Oral mucosal lesions and HIV viral load in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)

Risk indicators for oral ulcers among people living with HIV during the first wave of the pandemic: a cross sectional study

BACKGROUND

Little is currently known about HIV-related parameters that may increase the risk for oral ulcers during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to overcome this gap in research by assessing the associations between HIV viral load, antiretroviral adherence profile, co-morbidity status, SARS-CoV-2 infection and oral ulcers among people living with HIV (PLHIV).

METHODS

This was a secondary analysis of data generated from 21,206 to 18 years and above, recruited from 152 countries through an online survey between July and December 2020. Data were extracted for 874 people who reported living with HIV. The dependent variable was reporting having oral ulcer. The independent variables were the viral load, adherence to antiretroviral treatment and a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The confounding variables were age at last birthday and sex at birth. A multivariable logistic regression analysis was conducted to determine the associations between the dependent and independent variables after adjusting for the confounding variables.

RESULTS

Of the 874 participants, 99 (11.3%) reported having oral ulcers during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The odds of PLHIV having oral ulcers during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic was significantly higher for people who did not know their viral load than those who had undetectable viral load (AOR: 2.036; 95% CI: 1.204-3.443; p = 0.008); and people who did not adhere to the use of antiretroviral treatment than those who adhered (AOR: 4.113; 95% CI: 2.567-6.589; p < 0.001). Also, PLHIV who had SARS-CoV-2 infection had significantly higher odds of having oral ulcers than those who did not have the infection (AOR: 14.556; 95% CI: 4.500-47.078; p < 0.001). PLHIV who had co-morbidities had non-significantly higher odds of having oral ulcers than those without co-morbidities (AOR: 1.170; 95% CI: 0.656-2.085; p = 0.595).

CONCLUSION

Oral ulcers may be an indicator of poor adherence to antiretroviral therapy and unsuppressed viral load among PLHIV. It may also be an indicator of SARS-CoV-2 infection and a signal to take prompt and critical care of affected individuals because of the risk for severe COVID-19 for these individuals.

Oral Candidiasis of Tobacco Smokers: A Literature Review

The mouth is a vital point of entry into the human body, the health of the mouth entails mental, physical as well as social well-being. Studying diseases, microbiota and environmental conditions of the mouth is important to maintain oral health and all body. The smoke of tobacco cigarettes is one of the worst habits that affect the health of the mouth and the body. Therefore, this review has been conducted to study the effect of smoking on the balance of the oral microbiota and the opportunistic organisms, one of the most important of them &lt;i&gt;Candida&lt;/i&gt;. Although a few studies have found that cigarette smoking does not influence carriage by &lt;i&gt;Candida&lt;/i&gt; significantly. However, most of the studies had results completely contrary to that, smoking cigarettes affect &lt;i&gt;Candida&lt;/i&gt; pathogenic characteristics such as a transition from yeast to hyphal form, biofilm formation and, virulence-related gene expressions. Tobacco is not only an inducer of the transition process but it considers an excellent medium for this process. Furthermore, smoking was significantly associated with &lt;i&gt;Candida&lt;/i&gt; pathogenicity in patients with clinically suspected oral leukoplakia and smoking worsens oral candidiasis and dampens epithelial cell defense response. Nicotine significantly altered the composition and proportion of yeast cells, as well as the extracellular polysaccharide amounts which increase biofilm matrix and thickness which could promote oral candidiasis. Smoking has the potential to alter the oral condition and cause severe oxidative stress, thereby damaging the epithelial barrier of the mouth. These oxidative molecules during smoking activate epithelial cells proteins called oxidative stress-sensing proteins. If some of these proteins induced, widely thought to have anti-inflammatory properties, inhibit the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines and are linked to inflammation and oxidative stress is thought to be a possible therapeutic objective and a crucial regulator for smoking-related oral diseases and mouth candidiasis for instance leukoplakia. Also, it is transported into the cell nucleus in the existence of additional electrophilic chemicals to activate antioxidant enzyme gene expression. Therefore, smoking cigarettes destroys oral health and consequently destroys the health of the whole body.

Epidemiology and Prevalence of Oral Candidiasis in HIV Patients From Chad in the Post-HAART Era

Oral candidiasis remains a common problem in HIV-infected individuals, especially in sub-Saharan Africa. Here, we performed the first study in Chad on the prevalence of oral yeasts carriage and oral candidiasis in HIV-positive subjects from southern Chad and analyzed the influence of HAART, CD4⁺ T-cell numbers, and antimycotics in 589 patients. These patients were recruited from a specialized medical center for HIV patients in Sarh and from a rural medical health dispensary in the vicinity, including a total of 384 HIV-positive and 205 HIV-negative individuals. Yeasts obtained from oral specimen were identified by MALDI-TOF MS and their antifungal susceptibility profiles determined. The overall prevalence of yeast colonization and symptomatic oral candidiasis in HIV-infected patients was 25.1%. The prevalence of oral candidiasis was higher in untreated than in HAART-treated HIV-positive patients (16% vs. 2%; p < 0.01). Oral candidiasis was furthermore associated with high fungal burdens of Candida albicans and a CD4⁺ T-cell number <200/μl. A shift toward non-albicans Candida species was observed under nucleoside-based HAART therapy. Azole antifungal drug resistance was only observed for the intrinsically resistant species Candida krusei and Candida glabrata. Prevalence of oral candidiasis in the studied area was very low. The species distribution was similar to other countries around the world, with C. albicans being dominant. Candida dubliniensis was not isolated. Nucleoside-based HAART therapy significantly reduced oral colonization as well as occurrence of oral candidiasis caused by C. albicans and led to a species shift toward non-albicans species. Antifungal resistance was not yet a concern in Chad.

Dental caries in association with viral load in children living with HIV in Phnom Penh, Cambodia: a cross-sectional study

Background

Oral health status is associated with the overall health among people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. However, it is unclear whether dental caries is associated with the viral load in this population. Particularly, dental caries among children living with HIV needs better understanding as this can affect their overall health and future well-being. This study assessed the association between dental caries and viral load among children living with HIV in Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Methods

This cross-sectional study, conducted at the National Pediatric Hospital as a baseline survey of a randomized controlled trial, included 328, 3–15-year-old children living with HIV and their primary caregivers. Calibrated and trained examiners conducted oral examinations for dental caries (DMFT/dmft index) in the children and retrieved the latest HIV viral load data from the hospital’s patient information system. On the dental examination day, the children and their caregivers were invited to answer a questionnaire-based interview. Multiple logistic regression analysis was conducted to assess the association between dental caries and viral load. The cut-off point for undetectable viral load was set at < 40 copies/mL.

Results

Data from 328 children were included in the analysis; 68.3% had an undetectable viral load. The mean DMFT/dmft was 7.7 (standard deviation = 5.0). Adjusted regression analysis showed that dental caries in permanent or deciduous teeth was positively associated with detectable viral load (adjusted odds ratio [AOR]: 1.07, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.01–1.14). Conversely, antiretroviral therapy of ≥ 1 year and self-reported better adherence to antiretroviral drugs were negatively associated with detectable viral load. Among children with detectable viral load, dental caries in permanent or deciduous teeth was positively associated with non-suppression of viral load (> 1000 copies/mL) (AOR: 1.12, CI: 1.03–1.23).

Conclusions

Dental caries was associated with viral load status detection among children living with HIV. This finding suggests that dental caries may affect their immune status. The oral health of children living with HIV should be strengthened, and further research is needed to clarify the causal relationship between viral load and oral health status.

Impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy on oral manifestations of patients with human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immuno deficiency syndrome in South India

BACKGROUND

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection remains a global health problem, although the development of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has significantly modified the course of HIV disease into a manageable disease with improved quality-of-life mainly in the developed countries. Very few studies are available regarding effect of HAART on oral lesions in developing countries like India.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim was to document and compare oral lesions in HIV-seropositive patients before and after HAART.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Oral manifestations were recorded in 320 HIV seropositive patients attending to the Voluntary Counseling and Confidential Testing Centre at the Government General Hospital, Guntur, before and after treating with HAART and the results were statistically analyzed using Student's t-test and Chi-square test.

RESULTS

Oral Candidiasis was significantly reduced in patients under HAART after 3 months. Furthermore, there was decreased incidence of periodontal diseases, but increased hyperpigmentation in patients undergoing HAART.

CONCLUSION

The oral manifestations of HIV infection have changed due to the advent of HAART. Many opportunistic infections have resolved as a result of an improved immune system. Though the risk of hyperpigmentation in those with HAART has increased the prevalence of oral candidiasis and periodontal diseases were less in patients who had access to HAART.

High Accuracy of Common HIV-Related Oral Disease Diagnoses by Non-Oral Health Specialists in the AIDS Clinical Trial Group

Objective

Many studies include oral HIV-related endpoints that may be diagnosed by non-oral-health specialists (non-OHS) like nurses or physicians. Our objective was to assess the accuracy of clinical diagnoses of HIV-related oral lesions made by non-OHS compared to diagnoses made by OHS.

Methods

A5254, a cross-sectional study conducted by the Oral HIV/AIDS Research Alliance within the AIDS Clinical Trial Group, enrolled HIV-1-infected adults participants from six clinical trial units (CTU) in the US (San Francisco, New York, Chapel Hill, Cleveland, Atlanta) and Haiti. CTU examiners (non-OHS) received standardized training on how to perform an oral examination and make clinical diagnoses of specific oral disease endpoints. Diagnoses by calibrated non-OHS were compared to those made by calibrated OHS, and sensitivity and specificity computed.

Results

Among 324 participants, the majority were black (73%), men (66%), and the median CD4+ cell count 138 cells/mm³. The overall frequency of oral mucosal disease diagnosed by OHS was 43% in US sites, and 90% in Haiti. Oral candidiasis (OC) was detected in 153 (47%) by OHS, with erythematous candidiasis (EC) the most common type (39%) followed by pseudomembranous candidiasis (PC; 26%). The highest prevalence of OC (79%) was among participants in Haiti, and among those with CD4+ cell count ≤ 200 cells/mm³ and HIV-1 RNA > 1000 copies/mL (71%). The sensitivity and specificity of OC diagnoses by non-OHS were 90% and 92% (for EC: 81% and 94%; PC: 82% and 95%). Sensitivity and specificity were also high for KS (87% and 94%, respectively), but sensitivity was < 60% for HL and oral warts in all sites combined. The Candida culture confirmation of OC clinical diagnoses (as defined by ≥ 1 colony forming unit per mL of oral/throat rinse) was ≥ 93% for both PC and EC.

Conclusion

Trained non-OHS showed high accuracy of clinical diagnoses of OC in comparison with OHS, suggesting their usefulness in studies in resource-poor settings, but detection of less common lesions may require OHS.

Cigarette smoke-exposed Candida albicans increased chitin production and modulated human fibroblast cell responses

The predisposition of cigarette smokers for development of respiratory and oral bacterial infections is well documented. Cigarette smoke can also contribute to yeast infection. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) on C. albicans transition, chitin content, and response to environmental stress and to examine the interaction between CSC-pretreated C. albicans and normal human gingival fibroblasts. Following exposure to CSC, C. albicans transition from blastospore to hyphal form increased. CSC-pretreated yeast cells became significantly (P < 0.01) sensitive to oxidation but significantly (P < 0.01) resistant to both osmotic and heat stress. CSC-pretreated C. albicans expressed high levels of chitin, with 2- to 8-fold recorded under hyphal conditions. CSC-pretreated C. albicans adhered better to the gingival fibroblasts, proliferated almost three times more and adapted into hyphae, while the gingival fibroblasts recorded a significantly (P < 0.01) slow growth rate but a significantly higher level of IL-1β when in contact with CSC-pretreated C. albicans. CSC was thus able to modulate both C. albicans transition through the cell wall chitin content and the interaction between C. albicans and normal human gingival fibroblasts. These findings may be relevant to fungal infections in the oral cavity in smokers.

Role of oral candidiasis in TB and HIV co-infection: AIDS Clinical Trial Group Protocol A5253

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the association between oral candidiasis and tuberculosis (TB) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected individuals in sub-Saharan Africa, and to investigate oral candidiasis as a potential tool for TB case finding.

METHODS

Protocol A5253 was a cross-sectional study designed to improve the diagnosis of pulmonary TB in HIV-infected adults in high TB prevalence countries. Participants received an oral examination to detect oral candidiasis. We estimated the association between TB disease and oral candidiasis using logistic regression, and sensitivity, specificity and predictive values.

RESULTS

Of 454 participants with TB culture results enrolled in African sites, the median age was 33 years, 71% were female and the median CD4 count was 257 cells/mm(3). Fifty-four (12%) had TB disease; the prevalence of oral candidiasis was significantly higher among TB cases (35%) than among non-TB cases (16%, P < 0.001). The odds of having TB was 2.4 times higher among those with oral candidiasis when controlling for CD4 count and antifungals (95%CI 1.2-4.7, P = 0.01). The sensitivity of oral candidiasis as a predictor of TB was 35% (95%CI 22-48) and the specificity 85% (95%CI 81-88).

CONCLUSION

We found a strong association between oral candidiasis and TB disease, independent of CD4 count, suggesting that in resource-limited settings, oral candidiasis may provide clinical evidence for increased risk of TB and contribute to TB case finding.

Oral manifestations of human immunodeficiency virus in children: An institutional study at highly active antiretroviral therapy centre in India

CONTEXT

More than 1000 children are newly infected with Human immunodefi ciency virus (HIV) every day, and of these more than half will die as a result of AIDS due to lack of access to HIV treatment. HIV disease varies considerably in children. Among those infected prenatally, some experience few or no symptoms for years, whereas in others the disease progresses rapidly. The risk factors that influence the development of such oral manifestations include, low CD4+ T cell count, xerostomia and lack of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

AIMS

To identify the oral manifestations of HIV in children receiving HAART.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study comprised 95 children receiving HAART. 95 HIV +ve children not receiving HAART and 95 HIV -ve children were also included for comparing the manifestations of HIV.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED

Statistical analysis was done using Fisher's Chi-square test. Probability value (P value) was obtained for the three groups.

RESULTS

The manifestations of HIV that were observed in children receiving HAART include dental caries (26%), periodontal diseases (23%), candidiasis (19%), hyperpigmentation (17%), ulcerative stomatitis (9%) and one case of mucocele. These manifestations were compared with HIV +ve children not receiving HAART and HIV -ve children to find manifestations with statistical significance.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that HAART had increased the disease-free states in HIV +ve children on HAART promising them better life span. The incidence of oral lesions can further come down with adequate oral hygiene measures in HIV-infected children.

Methamphetamine use and dental problems among adults enrolled in a program to increase access to oral health services for people living with HIV/AIDS

OBJECTIVE

We examined the association between methamphetamine (meth) use and dental problems in a large sample of HIV-positive adults.

METHODS

We gathered data from 2,178 interviews across 14 sites of the U.S. Health Resources and Services Administration HIV/AIDS Bureau's Special Projects of National Significance Innovations in Oral Health Care Initiative from May 2007 to August 2010. We used multivariate generalized estimating equations to test the association between meth use and dental problems, adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

Past and current meth use was significantly associated with more dental problems. The study also found that poor self-reported mental health status, fewer years since testing positive for HIV, a history of forgoing dental care, less frequent teeth brushing, poor self-reported oral health status, oral pain, grinding or clenching teeth, some alcohol use, more years of education, and self-reported men-who-have-sex-with-men HIV risk exposure (compared with other exposure routes) were significantly associated with dental problems.

CONCLUSION

Individuals who are HIV-positive with a history of meth use experience access barriers to oral health care and more dental problems. Our study demonstrated that it is possible to recruit this population into dental care. Findings suggest that predisposing, enabling, and need factors can serve as demographic, clinical, and behavioral markers for recruiting people living with HIV/AIDS into oral health programs that can mitigate dental problems.

Association among vitamin D, oral candidiasis, and calprotectinemia in HIV

Vitamin D deficiency is associated with negative health outcomes, including infections. Vitamin D modulates inflammation and down-regulates the expression of calprotectin, a molecule which influences neutrophil functions and which has been linked to oral candidiasis (OC), the most prevalent oral lesion in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). We hypothesized a positive association between vitamin D deficiency and OC, and that this effect was partially modulated by calprotectinemia. Plasma calprotectin and serum 25 (OH) vitamin D levels were measured in stored samples from 84 HIV-seropositive Chicago women enrolled in the Oral Substudy of the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS). OC and vitamin D deficiency were diagnosed in, respectively, 14 (16.7%) and 46 (54.8%) of those studied. Vitamin D deficiency was positively associated with OC (p = 0.011) and with higher calprotectinemia (p = 0.019) in univariate analysis. After adjustment for CD4, HIV viral load, HIV treatment, and tobacco and heroin/methadone use, vitamin D deficiency remained a significant predictor of OC (OR 5.66; 95% confidence interval 1.01-31.71). This association weakened after adjustment for calprotectinemia, supporting a role for calprotectinemia as a moderator of this effect. These findings support studies to examine the effect of vitamin D status on calprotectinemia, neutrophil functions, and opportunistic mucosal infections in HIV.

Importance of Candida-bacterial polymicrobial biofilms in disease

Candida albicans is the most prevalent human fungal pathogen, with an ability to inhabit diverse host niches and cause disease in both immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals. C. albicans also readily forms biofilms on indwelling medical devices and mucosal tissues, which serve as an infectious reservoir that is difficult to eradicate, and can lead to lethal systemic infections. Biofilm formation occurs within a complex milieu of host factors and other members of the human microbiota. Polymicrobial interactions will probably dictate the cellular and biochemical composition of the biofilm, as well as influence clinically relevant outcomes, such as drug and host resistance and virulence. In this manuscript, we review C. albicans infections in the context of in vivo polymicrobial biofilms and implications for pathogenesis.

Overview of the oral HIV/AIDS Research Alliance Program

The Oral HIV/AIDS Research Alliance is part of the AIDS Clinical Trials Group, the largest HIV clinical trial organization in the world, and it is funded by the National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, in collaboration with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. The alliance's main objective is to investigate the oral complications associated with HIV/AIDS as the epidemic is evolving-in particular, the effects of potent antiretrovirals on the development of oral mucosal lesions and associated fungal and viral pathogens. Furthermore, oral fluids are being explored for their potential monitoring and diagnostic role with respect to HIV disease and coinfections. This article presents an overview of the alliance, its scientific agenda, and an outline of the novel interventional and noninterventional clinical studies ongoing and developing within the AIDS Clinical Trials Group infrastructure in the United States and internationally.

Candida-host interactions in HIV disease: implications for oropharyngeal candidiasis

Oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), caused primarily by Candida albicans, is the most common oral infection in HIV(+) persons. Although Th1-type CD4(+) T cells are the predominant host defense mechanism against OPC, CD8(+) T cells and epithelial cells become important when blood CD4(+) T cells are reduced below a protective threshold during progression to AIDS. In an early cross-sectional study, OPC(+) tissue biopsied from HIV(+) persons had an accumulation of activated memory CD8(+) T cells at the oral epithelial-lamina propria interface, with reduced expression of the adhesion molecule E-cadherin, suggesting a protective role for CD8(+) T cells but a dysfunction in the mucosal migration of the cells. In a subsequent 1-year longitudinal study, OPC(-) patients with high oral Candida colonization (indicative of a preclinical OPC condition), had higher numbers of CD8(+) T cells distributed throughout the tissue, with normal E-cadherin expression. In OPC(+) patients, where lack of CD8(+) T cell migration was associated with reduced E-cadherin, subsequent evaluations following successful treatment of infection revealed normal E-cadherin expression and cellular distribution. Regarding epithelial cell responses, intact oral epithelial cells exhibit fungistatic activity via an acid-labile protein moiety. A proteomic analysis revealed that annexin A1 is a strong candidate for the effector moiety. The current hypothesis is that under reduced CD4(+) T cells, HIV(+) persons protected from OPC have CD8(+) T cells that migrate to the site of a preclinical infection under normal expression of E-cadherin, whereas those with OPC have a transient reduction in E-cadherin that prohibits CD8(+) T cells from migrating for effector function. Oral epithelial cells concomitantly function through annexin A1 to keep Candida in a commensal state but can easily be overwhelmed, thereby contributing to susceptibility to OPC.

Contemporary profile of oral manifestations of HIV/AIDS and associated risk factors in a Southeastern US clinic

BACKGROUND

Introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has resulted in a significant decrease of oral manifestations (OMs). The profile and risk factors for OM in those individuals initiating HAART remain understudied in the Southeast of the United States, region of increasing HIV prevalence.

OBJECTIVE

To determine clinical, socio-demographic, and laboratory characteristics associated with the presence of OM among patients initiating HAART.

METHODS

Retrospective review of electronically captured data from patients initiating HAART at a Southeastern US clinic. Prevalence was determined, and risk factors for overall OM, oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC), and all other OM were evaluated using logistic regression.

RESULTS

In our sample (n = 744), majority of individuals were males (75 percent), African-American (50 percent), mean age of 39 years, 42 percent of which reported sex with men (MSM). Two hundred sixty-six had some type of OM. Compared with those without any OM, patients with OM had a lower mean baseline CD4+ T cells count (CD4 count) (331 ± 260 versus 179 ± 244 CD4 cells/mm(3) ) and higher mean baseline HIV-1 RNA viral load (4.0 ± 1.34 log(10) versus 4.6 ± 1.30 log(10) ) (P < 0.01). In the logistic regression models seeking to determine factors associated with an increased risk of OM and OPC, the only characteristic associated with the outcome was baseline CD4 value. Being male, African-American, and heterosexual showed a protective role for OM other than OPC.

CONCLUSION

OM continues to be common despite HAART. General OM and OPC were closely associated with a low baseline CD4 count. Knowledge of risk factors for OM can potentially help clinicians target oral evaluation of HIV-positive individuals.

PLUNC protein expression in major salivary glands of HIV-infected patients

OBJECTIVE

To analyse and compare the expression of Palate, Lung, and Nasal Epithelium Clone (PLUNC) proteins in salivary glands from patients with and without AIDS (control group) using autopsy material.

METHODS

We analysed the expression of PLUNCs using immunohistochemistry in parotid (n = 45), submandibular (n = 47) and sublingual gland (n = 37) samples of AIDS patients [30 with normal histology, 21 with mycobacteriosis, 14 with cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection, 30 with chronic non-specific sialadenitis, and 30 HIV-negative controls. In situ hybridization (ISH) for SPLUNC 2 in the HIV-negative group was performed.

RESULTS

  SPLUNC 1 expression was detected in the mucous acini of submandibular and sublingual glands, and SPLUNC 2 were seen in the serous cells. LPLUNC 1 expression was only positive in the salivary ducts. There was a higher expression of SPLUNC 2 in AIDS patients with CMV infection and mycobacteriosis when compared with all other groups. The intensity of staining for SPLUNC 2 was greater around the lesions than the peripheral ones. ISH for SPLUNC 2 showed perinuclear positivity in the serous cells in all HIV-negative cases.

CONCLUSIONS

  SPLUNC 1 and LPLUNC 1 proteins were similarly expressed in the salivary glands of AIDS patients and non-HIV patients. CMV infection and mycobacteriosis increase SPLUNC 2 expression in serous cells in the salivary gland of AIDS patients.

Oral and systemic health correlates of HIV-1 shedding in saliva

The relationship among oral and systemic health and HIV shedding in saliva is not well-understood. We hypothesized that oral and systemic health are associated with HIV shedding in saliva of HIV-infected women. Saliva from 127 participants enrolled in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) was collected at repeated visits over a 5½-year study period (October 1998 through March 2004) and was evaluated for HIV-1 RNA. Demographic, lifestyle, and systemic and oral health characteristics were evaluated as possible correlates of salivary HIV-1 shedding. Multivariate models showed significantly increased risk of HIV-1 shedding in saliva as blood levels of CD4 cell counts decreased (p < 0.0001) and HIV RNA increased (p < 0.0001). Diabetes (p = 0.002) and a high proportion of gingival bleeding sites (p = 0.01) were associated with increased likelihood, while anti-retroviral therapy (p = 0.0003) and higher levels of stimulated saliva flow rates (p = 0.02) were associated with a lower likelihood of HIV-1 RNA shedding in saliva.

HIV-1 reactivation induced by the periodontal pathogens Fusobacterium nucleatum and Porphyromonas gingivalis involves Toll-like receptor 2 [corrected] and 9 activation in monocytes/macrophages

Although oral coinfections (e.g., periodontal disease) are highly prevalent in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-positive (HIV-1(+)) patients and appear to positively correlate with viral load levels, the potential for oral bacteria to induce HIV-1 reactivation in latently infected cells has received little attention. We showed that HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR) promoter activation can be induced by periodontopathogens in monocytes/macrophages; nevertheless, the mechanisms involved in this response remain undetermined. Since Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2), TLR4, and TLR9 activation have been involved in HIV-1 recrudescence, we sought to determine the role of these TLRs in HIV-1 reactivation induced by the periodontal pathogens Fusobacterium nucleatum and Porphyromonas gingivalis using BF24 monocytes/macrophages stably transfected with the HIV-1 promoter driving chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT) expression and THP89GFP cells, a model of HIV-1 latency. We demonstrated that TLR9 activation by F. nucleatum and TLR2 activation by both bacteria appear to be involved in HIV-1 reactivation; however, TLR4 activation had no effect. Moreover, the autocrine activity of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) but not interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) produced in response to bacteria could impact viral reactivation. The transcription factors NF-kappaB and Sp1 appear to be positively regulating HIV-1 reactivation induced by these oral pathogens. These results suggest that oral Gram-negative bacteria (F. nucleatum and P. gingivalis) associated with oral and systemic chronic inflammatory disorders enhance HIV-1 reactivation in monocytes/macrophages through TLR2 and TLR9 activation in a mechanism that appears to be transcriptionally regulated. Increased bacterial growth and emergence of these bacteria or their products accompanying chronic oral inflammatory diseases could be risk modifiers for viral replication, systemic immune activation, and AIDS progression in HIV-1(+) patients.

Oral complications of HIV disease

Oral lesions are among the early signs of HIV infection and can predict its progression to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). A better understanding of the oral manifestations of AIDS in both adults and children has implications for all health care professionals. The knowledge of such alterations would allow for early recognition of HIV-infected patients. The present paper reviews epidemiology, relevant aspects of HIV infection related to the mouth in both adults and children, as well as current trends in antiretroviral therapy and its connection with orofacial manifestations related to AIDS.

Oral infectious diseases: a potential risk factor for HIV virus recrudescence?

As the highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has transitioned human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection into a 'chronic disease' management strategy, there is growing evidence that infection with non-HIV pathogens in HIV+ patients may have important public health implications in undermining HAART success and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome progression. Several bacterial and host cell products during infections with non-HIV pathogens have shown the capacity to regulate HIV replication in latently infected cells. A high prevalence of oral infections caused by bacteria, viruses and fungi has been described in HIV+ patients, including periodontal disease. The oral cavity appears to be a site of HIV pathogenesis and potential reservoir for the disease as HIV RNA and DNA forms are present in saliva as well as in gingival crevicular fluid, and oral epithelial cells are susceptible to either cell free or cell-associated HIV infection. The clinical and biological bases of potential associations between chronic oral inflammatory disorders, such as periodontal disease, and exacerbation of HIV viraemia have received little attention. This review attempts to evaluate the current understanding of HIV reactivation as a result of co-infection and/or inflammation induced by non-HIV pathogens in HIV-infected patients, and presents a hypothetic model about the potential role of periodontitis as a global oral infection that potentially contributes to HIV recrudescence.

Mucosal HIV-binding antibody and neutralizing activity in high-risk HIV-uninfected female participants in a trial of HIV-vaccine efficacy

BACKGROUND

This study investigated gp120-binding antibody and neutralizing activity, at the gingival- and cervical-mucosal levels, in response to a bivalent gp120 candidate vaccine.

METHODS

Women who met the study's inclusion criteria for documented high-risk behaviors participated in a nested substudy of the multicenter phase 3 trial of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-vaccine efficacy, VAX004. Gingival, cervicovaginal lavage, and plasma specimens were collected at 6-month intervals for 3 years. Binding-antibody and neutralizing-activity assays quantified the presence of anti-HIV activity in mucosal specimens.

RESULTS

Vaccine recipients were more likely than placebo recipients to have IgG binding antibodies in all 3 compartments tested and to have only IgA binding antibody in plasma (P<.0001). The relationship between vaccine and cervicovaginal IgG achieved significance (odds ratio [OR], 6.6 [P=.01]) but was weakened by the presence of cervicovaginal leukocytes. There was no relationship between immunization and the presence of neutralizing activity, in either bivariate or multivariate modeling (OR, 6.0 [P=.29]).

CONCLUSIONS

Vaccination is associated with the presence of both gp120-binding IgG in all compartments and plasma IgA but not with neutralizing activity. There is a role for the measurement of mucosal immunity in response to candidate vaccines and, in particular, for a determination of HIV-specific neutralizing antibodies.

Oral lesions in HIV-positive dental patients--one more argument for tobacco smoking cessation

OBJECTIVE

To determine the prevalence of oral lesions associated with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in a population of dental patients and analyze its association with psycho-social variables and biological markers.

STUDY DESIGN

The dental charts of 415 dental patients consecutively treated between May and July 2005 in a dedicated HIV dental clinic were reviewed. Oral soft tissue examinations, psycho-social and medical variables were extracted and recorded for each patient. Ethnicity, gender, HIV treatment, peripheral CD(4) counts and tobacco usage were analyzed in correlation with oral lesions associated with HIV.

RESULTS

Fifty-five percent of all subjects had at least one oral lesion associated with HIV, with oral candidiasis, salivary gland enlargement and oral hairy leukoplakia being the most commonly observed conditions. Gender and ethnicity did not correlate with a higher prevalence in lesions. However, tobacco smoking correlated significantly with a higher prevalence of oral lesions, independent of CD(4) counts.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that oral lesions remain commonly observed morbidities among HIV-infected dental patients independent of gender and ethnicity and that tobacco usage is a major and often underestimated risk factor for those lesions.

Management of oral lesions in HIV-positive patients

HIV/AIDS is currently the leading cause of death in Africa and the fourth leading cause of death worldwide. This systematic review of the literature was conducted to evaluate the evidence for treatment of the most common oral lesions associated with HIV: oral candidiasis with or without oropharyngeal involvement (OPC), oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL), recurrent aphthous-like ulcerations (RAU), oral Kaposi's sarcoma (OKS), orolabial herpes simplex infection (HSV), oral herpes zoster infection (VZV), intraoral or perioral warts (HPV), and HIV-associated periodontal diseases. Treatment of HIV-associated salivary gland disease is addressed in a different section of this World Workshop. We found the largest body of evidence for treatment of OPC in HIV patients. Future trials will be needed to test drugs currently in development for treatment of Candida strains that are resistant to existing therapies. There were no double blind, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials (RCT) for topical treatment of OHL, and only one RCT for systemic treatment of the lesion with desciclovir. Systemic thalidomide was the only drug tested in RCT for treatment or prevention of RAU. Only 1 double-blind RCT comparing vinblastine and sodium tetradecyl sulfate was identified for localized treatment of OKS. Three drugs (famciclovir, acyclovir, and valaciclovir) were shown to be effective in randomized, double-blind trials for treatment or suppression of mucocutaneous HSV lesions in HIV patients. In all 3 trials, the effects of these medications on orolabial HSV lesions were not reported separately. There were no double-blind, placebo-controlled RCT testing topical treatments for orolabial HSV lesions in HIV patients. No trials testing treatments of oral VZV were identified. There were no double-blind, placebo-controlled RCT for treatment of HIV-associated intraoral or perioral warts or periodontal diseases. In conclusion, there is a need for well-designed RCTs to assess the safety and efficacy of topical and systemic treatments of most oral mucosal and perioral lesions in HIV patients. There is also a need to develop newer drugs for treatment of resistant fungal and viral microorganisms. Finally, standardized outcome measures should be developed for future clinical trials to allow comparisons of studies using different populations.

HIV-Related Oral Lesions, Demographic Factors, Clinical Staging and Anti-Retroviral Use

BACKGROUND

The aim of the present study was to compare the prevalence of HIV-related oral lesions (HIV-OL) between two health centers for HIV in Mexico City and to analyze the factors that, in addition to combined antiretroviral therapy (CART) and low CD4(+), may be associated with possible differences in prevalence.

METHODS

A cross-sectional observational study was performed between January 2000 and February 2003 at the Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán (INCMNSZ), a specialized referral center for HIV/AIDS patients and the Clínica Especializada Condesa (CEC), a primary care center for HIV-infected individuals without social security insurance. A consecutive sample of HIV-infected individuals had an oral examination based on established clinical criteria. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data were obtained. Independent association of each factor with specific HIV-OL was assessed by logistic regression modeling.

RESULTS

Eight hundred fifty individuals were examined (INCMNSZ: 479; CEC: 371). Hairy leukoplakia (HL), periodontal disease (PD) and Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) were independently associated with the study site [odds ratio (OR) = 1.7 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.1-2.4), OR = 4.2 (95% CI: 1.3-13), OR = 10.1 (95% CI: 2.7-38.2), respectively], being more frequent in CEC patients. HL was independently associated with men having sex with men OR = 1.7 (95% CI: 1.1-2.8). All HIV-OL were independently associated with CD4(+) counts and, with the exception of PD and KS, with time under CART.

CONCLUSIONS

The present comparative study showed that several factors were associated with a difference in prevalence of oral lesions found in two AIDS clinics located in Mexico City. Severe immune suppression, CART duration and the study site were associated with HIV-OL. Further investigation into factors such as socioeconomic determinants associated with HIV-OL is warranted.

Risk factors for oral hairy leukoplakia in HIV-infected adults of Brazil

BACKGROUND

Oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL) may be an indicator of the progression of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-induced immuno-depression, and the evaluation of risk factors leading to OHL is important in the management of these HIV-infected patients. However, there are few studies that analyze risk factors leading to OHL in the Brazilian population. The aim of this case-control study is to present data about prevalence rates and risk factors leading to OHL in a sample of HIV-infected adults in Brazil.

METHODS

This case-control study included 111 HIV-infected patients treated at a clinic for sexually transmitted diseases and HIV. In the initial examinations with dentists, variables were collected from all patients. Diagnosis of OHL was performed in accordance with the International Classification System and cytological features. The Fisher and the chi-squared tests were used for statistical analysis. The proportional prevalence and odds ratio were estimated.

RESULTS

Outcome presented a positive, statistically significant association among the presence of OHL and viral load of 3000 copies/mul or greater (P = 0.0001; odds ratio (OR) = 5.8), presence of oral candidiasis (P = 0.0000; OR = 11.1), previous use of fluconazole (P = 0.0000; OR = 24.6), and use of systemic acyclovir (P = 0.032; OR = 4.3). Antiretroviral medication presented a negative, statistically significant association with the presence of OHL (P = 0.002; OR = 8.4).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevalence of OHL was 28.8%. Viral load, oral candidiasis, previous use of fluconazole, and systemic acyclovir were determined to be risk factors for OHL. Antiretroviral medication proved to be protective against the development of OHL.

Oral epithelial cell antifungal activity: approaches to evaluate a broad range of clinical conditions

Anti-Candida activity by oral epithelial cells is considered one of several innate mucosal defense mechanisms against oropharyngeal candidiasis (OPC). OPC is the most common fungal infection in HIV disease. Previously we reported that oral epithelial cell anti-Candida activity is reduced in those with OPC, potentially representing a contributing factor to OPC. However, testing clinical epithelial cells possessing high levels of Candida has been limiting due to high background in the assay controls. HIV+ smokers often develop OPC sooner than non-smokers during progression to AIDS, suggesting additional immune aberrations. The purpose of this study was to design a means to reduce Candida associated with epithelial cells collected from saliva without affecting their in vitro growth inhibitory activity, and to employ that approach to evaluate antifungal activity in HIV+ smokers. To do so, oral epithelial cells with and without known levels of Candida were subjected to various treatments including azole, polyene, or echinocandin antifungal drugs or fixation followed by the standard growth inhibition (GI) assay. The results indicated that antifungal drugs, while effectively reducing cell-associated Candida, also affected epithelial cell function. In contrast, fixation with paraformaldehyde eliminated cell-associated Candida and had minimal effects on epithelial cell anti-Candida activity. Employing the fixation design that allowed a broad range of patients to be evaluated showed no difference in oral epithelial anti-Candida activity between HIV+ smokers and non-smokers. Therefore, oral epithelial cell antifungal activity does not appear compromised in those who smoke, reducing it as a contributing factor in susceptibility to premature OPC.

Synchronous kinetics of CD4+ lymphocytes and viral load before the onset of oral candidosis and hairy leukoplakia in a cohort of Mexican HIV-infected patients

An observational, prospective, longitudinal cohort study was performed at the AIDS Clinic of a tertiary care institution in Mexico City to determine the association of viral load (VL) and CD4+ lymphocyte kinetics with the development of oral candidosis (OC) and hairy leukoplakia (HL). Participants were HIV-infected adult subjects, without a history of or current OC or HL, not receiving HAART. Oral examinations were performed at baseline and every month for evidence of OC or HL; CD4+ and VL determinations were done at baseline, at 6-month intervals, when oral lesions were detected, and 2 months later. Affected subjects (OL group) by OC or HL had clinical intervals defined before (antecedent), during (concurrent), and after their development. In the nonaffected individuals (NA group), 6-month intervals were determined. Differences (changes) along the clinical and study intervals were calculated for CD4+ and VL. The median study time was 178 (range: 31-924) days; 99 patients were included. The 2-year cumulative incidence of either oral lesion was 54% (49.5% for OC and 33.2% for HL). In the OL group (31 patients) a progressive and continuous decrease of CD4+ was found in the antecedent interval followed by a significant increase in VL in the concurrent period. The NA group showed a significant fall in CD4+ by semester 3, without a significant rise of VL in the following semester. The effect of CD4+ remained significant in a multivariate analysis. This study has shown that the onset of OC and/or HL is heralded by the sequence of a sustained reduction of CD4+, followed by a sharp increase of VL. In the multivariate analysis, the decrease in CD4+ lymphocytes appeared to be the predominant factor predicting the appearance of these oral lesions. Their potential use as markers of a recent change in the immunologic and virologic status of HIV-infected individuals is emphasized.

Current trends of HIV disease of the mouth

HIV infection affects residents of all countries of the world, but the greater majority of affected individuals reside in the developing world. In the past decade there have been substantial changes in the management of HIV disease, particularly the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Such agents have reduced significantly the morbidity and mortality associated with HIV disease, however, they are not available for most HIV-infected individuals in the developing world. There is now considerable understanding of the molecular epidemiology, transmission and therapy of the common opportunistic oral infections of HIV disease, and as a consequence of improved anti-HIV strategies, the frequency and severity of oral disease associated with HIV infection have reduced considerably, although HAART may predispose to human papilloma virus infection of the mouth and potentially increase the risk of later oral squamous cell carcinoma. Despite advances in clinical care the majority of individuals with HIV disease worldwide will continue to develop oral disease, as they are resident in the developing world and do not have ready access to even simple therapies.

The impact of cigarette/tobacco smoking on oral candidosis: an overview

Smoking is associated with a variety of changes in the oral cavity. Cigarette smoke has effects on saliva, oral commensal bacteria and fungi, mainly Candida, which causes oral candidosis, the most common opportunistic fungal infection in man. How cigarette smoke affects oral Candida is still controversial. This brief overview is an attempt to address the clinical findings on the relationship between smoking and oral candidosis and possible mechanisms of pathogenicity.

Lack of evidence for local immune activity in oral hairy leukoplakia and oral wart lesions

BACKGROUND

Oral warts, caused by human papillomavirus (HPV), and oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL) caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), are common oral manifestations in HIV-infected persons. Although both conditions occur most often with reduced blood CD4+ T-cell numbers, oral warts and OHL rarely occur simultaneously, suggesting that dysfunctions in other secondary local immune parameters are also involved. The present study evaluated tissue-associated proinflammatory and T-helper cytokine and chemokine mRNA expression and the presence of T cells in each lesion.

METHODS

Biopsies were taken from lesion-positive and adjacent lesion-negative sites of HIV+ persons with oral warts or OHL and lesion-negative sites from HIV+ persons who were oral HPV or EBV DNA-positive (matched controls). Cytokine/chemokine mRNA expression was quantified by real-time polymerase chain reaction. CD3, CD4, and CD8 cells were identified by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

No differences were detected in tissue-associated cytokine/chemokine mRNA expression in warts or OHL when compared to lesion-negative sites. Immunohistochemical analysis of T cells showed CD8+ cells exclusively, but few cells were present in either lesion. No differences were detected between lesion-positive and -negative control sites of each pathologic condition.

CONCLUSION

Little evidence was found for local immune reactivity to either oral warts and OHL, suggesting that CD4+ T cells are a primary host defense against both oral warts and OHL, but with nonimmune factors potentially responsible for the divergent prevalence of each.

Oral white patches in a national sample of medical HIV patients in the era of HAART

OBJECTIVES

Several types of HIV-related oral mucosal conditions have been reported to occur during the course of HIV disease progression. Of these, few may be manifested as 'white' lesions and many are noticeable to the patient. This paper examines the relationships between social, behavioral and medical aspects of HIV infection and reporting an occurrence of oral white patches (OWP) by HIV-infected patients.

METHODS

The subjects are participants in all three interviews in the HIV Cost and Services Utilization Study (HCSUS). The subjects were selected using a three-stage probability sampling design. The multivariate analysis is based on 2109 subjects with nonmissing binary outcome variable for all three waves representing a national sample of 214 000 individuals. The multivariate model was fitted using generalized estimating equations (GEE) by implementing the XTGEE command in STATA.

RESULTS

We estimate that 75 000 persons (35%) reported at least one incident of OWP, of these 14 000 reported having OWP during all three interviews, and that the rate of reporting declined over the three HCSUS waves. The multivariate analysis showed seven variables that were significant predictors of at least one report of OWP.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with persons on HAART therapy, patients on other regimens or taking no antiviral medications were 23-46% more likely to report an incident of OWP. Compared with whites, African Americans were 32% less likely to report OWP, while current smokers were 62% more likely than nonsmokers. Being diagnosed with AIDS and having CD4 counts less than 500 significantly increased the likelihood of reporting OWP.

Risk indicators for oral candidiasis and oral hairy leukoplakia in HIV-infected adults

OBJECTIVES

Oral candidiasis (OC) and oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL) are the most common oral mucosal diseases associated with HIV infection. Independent risk indicators associated with these sentinel opportunistic diseases have not been established in mixed race and gender adult populations in the southeast USA. The purposes of this study were 1) to estimate prevalence of OC and OHL among an HIV-1 positive adult population, and 2) to develop explanatory multivariable models for each disease outcome.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study evaluated 631 adult dentate HIV-1 seropositive persons examined for HIV-associated oral mucosal diseases between 1995 and 2000 at University of North Carolina Hospitals in Chapel Hill, North Carolina using data collected from medical record review, interview questionnaire and clinical examination. We analyzed the data using t-tests, anova, and unconditional logistic regression.

RESULTS

Prevalent OC was associated with low CD4+ cell count [<200 cells/microl, adj. OR = 12.7 (95%CI: 4.9-32.9)], antiretroviral combination therapy [OR = 0.6 (0.3-0.9)], and current smoking [OR = 2.5 (1.3-4.8)]. Prevalent OHL was associated with low CD4+ cell count [<200 cells/microl, OR = 7.2 (2.7-18.9)], antifungal medication use [OR = 1.8 (1.1-2.9)], current recreational drug use [OR = 2.5 (1.3-4.9)], and male gender [OR = 2.5 (1.3-4.8)].

CONCLUSIONS

While CD4+ cell count, and antiretroviral medication were important risk indicators for OC, and OHL, cigarette smoking appears to be an important risk indicator for OC in HIV-1-infected populations.

The effect of HAART on salivary microbiota in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS)

OBJECTIVE

Study the prevalence of potentially pathogenic microorganisms in saliva of HIV-positive women in the Women's Interagency HIV Study.

STUDY DESIGN

157 HIV-positive and 31 HIV-negative women were studied. At baseline and every 6 months over 4 years, information was collected on socioeconomic and educational status, oral and systemic health, including HIV markers and antiretroviral therapy, and frequency of professional oral care utilization. Bacterial and yeast pathogenic isolates from stimulated whole saliva were tentatively identified using standard methodologies.

RESULTS

The prevalence of microorganisms in stimulated saliva of HIV-positive women was not significantly different from that of HIV-negative women. In HIV-positive women, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was independently and significantly associated with the presence of a variety of salivary bacterial species. HAART increased the risk for recovering Fusobacterium species (P < .001), enteric gram-negative rods (P < .05), Peptostreptococcus micros (P < .05), Campylobacter species (P < .0001), Eubacterium species (P < .001), and Tannerella forsythia (P < .01). In contrast, HAART led to decreased recovery rate of yeasts (Candida albicans and Candida dubliniensis) (P < .0001).

CONCLUSION

The present findings suggest that the institution of HAART promotes an increasingly pathogenic salivary microbiota, at least temporarily. Similar findings have been reported for various nonoral microbial ecosystems.

Changing trends in clinical AIDS presentations and survival among HIV-1-infected women

OBJECTIVES

To profile trends of clinical AIDS-defining illness (ADI) among a cohort of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected women over a 12-year period.

METHODS

In a prospective evaluation of AIDS clinical presentation in the Women and Infants Transmission Study (WITS), 2255 subjects were enrolled and followed between December 1989 and June 2002 (total, 4993 person-years). Data on clinical AIDS presentation of 140 (6.2%) HIV-seropositive subjects were evaluated across three calendar periods corresponding to the use of different therapy regimens. Incidence rates (per 1000 woman-years) for AIDS and specific ADIs were compared between periods using Poisson regression methods.

RESULTS

Incidence rates of AIDS, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, recurrent bacterial pneumonia, herpes simplex disease, esophageal/bronchial candidiasis, wasting syndrome, and neurological diseases have showed significant downward trends. Among women with ADI, the frequency of either esophageal or bronchial candidiasis as initial ADI showed an increasing trend (p(trend) = 0.03), whereas a decrease in proportion of cases with nontuberculosis mycobacterial infection (P(trend) = 0.05) was observed over the same periods. In the multivariate analysis, both the CD4+ lymphocyte count and HIV-1 RNA at the time of diagnosis were independently associated with survival after AIDS. Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) was associated with a 70% reduction in progression to death following AIDS.

CONCLUSIONS

Temporal changes in the incidence and clinical presentations in HIV-positive women in our cohort reflect an increased use of HAART that may have a differential effect on reduction in the risk of ADIs. These illnesses, although considerably less frequent in recent years, are still important contributors to morbidity in HIV-positive women.

Immunopathogenesis of oropharyngeal candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus infection

Oropharyngeal and esophageal candidiases remain significant causes of morbidity in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients, despite the dramatic ability of antiretroviral therapy to reconstitute immunity. Notable advances have been achieved in understanding, at the molecular level, the relationships between the progression of HIV infection, the acquisition, maintenance, and clonality of oral candidal populations, and the emergence of antifungal resistance. However, the critical immunological defects which are responsible for the onset and maintenance of mucosal candidiasis in patients with HIV infection have not been elucidated. The devastating impact of HIV infection on mucosal Langerhans' cell and CD4(+) cell populations is most probably central to the pathogenesis of mucosal candidiasis in HIV-infected patients. However, these defects may be partly compensated by preserved host defense mechanisms (calprotectin, keratinocytes, CD8(+) T cells, and phagocytes) which, individually or together, may limit Candida albicans proliferation to the superficial mucosa. The availability of CD4C/HIV transgenic mice expressing HIV-1 in immune cells has provided the opportunity to devise a novel model of mucosal candidiasis that closely mimics the clinical and pathological features of candidal infection in human HIV infection. These transgenic mice allow, for the first time, a precise cause-and-effect analysis of the immunopathogenesis of mucosal candidiasis in HIV infection under controlled conditions in a small laboratory animal.

Oral opportunistic infections in HIV-positive individuals: review and role of mucosal immunity

Oral opportunistic infections in the HIV-positive individual have been documented since the first reports of the epidemic, with many lesions associated with reduced CD4(+) T lymphocyte cell count. The most common oral lesions seen in HIV disease prior to the advent of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) were oropharyngeal candidiasis and oral hairy leukoplakia. However, since the advent of HAART while many oral lesions have decreased significantly the incidence of oral warts has surprisingly increased. Despite the correlation of diminished CD4(+) T lymphocyte count to the occurrence of these lesions, it is rare for the lesions to occur concurrently suggesting that each pathologic lesion type is associated with distinct host immune dysfunctions. To date, the oral opportunistic infection most frequently investigated is oropharyngeal candidiasis, where data suggests that both systemic and local immunity is important for protection against infection. In contrast, recent investigations into the host responses associated with oral hairy leukoplakia and oral warts show little to no evidence of systemic or mucosal immune responsiveness despite the presumed competence of several types of leukocytes other than CD4(+) T cells. Together these data are suggesting that susceptibility to oropharyngeal candidasis in HIV-positive persons is predominantly immune-based, whereas protection or susceptibility to oral hairy leukoplakia and oral warts may be more associated with factors other than mucosal immune function.

A randomized trial of multivitamin supplements and HIV disease progression and mortality

BACKGROUND

Results from observational studies suggest that micronutrient status is a determinant of the progression of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease.

METHODS

We enrolled 1078 pregnant women infected with HIV in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, to examine the effects of daily supplements of vitamin A (preformed vitamin A and beta carotene), multivitamins (vitamins B, C, and E), or both on progression of HIV disease, using survival models. The median follow-up with respect to survival was 71 months (interquartile range, 46 to 80).

RESULTS

Of 271 women who received multivitamins, 67 had progression to World Health Organization (WHO) stage 4 disease or died--the primary outcome--as compared with 83 of 267 women who received placebo (24.7 percent vs. 31.1 percent; relative risk, 0.71; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.51 to 0.98; P=0.04). This regimen was also associated with reductions in the relative risk of death related to the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (0.73; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.51 to 1.04; P=0.09), progression to WHO stage 4 (0.50; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.28 to 0.90; P=0.02), or progression to stage 3 or higher (0.72; 95 percent confidence interval, 0.58 to 0.90; P=0.003). Multivitamins also resulted in significantly higher CD4+ and CD8+ cell counts and significantly lower viral loads. The effects of receiving vitamin A alone were smaller and for the most part not significantly different from those produced by placebo. Adding vitamin A to the multivitamin regimen reduced the benefit with regard to some of the end points examined.

CONCLUSIONS

Multivitamin supplements delay the progression of HIV disease and provide an effective, low-cost means of delaying the initiation of antiretroviral therapy in HIV-infected women.

Baseline characteristics of participants in the oral health component of the Women's Interagency HIV Study

OBJECTIVES

This study described baseline sociodemographic and oral health characteristics of a subset of HIV sero-positive and sero-negative women who participated in the oral health component of the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS).

METHODS

In 1995-96, 584 HIV sero-positive and 151 sero-negative women from five WIHS core sites were enrolled in the oral study. Data on oral mucosa, salivary glands, dentition and periodontium, along with demographics, socioeconomics, and behavioral characteristics, were used to characterize this population.

RESULTS

Mean (SD) age was 37 (8) years for HIV sero-positive and 36 (8) years for sero-negative women; 27% of sero-positive women had CD4 counts < or =200 and 34% had viral loads >50,000 copies/ml. Sero-positive and sero-negative women were similar demographically, as well as on plaque index, gingival bleeding, linear gingival banding, and numbers of DMF teeth and surfaces, but sero-positive women had more abnormal gingival papilla (P = 0.004) and fewer teeth (P = 0.01). Among sero-positive women, those with <200 CD4 counts had more DMF teeth (P = 0.007), and the number of DMF surfaces increased with decreasing CD4 counts (P = 0.04). Sero-positive women who fit the Center for Disease Control (CDC) AIDS criteria were also more likely to have more DMF teeth (P = 0.004), DMF surfaces (P = 0.003), and decayed and/or filled (DF) root surfaces (P = 0.0002) compared to sero-positive women without AIDS.

CONCLUSIONS

Dental and periodontal variables showed little difference between HIV sero-positive and sero-negative women. Among sero-positive women, there were significant differences in coronal and root caries by AIDS diagnostic criteria, but no periodontal indicators by either AIDS diagnostic criteria or CD4 status, were observed.

Salivary secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor and oral candidiasis in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-infected persons

Oropharyngeal candidiasis, typically caused by Candida albicans, is the most common oral disease associated with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), a 12-kDa antiprotease, suppresses the growth of C. albicans in vitro. To determine whether the mucosal protein plays a role in protecting oral tissues against fungal infection, we conducted a cross-sectional study investigating the oral and systemic health and salivary SLPI levels in 91 dentate HIV-1-infected adults receiving medical care in the southeastern United States. Participants with a self-reported history of clinical oropharyngeal candidiasis during the previous 2 years constituted the test group (n = 52), while the comparison group (n = 39) had no oropharyngeal candidiasis during that period. Data collected from medical records, oral examination, and SLPI enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay quantitation of whole saliva were analyzed by t test, analysis of variance, linear regression, and unconditional logistic regression. The test group had a significantly higher mean salivary SLPI level than the comparison group (1.9 microg/ml versus 1.1 microg/ml, P < 0.05). Linear regression modeling identified CD4 cell count and history of oropharyngeal candidiasis as key predictors of salivary SLPI and revealed a significant interaction (P < 0.05) between immunosuppression (CD4 cell count below 200 cells/ microl) and positive history of oropharyngeal candidiasis in predicting salivary SLPI level. By logistic regression modeling, a salivary SLPI level exceeding 2.1 microg/ml, low CD4 count, antiretroviral monotherapy, and smoking were key predictors of oropharyngeal candidiasis. These data support a key role for SLPI in the oral mucosal defense against C. albicans. The antimicrobial mucosal protein may serve as an indicator of previous oropharyngeal candidiasis infection among immunosuppressed persons.

HIV disease in primary care

During the past decade, a large number of new drugs for treating HIV and its complications have been developed. The increasingly sophisticated use of these drugs in combination has led to a marked reduction in HIV-related morbidity and mortality in countries where they are available. HIV/AIDS patients receiving treatment are now expected to live into old age. The beneficial effect of HIV treatment has resulted in an expanding population of persons living with HIV/AIDS who will need the care of an HIV specialist because of the complexity of the treatment regimens and the rapidly changing HIV/AIDS knowledge base. However, this growing and aging population will also benefit from the care of a primary care physician. The primary care generalist is in the best position to recognize and diagnose HIV infection, evaluate HIV risk in his or her patient population, and help prevent HIV infection in persons at risk. In patients known to be infected, the primary care generalist will be best able to manage hyperlipidemia, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and other disorders of an aging population with an increased risk of these and other conditions. Patients with HIV infection frequently accumulate a large number of specialist physicians, and the unique ability of the primary care physician to monitor their care and act as a knowledgeable patient advocate is a great benefit to the patient.