) antagonists involves different isoforms of the hepatic cytochrome P450 system, we examined the relationship between the clinical efficacy of these drugs and polymorphic cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) genotype. This prospective, randomized, double-blind study involved 150 adult patients with a moderate to high risk for postoperative nausea and vomiting. All subjects received dexamethasone at induction of anesthesia followed by either 12.5 mg of dolasetron or 1 mg of granisetron. We analyzed the number of complete responders (no vomiting or rescue medication) during the first 24 hours after surgery. CYP2D6 genotyping was performed using a TaqMan real-time polymerase chain reaction. A complete response was more frequent in the granisetron group (54.7%) compared with the dolasetron group (38.7%, P < 0.05). In subjects receiving dolasetron, carriers of the duplication of the CYP2D6 allele predicting ultrarapid metabolizer status had more frequent vomiting episodes (P < 0.05) than patients in the granisetron group. It is postulated that the difference in the antiemetic efficacy between two investigated 5-HT3 receptor antagonists may be associated with differences in the carrier status for the duplication of the CYP2D6 allele.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Piotr K Janicki
- Department of Anesthesiology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, PA 17033-0850, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
45
|
de Leon J, Armstrong SC, Cozza KL. Clinical Guidelines for Psychiatrists for the Use of Pharmacogenetic Testing for CYP450 2D6 and CYP450 2C19. PSYCHOSOMATICS 2006; 47:75-85. [PMID: 16384813 DOI: 10.1176/appi.psy.47.1.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Pharmacogenetics has arrived in clinical psychiatric practice with the FDA approval of the AmpliChip CYP450 Test that genotypes for two cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) and 2C19 (CYP2C19) genes. Other pharmacogenetic tests, including those focused on pharmacodynamic genes, are far from ready for clinical application. CYP2D6 is important for the metabolism of many antidepressants and antipsychotics, and CY2C19 is important for some antidepressant metabolism. Poor metabolizers (PMs), lacking the enzyme, account for up to 7% of Caucasians for CYP2D6 and up to 25% of East Asians for CYP2C19. Patients having three or more active CYP2D6 alleles (up to 29% in North Africa and the Middle East), are called CYP2D6 ultra-rapid metabolizers (UMs). CYP2D6 phenotypes (particularly PMs) are probably important in patients taking tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), venlafaxine, typical antipsychotics, and risperidone. The CYP2C19 PM phenotype is probably important in patients taking TCAs and perhaps citalopram, escitalopram, and sertraline. On the basis of the literature and the authors' clinical experience, the authors provide provisional recommendations for identifying and treating CYP2D6 PMs, CYP2C19 PMs, and CYP2D6 UMs. The next few years will determine whether CYP2D6 genotyping is beneficial for patients taking the new drugs aripiprazole, duloxetine, and atomoxetine. Practical recommendations for dealing with laboratories offering CYP2D6 and CYP2C29 genotyping are provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jose de Leon
- University of Kentucky Mental Health Research Center at Eastern State Hospital, Lexington, KY 40508, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Gaedigk A, Gaedigk R, Leeder JS. CYP2D7 splice variants in human liver and brain: does CYP2D7 encode functional protein? Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2005; 336:1241-50. [PMID: 16169517 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.08.255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2005] [Accepted: 08/30/2005] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A CYP2D7 brain-specific protein metabolizing codeine and encoded by an alternate mRNA has recently been described in Indian subjects. To examine its potential presence in other ethnic backgrounds, CYP2D7 and CYP2D6 full-length splice products were analyzed in liver and brain. CYP2D7 splice variant-specific PCR on 13 subjects revealed the previously reported partial intron 6-containing transcript encoding CYP2D7 in both tissues as a minor variant. This transcript is not predicted to encode functional protein as a frame-shift-reverting deletion in CYP2D7 exon 1 (138delT) was not detected in any transcript or in 285 additional genotyped subjects. The g.14408G > C SNP required for functional transcript also was not observed; all transcripts and individuals genotyped as g.14408G/G that causes a premature stop codon in any splice variants that contain the 57bp intron 6 insertion. Therefore, no evidence for functional CYP2D7 transcripts was observed in Asian, Caucasian or African American individuals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gaedigk
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, The Children's Mercy Hospital and Clinics, Kansas City, MO, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
47
|
Chinta SJ, Pai HV, Ravindranath V. Presence of splice variant forms of cytochrome P4502D1 in rat brain but not in liver. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 135:81-92. [PMID: 15857671 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbrainres.2004.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2004] [Revised: 11/25/2004] [Accepted: 12/05/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cytochromes P450 (P450), a family of heme-containing proteins, is involved in the oxidative metabolism of both foreign and endogenous compounds. Although liver is quantitatively the major organ involved in the metabolism of most xenobiotics, there is increasing evidence that these enzymes are present in extrahepatic tissues, such as lung, kidney, brain, etc and they may contribute to the in situ metabolism of xenobiotics in these organs. The possible relationship between genetic polymorphism seen in P4502D6 and incidence of neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, has prompted the characterization of P4502D enzymes in rat brain. In the present study, we demonstrate that P4502D1 (the rat homologue of human P4502D6) is constitutively expressed in rat brain and the mRNA and protein are localized predominantly in neuronal cell population in the olfactory bulb, cortex, cerebellum, and hippocampus. An alternate spliced transcript of CYP2D1 having exon 3 deletion was detected in rat brain but not in liver. Deletion of exon 3 causes frame shift and generates a stop codon at 391 bp relative to the start codon ATG leading to premature termination of translation. Thus, Northern blotting and in situ hybridization represent contributions from functional transcripts and alternate spliced variants that do not translate into functional protein. Further, the splice variant having partial inclusion of intron 6 detected in human brain was not detected in rat brain indicating that alternate spliced gene products of P450 enzymes are generated in species-specific and tissue-specific manner.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shankar J Chinta
- Division of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, National Brain Research Centre, Nainwal Mode, Manesar, 122050, Haryana, India
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
48
|
Atanasova SY, von Ahsen N, Toncheva DI, Dimitrov TG, Oellerich M, Armstrong VW. Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P450 among patients with Balkan endemic nephropathy (BEN). Clin Biochem 2005; 38:223-8. [PMID: 15708542 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2004.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2004] [Revised: 12/06/2004] [Accepted: 12/07/2004] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The concept of multifactorial etiology of BEN anticipates that a combination of polymorphic gene variants and various environmental factors causes an increased risk for the disease. CYP enzymes play a key role in the metabolic activation of environmental chemicals and toxins. CYP3A enzymes are particularly relevant for xenobiotic metabolism because of their broad substrate specificity and abundant expression in the human liver, intestine, and kidney. Previous phenotyping analysis on CYP2D6 enzyme activity in BEN patients proposed a modifying effect of CYP2D6 gene variants on BEN risk, but it was not approved with molecular-genetic methods. The aim of the current case-control study was to compare the frequency of CYP2D6 and CYP3A5 polymorphisms, as well as one CYP3A4 promoter variant in BEN patients and controls in order to investigate a possible association between individual genetic variations in these genes and susceptibility to BEN. DESIGN AND METHODS Ninety-six nonrelated Bulgarian BEN patients from endemic villages in the Vratza district and 112 healthy Bulgarians from nonendemic areas (controls) were genotyped. Identification of alleles was done by allele-specific PCR or by rapid-cycle amplification on the LightCycler, followed by sequence-specific detection. RESULTS The UM, PM, and EM + IM genotype frequencies of CYP2D6 did not differ significantly between the two groups (P > 0.05). The CYP3A4*1B allele was only found in the heterozygous form, with allelic frequencies of 5.21% in the patients and 2.23% in the healthy individuals (P = 0.11). The CYP3A5*1 allele was more prevalent in BEN patients with a frequency of 9.38% compared to 5.36% in the controls and was associated with a higher risk for BEN (OR 2.41, 95% CI 1.09-5.33) (P = 0.02). CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrate that the CYP3A5*1 allele, previously reported as a marker for CYP3A5 expression in human kidney, is associated with increased risk for BEN, while CYP3A4*1B and CYP2D6 genotypes do not significantly modify the risk for the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Srebrena Y Atanasova
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Georg-August University, Robert Koch Street 40, 37075 Goettingen, Germany.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
49
|
Shah RR. Drug development and use in the elderly: search for the right dose and dosing regimen (Parts I and II). Br J Clin Pharmacol 2005; 58:452-69. [PMID: 15521892 PMCID: PMC1884629 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2004.02228.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rashmi R Shah
- Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency, Market Towers, 1 Nine Elms Lane, Vauxhall, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Ikenaga Y, Fukuda T, Fukuda K, Nishida Y, Naohara M, Maune H, Azuma J. The Frequency of Candidate Alleles for CYP2D6 Genotyping in the Japanese Population with an Additional Respect to the −1584C to G Substitution. Drug Metab Pharmacokinet 2005; 20:113-6. [PMID: 15855722 DOI: 10.2133/dmpk.20.113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The -1584C/G single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in the promoter region of CYP2D6 was suggested to have the potential to influence CYP2D6 activity. In this report, we demonstrated the frequencies of -1584C to G substitution-related alleles, such as CYP2D6*2, CYP2D6*21, CYP2D6*35 and CYP2D6*41, in the Japanese population. The frequencies of CYP2D6*2, *41 and *21 were 0.102, 0.026 and 0.005, respectively. We also showed a relationship between the SNP and other common alleles, CYP2D6*4, *5, *10, *14 and *18. Interestingly, the SNP was detected in all three subjects carrying CYP2D6*14. This finding suggests the -1584G is included in the CYP2D6*14 allele, which is a null-allele characteristic to the Japanese population. This report presents practical information on CYP2D6 alleles that should be considered in the pharmacokinetic study of CYP2D6 substrates in the Japanese population.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Ikenaga
- Clinical Evaluation of Medicines and Therapeutics, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|