Lack of evidence for appetitive effects of Delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the intracranial self-stimulation and conditioned place preference procedures in rodents

The Therapeutic Potential and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying the Neuroprotective Effects of Sativex® - A Cannabis-derived Spray

Sativex is a cannabis-based medicine that comes in the form of an oromucosal spray. It contains equal amounts of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol, two compounds derived from cannabis plants. Sativex has been shown to have positive effects on symptoms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), multiple sclerosis (MS), and sleep disorders. It also has analgesic, antiinflammatory, antitumoral, and neuroprotective properties, which make it a potential treatment option for other neurological disorders. The article reviews the results of recent preclinical and clinical studies that support the therapeutic potential of Sativex and the molecular mechanisms behind its neuroprotective benefits in various neurological disorders. The article also discusses the possible advantages and disadvantages of using Sativex as a neurotherapeutic agent, such as its safety, efficacy, availability, and legal status.

Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Effects on Respiration and Heart Rate Across Route of Administration in Female and Male Mice

The physiological impact of cannabinoid receptor agonists is of great public health interest due to their increased use in recreational and therapeutic contexts. However, the body of literature on cannabinoid receptor agonists includes multiple confounding variables that complicate comparisons across studies, including route of administration, timeline across which phenotypes are observed, agonist dose, and sex of the study cohort. In this study, we characterized the impact of sex and route of administration on Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-induced changes in cardiopulmonary phenotypes in mice. Using noninvasive plethysmography and telemetry, we monitored heart rate and respiration in the same cohort of animals across aerosol, oral gavage, subcutaneous, and intraperitoneal administrations of THC (0-30 mg/kg THC for oral gavage, subcutaneous, and intraperitoneal, and 0-300 mg/ml THC for aerosol). All routes of THC administration altered respiratory minute volume and heart rate, with the direction of effects typically being consistent across dependent measures. THC primarily decreased respiration and heart rate, but females given oral gavage THC showed increased heart rate. Intraperitoneal and subcutaneous THC produced the longest-lasting effects, including THC-induced alterations in physiological parameters for up to 10 h, whereas effects of aerosolized THC were short lived. The fastest onset of effects of THC occurred for aerosolized and intraperitoneal THC. Altogether, the work herein establishes the impact of dosing route on THC-induced heart rate and respiratory alteration in male and female mice. This study highlights important differences in the timeline of cardiopulmonary response to THC following the most common preclinical routes of administration.

Cannabinoid CB1 Receptors Are Expressed in a Subset of Dopamine Neurons and Underlie Cannabinoid-Induced Aversion, Hypoactivity, and Anxiolytic Effects in Mice

Cannabinoids modulate dopamine (DA) transmission and DA-related behavior, which has been thought to be mediated initially by activation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs) on GABA neurons. However, there is no behavioral evidence supporting it. In contrast, here we report that CB1Rs are also expressed in a subset of DA neurons and functionally underlie cannabinoid action in male and female mice. RNAscope in situ hybridization (ISH) assays demonstrated CB1 mRNA in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)-positive DA neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and glutamate decarboxylase 1 (GAD1)-positive GABA neurons. The CB1R-expressing DA neurons were located mainly in the middle portion of the VTA with the number of CB1-TH colocalization progressively decreasing from the medial to the lateral VTA. Triple-staining assays indicated CB1R mRNA colocalization with both TH and vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VgluT2, a glutamate neuronal marker) in the medial VTA close to the midline of the brain. Optogenetic activation of this population of DA neurons was rewarding as assessed by optical intracranial self-stimulation. Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) or ACEA (a selective CB1R agonist) dose-dependently inhibited optical intracranial self-stimulation in DAT-Cre control mice, but not in conditional knockout mice with the CB1R gene absent in DA neurons. In addition, deletion of CB1Rs from DA neurons attenuated Δ⁹-THC-induced reduction in DA release in the NAc, locomotion, and anxiety. Together, these findings indicate that CB1Rs are expressed in a subset of DA neurons that corelease DA and glutamate, and functionally underlie cannabinoid modulation of DA release and DA-related behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Cannabinoids produce a series of psychoactive effects, such as aversion, anxiety, and locomotor inhibition in rodents. However, the cellular and receptor mechanisms underlying these actions are not fully understood. Here we report that CB1 receptors are expressed not only in GABA neurons but also in a subset of dopamine neurons, which are located mainly in the medial VTA close to the midline of the midbrain and corelease dopamine and glutamate. Optogenetic activation of these dopamine neurons is rewarding, which is dose-dependently inhibited by cannabinoids. Selective deletion of CB1 receptor from dopamine neurons blocked cannabinoid-induced aversion, hypoactivity, and anxiolytic effects. These findings demonstrate that dopaminergic CB1 receptors play an important role in mediating cannabinoid action.

Neutral CB1 Receptor Antagonists as Pharmacotherapies for Substance Use Disorders: Rationale, Evidence, and Challenge

Cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R) has been one of the major targets in medication development for treating substance use disorders (SUDs). Early studies indicated that rimonabant, a selective CB1R antagonist with an inverse agonist profile, was highly promising as a therapeutic for SUDs. However, its adverse side effects, such as depression and suicidality, led to its withdrawal from clinical trials worldwide in 2008. Consequently, much research interest shifted to developing neutral CB1R antagonists based on the recognition that rimonabant’s side effects may be related to its inverse agonist profile. In this article, we first review rimonabant’s research background as a potential pharmacotherapy for SUDs. Then, we discuss the possible mechanisms underlying its therapeutic anti-addictive effects versus its adverse effects. Lastly, we discuss the rationale for developing neutral CB1R antagonists as potential treatments for SUDs, the supporting evidence in recent research, and the challenges of this strategy. We conclude that developing neutral CB1R antagonists without inverse agonist profile may represent attractive strategies for the treatment of SUDs.

Anatomy and Function of Ventral Tegmental Area Glutamate Neurons

The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is well known for regulating reward consumption, learning, memory, and addiction behaviors through mediating dopamine (DA) release in downstream regions. Other than DA neurons, the VTA is known to be heterogeneous and contains other types of neurons, including glutamate neurons. In contrast to the well-studied and established functions of DA neurons, the role of VTA glutamate neurons is understudied, presumably due to their relatively small quantity and a lack of effective means to study them. Yet, emerging studies have begun to reveal the importance of glutamate release from VTA neurons in regulating diverse behavioral repertoire through a complex intra-VTA and long-range neuronal network. In this review, we summarize the features of VTA glutamate neurons from three perspectives, namely, cellular properties, neural connections, and behavioral functions. Delineation of VTA glutamatergic pathways and their interactions with VTA DA neurons in regulating behaviors may reveal previously unappreciated functions of the VTA in other physiological processes.

The endocannabinoid system and drug-associated contextual memories

Drug abuse and addiction can be initiated and reinstated by contextual stimuli previously paired with the drug use. The influence exerted by the context on drug-seeking behaviour can be modelled in experimental animals with place-conditioning protocols. Here, we review the effects of cannabinoids in place conditioning and the therapeutic potential of the endocannabinoid system for interfering with drug-related memories. The phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) tends to induce conditioned place preference (CPP) at low doses and conditioned place aversion at high doses; cannabidiol is devoid of any effect, yet it inhibits CPP induced by some drugs. Synthetic CB1 receptor agonists tend to recapitulate the biphasic profile observed with THC, whereas selective antagonists/inverse agonists inhibit CPP induced by cocaine, nicotine, alcohol and opioids. However, their therapeutic use is limited by potential psychiatric side effects. The CB2 receptor has also attracted attention, because selective CB2 receptor agonists inhibit cocaine-induced CPP. Inhibitors of endocannabinoid membrane transport and hydrolysis yield mixed results. In targeting the endocannabinoid system for developing new treatments for drug addiction, future research should focus on 'neutral' CB1 receptor antagonists and CB2 receptor agonists. Such compounds may offer a well-tolerated pharmacological profile and curb addiction by preventing drug-seeking triggered by conditioned contextual cues.

Natural Products as Novel Neuroprotective Agents; Computational Predictions of the Molecular Targets, ADME Properties, and Safety Profile

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are one of the most challenging public health issues. Despite tremendous advances in our understanding of NDs, little progress has been made in establishing effective treatments. Natural products may have enormous potential in preventing and treating NDs by targeting microglia; yet, there have been several clinical concerns about their usage, primarily due to a lack of scientific evidence for their efficacy, molecular targets, physicochemical properties, and safety. To solve this problem, the secondary bioactive metabolites derived from neuroprotective medicinal plants were identified and selected for computational predictions for anti-inflammatory activity, possible molecular targets, physicochemical properties, and safety evaluation using PASS online, Molinspiration, SwissADME, and ProTox-II, respectively. Most of the phytochemicals were active as anti-inflammatory agents as predicted using the PASS online webserver. Moreover, the molecular target predictions for some phytochemicals were similar to the reported experimental targets. Moreover, the phytochemicals that did not violate important physicochemical properties, including blood-brain barrier penetration, GI absorption, molecular weight, and lipophilicity, were selected for further safety evaluation. After screening 54 neuroprotective phytochemicals, our findings suggest that Aromatic-turmerone, Apocynin, and Matrine are the most promising compounds that could be considered when designing novel neuroprotective agents to treat neurodegenerative diseases via modulating microglial polarization.

Mitragynine (Kratom)-Induced Cognitive Impairments in Mice Resemble Δ9-THC and Morphine Effects: Reversal by Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor Antagonism

Kratom is a widely abused plant-based drug preparation with a global interest in recent years, well beyond its native grounds in Southeast Asia. Mitragynine, its major psychoactive constituent is known to exhibit opioid-like behavioral effects with resultant neuroplasticity in the brain reward system. Its chronic administration is associated with cognitive impairments in animal studies. However, the underlying molecular mechanism for such a deficit remains elusive. In this study, the involvement of cannabinoid type-1 (CB₁) receptors in cognitive deficits after chronic mitragynine exposures was investigated for 28 days (with incremental dose sensitization from 1 to 25 mg/kg) in adult male Swiss albino mice using the IntelliCage^® system. Chronic high-dose mitragynine exposure (5–25 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [i.p.]), but not low-dose exposure (1–4 mg/kg, i.p.), induced hyperlocomotion, potentiated the preference for sucrose reward, increased resistance to punishment, and impaired place learning and its reversal. Comparable deficits were also observed after chronic treatments with Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, 2 mg/kg, i.p.) or morphine (5 mg/kg, subcutaneous). Mitragynine-, morphine-, and THC-induced learning and memory deficits were reversed by co-treatment with the CB₁ receptor antagonist, NIDA-41020 (10 mg/kg, i.p.). A significant upregulation of CB₁ receptor expression was found in the hippocampal CA1 region and ventral tegmental area after chronic high-dose mitragynine and morphine, whereas a downregulation was observed after chronic THC. In conclusion, the present study suggests a plausible role of the CB₁ receptor in mediating the dose-dependent cognitive deficits after chronic high-dose mitragynine exposure. This also highlights the potential of CB₁ receptor antagonism in ameliorating the cognitive deficits associated with long-term kratom/mitragynine consumption in humans.

Optogenetic brain-stimulation reward: A new procedure to re-evaluate the rewarding versus aversive effects of cannabinoids in dopamine transporter-Cre mice

Despite extensive research, the rewarding effects of cannabinoids are still debated. Here, we used a newly established animal procedure called optogenetic intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) (oICSS) to re-examine the abuse potential of cannabinoids in mice. A specific adeno-associated viral vector carrying a channelrhodopsin gene was microinjected into the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to express light-sensitive channelrhodopsin in dopamine (DA) neurons of transgenic dopamine transporter (DAT)-Cre mice. Optogenetic stimulation of VTA DA neurons was highly reinforcing and produced a classical "sigmoidal"-shaped stimulation-response curve dependent upon the laser pulse frequency. Systemic administration of cocaine dose-dependently enhanced oICSS and shifted stimulation-response curves upward, in a way similar to previously observed effects of cocaine on electrical ICSS. In contrast, Δ⁹ -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹ -THC), but not cannabidiol, dose-dependently decreased oICSS responding and shifted oICSS curves downward. WIN55,212-2 and ACEA, two synthetic cannabinoids often used in laboratory settings, also produced dose-dependent reductions in oICSS. We then examined several new synthetic cannabinoids, which are used recreationally. XLR-11 produced a cocaine-like increase, AM-2201 produced a Δ⁹ -THC-like reduction, while 5F-AMB had no effect on oICSS responding. Immunohistochemistry and RNAscope in situ hybridization assays indicated that CB₁ Rs are expressed mainly in VTA GABA and glutamate neurons, while CB₂ Rs are expressed mainly in VTA DA neurons. Together, these findings suggest that most cannabinoids are not reward enhancing, but rather reward attenuating or aversive in mice. Activation of CB₁ R and/or CB₂ R in different populations of neurons in the brain may underlie the observed actions.

Dissecting the role of CB1 and CB2 receptors in cannabinoid reward versus aversion using transgenic CB1- and CB2-knockout mice

Cannabinoids produce both rewarding and aversive effects in humans and experimental animals. However, the mechanisms underlying these conflicting findings are unclear. Here we examined the potential involvement of CB1 and CB2 receptors in cannabinoid action using transgenic CB1-knockout (CB1-KO) and CB2-knockout (CB2-KO) mice. We found that Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) induced conditioned place preference at a low dose (1 mg/kg) in WT mice that was attenuated by deletion of the CB1 receptor. At 5 mg/kg, no subjective effects of Δ9-THC were detected in WT mice, but CB1-KO mice exhibited a trend towards place aversion and CB2-KO mice developed significant place preferences. This data suggests that activation of the CB1 receptor is rewarding, while CB2R activation is aversive. We then examined the nucleus accumbens (NAc) dopamine (DA) response to Δ9-THC using in vivo microdialysis. Unexpectedly, Δ9-THC produced a dose-dependent decrease in extracellular DA in WT mice, that was potentiated in CB1-KO mice. However, in CB2-KO mice Δ9-THC produced a dose-dependent increase in extracellular DA, suggesting that activation of the CB2R inhibits DA release in the NAc. In contrast, Δ9-THC, when administered systemically or locally into the NAc, failed to alter extracellular DA in rats. Lastly, we examined the locomotor response to Δ9-THC. Both CB1 and CB2 receptor mechanisms were shown to underlie Δ9-THC-induced hypolocomotion. These findings indicate that Δ9-THC's variable subjective effects reflect differential activation of cannabinoid receptors. Specifically, the opposing actions of CB1 and CB2 receptors regulate cannabis reward and aversion, with CB2-mediated effects predominant in mice.

A Critical Review of the Role of the Cannabinoid Compounds Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and Cannabidiol (CBD) and their Combination in Multiple Sclerosis Treatment

Many people with MS (pwMS) use unregulated cannabis or cannabis products to treat the symptoms associated with the disease. In line with this, Sativex, a synthetic combination of cannabidiol (CBD) and Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) has been approved to treat symptoms of spasticity. In animals, CBD is effective in reducing the amounts of T-cell infiltrates in the spinal cord, suggesting CBD has anti-inflammatory properties. By doing this, CBD has shown to delay symptom onset in animal models of multiple sclerosis and slow disease progression. Importantly, combinations of CBD and Δ⁹-THC appear more effective in treating animal models of multiple sclerosis. While CBD reduces the amounts of cell infiltrates in the spinal cord, Δ⁹-THC reduces scores of spasticity. In human studies, the results are less encouraging and conflict with the findings in animals. Drugs which deliver a combination of Δ⁹-THC and CBD in a 1:1 ratio appear to be only moderately effective in reducing spasticity scores, but appear to be almost as effective as current front-line treatments and cause less severe side effects than other treatments, such as baclofen (a GABA-B receptor agonist) and tizanidine (an α2 adrenergic receptor agonist). The findings of the studies reviewed suggest that cannabinoids may help treat neuropathic pain in pwMS as an add-on therapy to already established pain treatments. It is important to note that treatment with cannabinoid compounds may cause significant cognitive dysfunction. Long term double-blind placebo studies are greatly needed to further our understanding of the role of cannabinoids in multiple sclerosis treatment.

The novel MAGL inhibitor MJN110 enhances responding to reward-predictive incentive cues by activation of CB1 receptors

CB1 receptor antagonists disrupt operant responding for food and drug reinforcers, and cue-induced reinstatement of cocaine and heroin seeking. Conversely, enhancing endocannabinoid signaling, particularly 2-arachidonyl glycerol (2-AG), by inhibition of monoacyl glycerol lipase (MAGL), may facilitate some aspects of reward seeking. To determine how endocannabinoid signaling affects responding to reward-predictive cues, we employed an operant task that allows us to parse the incentive motivational properties of cues. Rats were required to nosepoke during an intermittent audiovisual incentive cue (IC) to obtain a 10% sucrose reward. The CB1 receptor antagonist, rimonabant, dose-dependently decreased the response ratio (rewarded ICs/total presented) and active nosepokes per IC, while it increased the latency to respond to the cue and obtain the reward, indicating an overall decrease in both the choice and vigor of responding. Yet rats persisted in entering the reward cup. Using a modified version of the task, the novel MAGL inhibitor MJN110 increased the response ratio, decreased the latencies to respond to the IC and enhanced active nosepokes per IC, indicating a facilitation of cue-induced reward seeking. These effects were blocked by a subthreshold dose of rimonabant. Finally, MJN110 did not alter consumption of freely available sucrose within volumes obtained in the operant task. Together these data demonstrate blocking endocannabinoid tone at the CB1 receptor attenuates the ability of cues to induce reward seeking, while some aspects of motivation for the reward are retained. Conversely, enhancing 2-AG signaling at CB1 receptors facilitates IC responding and increases the motivational properties of the IC.

Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Characterization of Tetrahydrocannabinol-Induced Cannabinoid Dependence After Chronic Passive Cannabis Smoke Exposure in Rats

Introduction: Cannabis is the most widely used illicit drug in the US, and cannabis use among young adults continues to rise. Previous studies have shown that chronic administration of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the main psychoactive component of cannabis, induces dependence in animal models. Because smoking is the most frequent route of THC self-administration, it is critical to investigate the effects of cannabis smoke inhalation. The goal of the current study was to develop a rat model to characterize the pharmacokinetics (PKs) of THC after cannabis smoke inhalation, and to determine if chronic cannabis smoke inhalation leads to the development of cannabis dependence. Materials and Methods: For the PK study, male Wistar rats were administered THC intravenously (1 mg/kg) or exposed to smoke from 5 or 10 sequentially smoked cannabis cigarettes (5.3% THC) in an automated smoking machine. Plasma samples were collected from 10 min to 10 hours post smoke exposure (or intravenous administration) and analyzed using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry to characterize the PK of THC. A three-compartment PK model was used to characterize the PKs. In a separate study, three groups of male Wistar rats were trained in an intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure, and exposed to smoke from burning 5 or 10 cannabis cigarettes (or clean air control conditions), 5 days/week for 4 weeks. Discussion and Conclusions: Across exposure days, the change from baseline in ICSS thresholds for cannabis smoke-exposed groups was significantly lower and response latencies were significantly faster in the cannabis smoke-exposed groups compared to controls, suggesting that chronic cannabis smoke exposure has rewarding properties. Acute administration of the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant (0.3, 1.0, 3.0 mg/kg) induced a dose-dependent increase in ICSS thresholds in the smoke-exposed rats, suggestive of dependence and withdrawal. Finally, an effect compartment PK-pharmacodynamic model was used to describe the relationship between THC concentrations and changes in ICSS thresholds after cannabis smoke exposure.

Link between personality and response to THC exposure

The effects of cannabis reported by users range from experiences of euphoria and anxiolytic effects to paranoia, anxiety, and increased risk of depression. Attempts to reconcile the apparent contradictions in user response have not been conclusive. Here, we utilized selectively-bred stress-resilient socially dominant (Dom) and stress-sensitive socially submissive (Sub) mice to elucidate this contradiction. Following short-term, repeated treatment with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) at two different doses (1.5 mg/kg and 15 mg/kg), Sub mice presented significant place-aversion in a Conditioned Place Preference paradigm at a high dose, whereas Dom mice displayed no place preference or aversion. Forced Swim test conducted after 6-week of washout period, revealed differential impact of the two THC doses depending upon behavioral pattern. Specifically, the low dose alleviated depressive-like behavior in Sub mice, while the high dose produced the opposite effect in Dom mice. Interestingly, corticosterone concentration in serum was elevated at the high dose regardless of the mice-population tested. We conclude here that differences in dominance behavior and stress vulnerability are involved in the regulation of cannabis response among users and should be considered when prescribing THC-containing medications to patients.

Potential of Cannabinoid Receptor Ligands as Treatment for Substance Use Disorders

Substance use disorder (SUD) is a major public health crisis worldwide, and effective treatment options are limited. During the past 2 decades, researchers have investigated the impact of a variety of pharmacological approaches to treat SUD, one of which is the use of medical cannabis or cannabinoids. Significant progress was made with the discovery of rimonabant, a selective CB1 receptor (CB1R) antagonist (also an inverse agonist), as a promising therapeutic for SUDs and obesity. However, serious adverse effects such as depression and suicidality led to the withdrawal of rimonabant (and almost all other CB1R antagonists/inverse agonists) from clinical trials worldwide in 2008. Since then, much research interest has shifted to other cannabinoid-based strategies, such as peripheral CB1R antagonists/inverse agonists, neutral CB1R antagonists, allosteric CB1R modulators, CB2R agonists, fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitors, monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) inhibitors, fatty acid binding protein (FABP) inhibitors, or nonaddictive phytocannabinoids with CB1R or CB2R-binding profiles, as new therapeutics for SUDs. In this article, we first review recent progress in research regarding the endocannabinoid systems, cannabis reward versus aversion, and the underlying receptor mechanisms. We then review recent progress in cannabinoid-based medication development for the treatment of SUDs. As evidence continues to accumulate, neutral CB1R antagonists (such as AM4113), CB2R agonists (JWH133, Xie2-64), and nonselective phytocannabinoids (cannabidiol, β-caryophyllene, ∆9-tetrahydrocannabivarin) have shown great therapeutic potential for SUDs, as shown in experimental animals. Several cannabinoid-based medications (e.g., dronabinol, nabilone, PF-04457845) that entered clinical trials have shown promising results in reducing withdrawal symptoms in cannabis and opioid users.

Cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptor mechanisms underlie cannabis reward and aversion in rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Endocannabinoids are critically involved in brain reward functions, mediated by activation of CB₁ receptors, reflecting their high density in the brain. However, the recent discovery of CB₂ receptors in the brain, particularly in the midbrain dopamine neurons, has challenged this view and inspired us to re-examine the roles of both CB₁ and CB₂ receptors in the effects of cannabis.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

In the present study, we used the electrical intracranial self-stimulation paradigm to evaluate the effects of various cannabinoid drugs on brain reward in laboratory rats and the roles of CB₁ and CB₂ receptors activation in brain reward function(s).

KEY RESULTS

Two mixed CB₁ / CB₂ receptor agonists, Δ⁹ -tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹ -THC) and WIN55,212-2, produced biphasic effects-mild enhancement of brain-stimulation reward (BSR) at low doses but inhibition at higher doses. Pretreatment with a CB₁ receptor antagonist (AM251) attenuated the low dose-enhanced BSR, while a CB₂ receptor antagonist (AM630) attenuated high dose-inhibited BSR. To confirm these opposing effects, rats were treated with selective CB₁ and CB₂ receptor agonists. These compounds produced significant BSR enhancement and inhibition, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

CB₁ receptor activation produced reinforcing effects, whereas CB₂ receptor activation was aversive. The subjective effects of cannabis depend on the balance of these opposing effects. These findings not only explain previous conflicting results in animal models of addiction but also explain why cannabis can be either rewarding or aversive in humans, as expression of CB₁ and CB₂ receptors may differ in the brains of different subjects.

Brain activity of anandamide: a rewarding bliss?

Anandamide is a lipid mediator that acts as an endogenous ligand of CB1 receptors. These receptors are also the primary molecular target responsible for the pharmacological effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the psychoactive ingredient in Cannabis sativa. Several studies demonstrate that anandamide exerts an overall modulatory effect on the brain reward circuitry. Several reports suggest its involvement in the addiction-producing actions of other abused drugs, and it can also act as a behavioral reinforcer in animal models of drug abuse. Importantly, all these effects of anandamide appear to be potentiated by pharmacological inhibition of its metabolic degradation. Enhanced brain levels of anandamide after treatment with inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase, the main enzyme responsible for its degradation, seem to affect the rewarding and reinforcing actions of many drugs of abuse. In this review, we will provide an overview from a preclinical perspective of the current state of knowledge regarding the behavioral pharmacology of anandamide, with a particular emphasis on its motivational/reinforcing properties. We will also discuss how modulation of anandamide levels through inhibition of enzymatic metabolic pathways could provide a basis for developing new pharmaco-therapeutic tools for the treatment of substance use disorders.

Finding order in chemical chaos - Continuing characterization of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists

Diversion of synthetic cannabinoids from the lab to drugs of abuse has become increasingly prevalent in recent years. Moreover, as earlier synthetic cannabinoids were banned, manufacturers introduced a new supply of novel compounds to serve as replacements. Hence, the chemical diversity of synthetic cannabinoid analogs has also rapidly increased. The present study examined 8 new synthetic cannabinoids: AM-1220, AM-2232, AM-2233, AM-679, EAM-2201, JWH-210, JHW-251, and MAM-2201. Each compound was assessed for binding affinity and functional activation of CB₁ and CB₂ receptors, and pharmacological equivalence with Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in THC drug discrimination. All compounds bound to and activated CB₁ and CB₂ receptors, although efficacy at the CB₂ receptor was reduced compared to that for the CB₁ receptor. Similarly, all compounds stimulated [³⁵S]GTPγS binding through the CB₁ receptor, and all compounds except AM-1220 and AM-2233 stimulated [³⁵S]GTPγS binding through the CB₂ receptor. Furthermore, these compounds, along with CP55,940, substituted for THC in THC drug discrimination. Rank order of potency in drug discrimination was correlated with CB₁ receptor binding affinity. Together, these results suggest that all test compounds share the THC-like subjective effects of marijuana. Interestingly, the most potent compounds in CB₁ binding in the present study were also the compounds that have been found recently in the U.S., MAM-2201, EAM-2201, JWH-210, AM-2233, and AM-1220. These results indicate that the evolution of the synthetic cannabinoid drug market may be focused toward compounds with increased potency. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Designer Drugs and Legal Highs.'

Effect of footshock stress on place conditioning produced by Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and the fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) inhibitor, URB597, in Sprague-Dawley rats

RATIONALE

Unlike other drugs of abuse, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocanabinol (THC) is generally aversive in rodent conditioned place preference models, but little is known about how stress may modify THC affective properties.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluate the potential of footshock stress to enhance the rewarding effects of THC and the fatty acid amide hydrolase inhibitor, URB597, as it has been shown to enhance their anxiolytic effects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effect of footshock stress 24 h prior to each conditioning trial on the rewarding/aversive effects of THC (1, 0.1, 0.5 mg/kg, ip) and URB597 (0.3 mg/kg, ip) was evaluated in an unbiased place conditioning procedure in rats. Subsequently, the same stressor was given immediately prior to conditioning with THC (1 and 0.1 mg/kg). Locomotor activity was also measured during conditioning.

RESULTS

A dose of 1 mg/kg THC, but not 0.1-0.5 mg/kg, produced a conditioned place aversion (CPA) that was not modified by footshock delivered 24 h prior to conditioning trials; however, footshock delivered immediately prior to conditioning trials prevented that CPA. Lower doses of THC and URB597 produced no place conditioning regardless of footshock conditions. A dose of 1 mg/kg THC produced locomotor suppression during conditioning trials that was prevented by footshock delivered 24 h before and reversed to locomotor activation by footshock delivered immediately before conditioning.

CONCLUSIONS

Unlike the effect of footshock on THC- and URB597-induced anxiolytic effects, footshock does not promote THC or URB597-induced reward in a conditioned place preference paradigm. However, footshock stress reverses the sedative effects of 1 mg/kg THC.

CB1 Receptor Activation on VgluT2-Expressing Glutamatergic Neurons Underlies Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC)-Induced Aversive Effects in Mice

Cannabis can be rewarding or aversive. Cannabis reward is believed to be mediated by activation of cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs) on GABAergic neurons that disinhibit dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). However, little is known about the mechanisms underlying cannabis aversion in rodents. In the present study, CB1Rs are found not only on VTA GABAergic neurons, but also on VTA glutamatergic neurons that express vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VgluT2). We then used Cre-Loxp transgenic technology to selectively delete CB1Rs in VgluT2-expressing glutamatergic neurons (VgluT2-CB1^−/−) and Cre-dependent viral vector to express light-sensitive channelrhodopsin-2 into VTA glutamatergic neurons. We found that photoactivation of VTA glutamatergic neurons produced robust intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) behavior, which was dose-dependently blocked by DA receptor antagonists, but enhanced by cocaine. In contrast, Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC), the major psychoactive component of cannabis, produced dose-dependent conditioned place aversion and a reduction in the above optical ICSS in VgluT2-cre control mice, but not in VgluT2-CB1^−/− mice. These findings suggest that activation of CB1Rs in VgluT2-expressing glutamate neurons produces aversive effects that might explain why cannabinoid is not rewarding in rodents and might also account for individual differences in the hedonic effects of cannabis in humans.

Adolescent Female Cannabinoid Exposure Diminishes the Reward-Facilitating Effects of Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol and d-Amphetamine in the Adult Male Offspring

Marijuana is currently the most commonly abused illicit drug. According to recent studies, cannabinoid use occurring prior to pregnancy can impact brain plasticity and behavior in future generations. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether adolescent exposure of female rats to Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ⁹-THC) induces transgenerational effects on the reward-facilitating effects of Δ⁹-THC and d-amphetamine in their adult male offspring. Female Sprague-Dawley rats received Δ⁹-THC (0.1 or 1 mg/kg, i.p.) or vehicle during postnatal days 28–50. As adults, females were mated with drug-naïve males. We then assessed potential alterations of the Δ⁹-THC’s (0, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, i.p.) and d-amphetamine’s (0, 0.1, 0.5, and 1 mg/kg, i.p.) reward-modifying effects using the curve-shift variant of the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure in their adult male F1 offspring. The reward-facilitating effect of the 0.1 mg dose of Δ⁹-THC was abolished in the F1 offspring of females that were exposed to Δ⁹-THC (0.1 or 1 mg/kg), whereas the reward-attenuating effect of the 1 mg dose of Δ⁹-THC remained unaltered. The reward-facilitating effects of 0.5 and 1 mg of d-amphetamine were significantly decreased in the F1 offspring of females that were exposed to Δ⁹-THC (1 mg/kg and 0.1 or 1 mg, respectively). The present results reveal that female Δ⁹-THC exposure during adolescence can diminish the reward-facilitating effects of Δ⁹-THC and d-amphetamine in the adult male offspring. These transgenerational effects occur in the absence of in utero exposure. It is speculated that Δ⁹-THC exposure during female adolescence may affect neural mechanisms that are shaping reward-related behavioral responses in a subsequent generation, as indicated by the shifts in the reward-facilitating effects of commonly used and abused drugs.

Discriminative Stimulus Properties of the Endocannabinoid Catabolic Enzyme Inhibitor SA-57 in Mice

Whereas the inhibition of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) or monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL), the respective major hydrolytic enzymes of N-arachidonoyl ethanolamine (AEA) and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), elicits no or partial substitution for Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in drug-discrimination procedures, combined inhibition of both enzymes fully substitutes for THC, as well as produces a constellation of cannabimimetic effects. The present study tested whether C57BL/6J mice would learn to discriminate the dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor SA-57 (4-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 2-(methylamino)-2-oxoethyl ester) from vehicle in the drug-discrimination paradigm. In initial experiments, 10 mg/kg SA-57 fully substituted for CP55,940 ((-)-cis-3-[2-hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl]-trans-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol), a high-efficacy CB1 receptor agonist in C57BL/6J mice and for AEA in FAAH (-/-) mice. Most (i.e., 23 of 24) subjects achieved criteria for discriminating SA-57 (10 mg/kg) from vehicle within 40 sessions, with full generalization occurring 1 to 2 hours postinjection. CP55,940, the dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor JZL195 (4-​nitrophenyl 4-​(3-​phenoxybenzyl)piperazine-​1-​carboxylate), and the MAGL inhibitors MJN110 (2,5-dioxopyrrolidin-1-yl 4-(bis(4-chlorophenyl)methyl)piperazine-1-carboxylate) and JZL184 (4-[Bis(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)hydroxymethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 4-nitrophenyl ester) fully substituted for SA-57. Although the FAAH inhibitors PF-3845 ((N-3-pyridinyl-4-[[3-[[5-(trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridinyl]oxy]phenyl]methyl]-1-piperidinecarboxamide) and URB597 (cyclohexylcarbamic acid 3'-(aminocarbonyl)-[1,1'-biphenyl]-3-yl ester) did not substitute for SA-57, PF-3845 produced a 2-fold leftward shift in the MJN110 substitution dose-response curve. In addition, the CB1 receptor antagonist rimonabant blocked the generalization of SA-57, as well as substitution of CP55,940, JZL195, MJN110, and JZL184. These findings suggest that MAGL inhibition plays a major role in the CB1 receptor-mediated SA-57 training dose, which is further augmented by FAAH inhibition.

Preclinical studies on the reinforcing effects of cannabinoids. A tribute to the scientific research of Dr. Steve Goldberg

RATIONALE

The reinforcing effects of most abused drugs have been consistently demonstrated and studied in animal models, although those of marijuana were not, until the demonstration 15 years ago that delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) could serve as a reinforcer in self-administration (SA) procedures in squirrel monkeys. Until then, those effects were inferred using indirect assessments.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this manuscript is to review the primary preclinical procedures used to indirectly and directly infer reinforcing effects of cannabinoid drugs.

METHODS

Results will be reviewed from studies of cannabinoid discrimination, intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS), conditioned place preference (CPP), as well as change in levels of dopamine assessed in brain areas related to reinforcement, and finally from self-administration procedures. For each procedure, an evaluation will be made of the predictive validity in detecting the potential abuse liability of cannabinoids based on seminal papers, with the addition of selected reports from more recent years especially those from Dr. Goldberg's research group.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

ICSS and CPP do not provide consistent results for the assessment of potential for abuse of cannabinoids. However, drug discrimination and neurochemistry procedures appear to detect potential for abuse of cannabinoids, as well as several novel "designer cannabinoid drugs." Though after 15 years transfer of the self-administration model of marijuana abuse from squirrel monkeys to other species remains somewhat problematic, studies with the former species have substantially advanced the field, and several reports have been published with consistent self-administration of cannabinoid agonists in rodents.

Neuropharmacology of New Psychoactive Substances (NPS): Focus on the Rewarding and Reinforcing Properties of Cannabimimetics and Amphetamine-Like Stimulants

New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a heterogeneous and rapidly evolving class of molecules available on the global illicit drug market (e.g smart shops, internet, “dark net”) as a substitute for controlled substances. The use of NPS, mainly consumed along with other drugs of abuse and/or alcohol, has resulted in a significantly growing number of mortality and emergency admissions for overdoses, as reported by several poison centers from all over the world. The fact that the number of NPS have more than doubled over the last 10 years, is a critical challenge to governments, the scientific community, and civil society [EMCDDA (European Drug Report), 2014; UNODC, 2014b; Trends and developments]. The chemical structure (phenethylamines, piperazines, cathinones, tryptamines, synthetic cannabinoids) of NPS and their pharmacological and clinical effects (hallucinogenic, anesthetic, dissociative, depressant) help classify them into different categories. In the recent past, 50% of newly identified NPS have been classified as synthetic cannabinoids followed by new phenethylamines (17%) (UNODC, 2014b). Besides peripheral toxicological effects, many NPS seem to have addictive properties. Behavioral, neurochemical, and electrophysiological evidence can help in detecting them. This manuscript will review existing literature about the addictive and rewarding properties of the most popular NPS classes: cannabimimetics (JWH, HU, CP series) and amphetamine-like stimulants (amphetamine, methamphetamine, methcathinone, and MDMA analogs). Moreover, the review will include recent data from our lab which links JWH-018, a CB1 and CB2 agonist more potent than Δ⁹-THC, to other cannabinoids with known abuse potential, and to other classes of abused drugs that increase dopamine signaling in the Nucleus Accumbens (NAc) shell. Thus the neurochemical mechanisms that produce the rewarding properties of JWH-018, which most likely contributes to the greater incidence of dependence associated with “Spice” use, will be described (De Luca et al., 2015a). Considering the growing evidence of a widespread use of NPS, this review will be useful to understand the new trends in the field of drug reward and drug addiction by revealing the rewarding properties of NPS, and will be helpful to gather reliable data regarding the abuse potential of these compounds.

Keep off the grass? Cannabis, cognition and addiction

In an increasing number of states and countries, cannabis now stands poised to join alcohol and tobacco as a legal drug. Quantifying the relative adverse and beneficial effects of cannabis and its constituent cannabinoids should therefore be prioritized. Whereas newspaper headlines have focused on links between cannabis and psychosis, less attention has been paid to the much more common problem of cannabis addiction. Certain cognitive changes have also been attributed to cannabis use, although their causality and longevity are fiercely debated. Identifying why some individuals are more vulnerable than others to the adverse effects of cannabis is now of paramount importance to public health. Here, we review the current state of knowledge about such vulnerability factors, the variations in types of cannabis, and the relationship between these and cognition and addiction.

Screening Medications for the Treatment of Cannabis Use Disorder

Cannabis use has been increasingly accepted legally and in public opinion. However, cannabis has the potential to produce adverse physical and mental health effects, and cannabis use disorder (CUD) occurs in a substantial percentage of both occasional and daily cannabis users. Many people have difficulty discontinuing use despite receiving treatment. Therefore, it would be beneficial to develop safe and effective medications for treating CUD. To achieve this, methods have been developed for screening and evaluating potential medications using animal models and controlled experimental protocols in human volunteers. In this chapter, we describe: (1) animal models available for assessing the effect of potential medications on specific aspects of CUD, (2) the main findings obtained so far with these animal models, (3) the approaches used to assess potential medications in humans in laboratory experiments and clinical trials, and (4) the effectiveness of several potential pharmacotherapies on particular aspects of CUD modeled in these human studies.

Preclinical Abuse Potential Assessment of Flibanserin: Effects on Intracranial Self-Stimulation in Female and Male Rats

INTRODUCTION

Flibanserin is a serotonin receptor subtype 1A agonist and 2A antagonist that has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration for treating female sexual interest and arousal disorder. Little is known about the abuse potential of flibanserin.

AIM

To examine abuse-related effects of flibanserin in rats using an intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure previously used to evaluate the abuse potential of other drugs.

METHODS

Adult female and male Sprague-Dawley rats with electrodes implanted in the medial forebrain bundle were trained to press a lever for electrical brain stimulation under a "frequency-rate" ICSS procedure. In this procedure, increasing frequencies of brain stimulation maintain increasing rates of responding. Drugs of abuse typically increase (or "facilitate") ICSS rates and produce leftward and upward shifts in ICSS frequency-rate curves, whereas drugs that lack abuse potential typically do not alter or only decrease ICSS rates. Initial studies determined the potency and time course of effects on ICSS produced by acute flibanserin administration (1.0, 3.2 and 10.0 mg/kg). Subsequent studies determined the effects of flibanserin (3.2-18 mg/kg) before and after a regimen of repeated flibanserin administration (5.6 mg/kg/d for 5 days). Effects of the abused stimulant amphetamine (1.0 mg/kg) were examined as a positive control.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Flibanserin effects on ICSS frequency-rate curves in female and male rats were examined and compared with the effects of amphetamine.

RESULTS

Baseline ICSS frequency-rate curves were similar in female and male rats. Acute and repeated administrations of flibanserin produced only decreases in ICSS rates, and rate-decreasing effects of the highest flibanserin dose (10 mg/kg) were greater in female than in male rats. In contrast to flibanserin, amphetamine produced an abuse-related increase in ICSS rates that did not differ between female and male rats.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that flibanserin has low abuse potential. In addition, this study suggests that female rats might be more sensitive than male rats to the rate-decreasing effects of high flibanserin doses.

Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) history fails to affect THC's ability to induce place preferences in rats

RATIONALE

In pre-clinical models of marijuana abuse, there is relatively limited evidence of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol's (THC) rewarding effects, as indexed by its general inability to induce a place preference. One explanation for this failure is that its rewarding effects are masked by its concurrently occurring aversive properties. Consistent with this explanation, THC pre-exposure, which presumably weakens its aversive effects, induces place preferences. Such demonstrations are limited to mice and given reported species differences in THC reactivity, it is unknown to what extent the same shift in affective properties would be evident in rats.

METHODS

The present experiment examined the effect of THC history (3.2mg/kg) on THC (1 or 3.2mg/kg) induced place preference conditioning in rats. An assessment of taste avoidance was also run to independently characterize THC's aversive effects and any changes that occurred with drug pre-exposure. These assessments were made in a combined taste avoidance/place preference procedure in which a novel saccharin solution and environment were paired with THC (0, 1 or 3.2mg/kg).

RESULTS

THC did not induce place conditioning, and a history of THC was ineffective in increasing THC's ability to do so, despite the fact that this same history significantly attenuated the aversive effects of THC.

CONCLUSIONS

The failure of THC to consistently induce place preferences has been argued to be a function of its concurrently occurring aversive effects masking its rewarding properties. The fact that pre-exposure to THC significantly reduced its aversive effects without impacting THC's ability to induce place preferences suggests that THC has weak rewarding effects and/or its residual aversive affects may have still masked its rewarding properties. An important area for future work will be characterizing under what conditions THC is rewarding and whether its overall reinforcing effects are impacted by the relationship between its affective properties.

To Act or Not to Act: Endocannabinoid/Dopamine Interactions in Decision-Making

Decision-making is an ethologically adaptive construct that is impaired in multiple psychiatric disorders. Activity within the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system has been traditionally associated with decision-making. The endocannabinoid system through its actions on inhibitory and excitatory synapses modulates dopamine activity and decision-making. The aim of this brief review is to present a synopsis of available data obtained when the endocannabinoid system is manipulated and dopamine activity recorded. To this end, we review research using different behavioral paradigms to provide further insight into how this ubiquitous signaling system biases dopamine-related behaviors to regulate decision-making.

Molecular Mechanisms of Cannabis Signaling in the Brain

Cannabis has been cultivated and used by humans for thousands of years. Research for decades was focused on understanding the mechanisms of an illegal/addictive drug. This led to the discovery of the vast endocannabinoid system. Research has now shifted to understanding fundamental biological questions related to one of the most widespread signaling systems in both the brain and the body. Our understanding of cannabinoid signaling has advanced significantly in the last two decades. In this review, we discuss the state of knowledge on mechanisms of Cannabis signaling in the brain and the modulation of key brain neurotransmitter systems involved in both brain reward/addiction and psychiatric disorders. It is highly probable that various cannabinoids will be found to be efficacious in the treatment of a number of psychiatric disorders. However, while there is clearly much potential, marijuana has not been properly vetted by the medical-scientific evaluation process and there are clearly a range of potentially adverse side-effects-including addiction. We are at crossroads for research on endocannabinoid function and therapeutics (including the use of exogenous treatments such as Cannabis). With over 100 cannabinoid constituents, the majority of which have not been studied, there is much Cannabis research yet to be done. With more states legalizing both the medicinal and recreational use of marijuana the rigorous scientific investigation into cannabinoid signaling is imperative.

Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and endocannabinoid degradative enzyme inhibitors attenuate intracranial self-stimulation in mice

A growing body of evidence implicates endogenous cannabinoids as modulators of the mesolimbic dopamine system and motivated behavior. Paradoxically, the reinforcing effects of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive constituent of cannabis, have been difficult to detect in preclinical rodent models. In this study, we investigated the impact of THC and inhibitors of the endocannabinoid hydrolytic enzymes fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) and monoacylglycerol lipase (MAGL) on operant responding for electrical stimulation of the medial forebrain bundle [intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)], which is known to activate the mesolimbic dopamine system. These drugs were also tested in assays of operant responding for food reinforcement and spontaneous locomotor activity. THC and the MAGL inhibitor JZL184 (4-[bis(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)hydroxymethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 4-nitrophenyl ester) attenuated operant responding for ICSS and food, and also reduced spontaneous locomotor activity. In contrast, the FAAH inhibitor PF-3845 (N-3-pyridinyl-4-[[3-[[5-(trifluoromethyl)-2-pyridinyl]oxy]phenyl]methyl]-1-piperidinecarboxamide) was largely without effect in these assays. Consistent with previous studies showing that combined inhibition of FAAH and MAGL produces a substantially greater cannabimimetic profile than single enzyme inhibition, the dual FAAH-MAGL inhibitor SA-57 (4-[2-(4-chlorophenyl)ethyl]-1-piperidinecarboxylic acid 2-(methylamino)-2-oxoethyl ester) produced a similar magnitude of ICSS depression as that produced by THC. ICSS attenuation by JZL184 was associated with increased brain levels of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG), whereas peak effects of SA-57 were associated with increased levels of both N-arachidonoylethanolamine (anandamide) and 2-AG. The cannabinoid receptor type 1 receptor antagonist rimonabant, but not the cannabinoid receptor type 2 receptor antagonist SR144528, blocked the attenuating effects of THC, JZL184, and SA-57 on ICSS. Thus, THC, MAGL inhibition, and dual FAAH-MAGL inhibition not only reduce ICSS, but also decrease other reinforced and nonreinforced behaviors.

Cannabinoids reward sensitivity in a neurodevelopmental animal model of schizophrenia: a brain stimulation reward study

The comorbidity schizophrenia and cannabis has a high prevalence. The consumption of cannabis is ten times higher among schizophrenia patients, suggesting that these patients could be differentially sensitive to its motivational effects. To study this question, we investigated the motivational effects of cannabinoid agonists using the brain stimulation reward paradigm and a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: neonatal ventral hippocampus lesions (NVHL). Using the curve-shift paradigm, we first compared the effect single dose (0.75mg/kg) of amphetamine in sham and NVHL rats on reward and operant responding. Then, in different groups of NVHL and sham rats, we studied the effect of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinnol (THC, 0.5mg/kg, i.p.) and WIN55,212-2 (WIN, 1 and 3mg/kg, i.p.) Rats were initially trained to self-administer an electrical stimulation to the posterio-medial mesencephalon. Once responding was stable, reward threshold defined as the frequency required to induce a half maximum response rate was measured before and after injection of the drug or the vehicle. Results show that amphetamine enhanced reward in sham and NVHL rats, an effect that was shorter in duration in NVHL rats. THC produced a weak attenuation of reward in sham rats while WIN produced a dose-dependent attenuation in NVHL; the attenuation effect of WIN was blocked by the cannabinoid antagonist, AM251. WIN also produced an attenuation of performance in sham and NVHL rats, and this effect was partially prevented by AM251. These results provide the additional evidence that the motivational effect of cannabinoids is altered in animals with a schizophrenia-like phenotype.

Intracranial self-stimulation to evaluate abuse potential of drugs

Intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) is a behavioral procedure in which operant responding is maintained by pulses of electrical brain stimulation. In research to study abuse-related drug effects, ICSS relies on electrode placements that target the medial forebrain bundle at the level of the lateral hypothalamus, and experimental sessions manipulate frequency or amplitude of stimulation to engender a wide range of baseline response rates or response probabilities. Under these conditions, drug-induced increases in low rates/probabilities of responding maintained by low frequencies/amplitudes of stimulation are interpreted as an abuse-related effect. Conversely, drug-induced decreases in high rates/probabilities of responding maintained by high frequencies/amplitudes of stimulation can be interpreted as an abuse-limiting effect. Overall abuse potential can be inferred from the relative expression of abuse-related and abuse-limiting effects. The sensitivity and selectivity of ICSS to detect abuse potential of many classes of abused drugs is similar to the sensitivity and selectivity of drug self-administration procedures. Moreover, similar to progressive-ratio drug self-administration procedures, ICSS data can be used to rank the relative abuse potential of different drugs. Strengths of ICSS in comparison with drug self-administration include 1) potential for simultaneous evaluation of both abuse-related and abuse-limiting effects, 2) flexibility for use with various routes of drug administration or drug vehicles, 3) utility for studies in drug-naive subjects as well as in subjects with controlled levels of prior drug exposure, and 4) utility for studies of drug time course. Taken together, these considerations suggest that ICSS can make significant contributions to the practice of abuse potential testing.

Animals with a schizophrenia-like phenotype are differentially sensitive to the motivational effects of cannabinoid agonists in conditioned place preference

Cannabis is the most consumed illicit drug worldwide, but among patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, this consumption is higher suggesting that they are differentially sensitive to cannabis. We chose to study this problematic using a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia: neonatal ventral hippocampus lesions (NVHL). In a first study, we compared the locomotor response to novelty, a mild stress and two doses of amphetamine (0.75 and 1.5 mg/kg) in sham and NVHL rats at post-natal day 35 (PD35) or 56 (PD56). In a second study, we investigated the valence of the motivational effect of Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinnol (THC, 0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) and the cannabinoid receptor agonist, WIN55,212-2 (WIN, 1 mg/kg, i.p.), using the conditioned place preference paradigm; we used a biased procedure that comprised 12 days of testing with 3 paired-conditioning. The effects of this dose of WIN were also measured on locomotor activity. Results confirmed that the adult NVHL animals displayed a stronger locomotor response to the two doses of amphetamine, but not to novelty and a mild stress. In adult NVHL, but not sham animals, WIN stimulated locomotor activity and produced a conditioned place aversion. At the dose tested, THC tended to produce an aversion in adult sham but not NVHL animals. Taken together these findings show that adult animals with a schizophrenia-like phenotype are differentially sensitive to the motivational effect of cannabinoids.

Evaluation of WIN 55,212-2 self-administration in rats as a potential cannabinoid abuse liability model

Because Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) has been a false negative in rat intravenous self-administration procedures, the evaluation of the abuse potential of candidate cannabinoid medications has proved difficult. One lab group has successfully trained self-administration of the aminoalkylindole WIN55,212-2 in rats; however, their results have not been independently replicated. The purpose of this study was to extend their model by using a within-subjects design, with the goal of establishing a robust method suitable for substitution testing of other cannabinoids. Male Long-Evans rats were trained to self-administer WIN55,212-2 (0.01 mg/kg/infusion) on a fixed ratio 3 schedule. Dose-effect curves for WIN55,212-2 were determined, followed by vehicle substitution and a dose-effect curve with THC. WIN55,212-2 self-administration was acquired; however, substitution with THC did not maintain responding above vehicle levels. Dose-dependent attenuation by rimonabant confirmed CB1 receptor mediation of WIN55,212-2's reinforcing effects. Vehicle substitution resulted in a session-dependent decrease in responding (i.e., extinction). While this study provides systematic replication of previous studies, lack of substitution with THC is problematic and suggests that WIN55,212-2 self-administration may be of limited usefulness as a screening tool for detection of the reinforcing effects of potential cannabinoid medications. Clarification of underlying factors responsible for failure of THC to maintain self-administration in cannabinoid-trained rats is needed.

Cannabinoid Regulation of Brain Reward Processing with an Emphasis on the Role of CB1 Receptors: A Step Back into the Future

Over the last decades, the endocannabinoid system has been implicated in a large variety of functions, including a crucial modulation of brain-reward circuits and the regulation of motivational processes. Importantly, behavioral studies have shown that cannabinoid compounds activate brain reward mechanisms and circuits in a similar manner to other drugs of abuse, such as nicotine, alcohol, cocaine, and heroin, although the conditions under which cannabinoids exert their rewarding effects may be more limited. Furthermore, there is evidence on the involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the regulation of cue- and drug-induced relapsing phenomena in animal models. The aim of this review is to briefly present the available data obtained using diverse behavioral experimental approaches in experimental animals, namely, the intracranial self-stimulation paradigm, the self-administration procedure, the conditioned place preference procedure, and the reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior procedure, to provide a comprehensive picture of the current status of what is known about the endocannabinoid system mechanisms that underlie modification of brain-reward processes. Emphasis is placed on the effects of cannabinoid 1 (CB1) receptor agonists, antagonists, and endocannabinoid modulators. Further, the role of CB1 receptors in reward processes is investigated through presentation of respective genetic ablation studies in mice. The vast majority of studies in the existing literature suggest that the endocannabinoid system plays a major role in modulating motivation and reward processes. However, much remains to be done before we fully understand these interactions. Further research in the future will shed more light on these processes and, thus, could lead to the development of potential pharmacotherapies designed to treat reward-dysfunction-related disorders.

Biphasic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol on brain stimulation reward and motor activity

Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC), the main psychoactive ingredient of marijuana, has led to equivocal results when tested with the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) procedure or the open-field test for motor activity, two behavioural models for evaluating the reward-facilitating and locomotor stimulating effects of drugs of abuse, respectively. Therefore, in the present study, the effects of high and low doses of Δ(9)-THC were compared in the ICSS procedure and the open-field test. Moreover, the involvement of CB(1) receptors in tentative Δ(9)-THC-induced effects was investigated by pre-treating the animals with the CB(1) receptor antagonist SR141716A (rimonabant). The results obtained show that low doses of Δ(9)-THC induce opposite effects from high doses of Δ(9)-THC. Specifically, 0.1 mg/kg Δ(9)-THC decreased ICSS thresholds and produced hyperactivity, whereas 1 mg/kg increased ICSS thresholds and produced hypoactivity. Both effects were reversed by pre-treatment with SR141716A, indicating the involvement of CB(1) receptors on these actions. Altogether, our results indicate that Δ(9)-THC can produce acute activating effects in locomotion that coincide with its reward-facilitating effects in the ICSS paradigm. The present findings provide further support that Δ(9)-THC induces behaviours typical of abuse and substantiate the notion that marijuana resembles other drugs of abuse.

Inhibition of FAAH and activation of PPAR: new approaches to the treatment of cognitive dysfunction and drug addiction

Enhancing the effects of endogenously-released cannabinoid ligands in the brain might provide therapeutic effects more safely and effectively than administering drugs that act directly at the cannabinoid receptor. Inhibitors of fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) prevent the breakdown of endogenous ligands for cannabinoid receptors and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR), prolonging and enhancing the effects of these ligands when they are naturally released. This review considers recent research on the effects of FAAH inhibitors and PPAR activators in animal models of addiction and cognition (specifically learning and memory). These studies show that FAAH inhibitors can produce potentially therapeutic effects, some through cannabinoid receptors and some through PPAR. These effects include enhancing certain forms of learning, counteracting the rewarding effects of nicotine and alcohol, relieving symptoms of withdrawal from cannabis and other drugs, and protecting against relapse-like reinstatement of drug self-administration. Since FAAH inhibition might have a wide range of therapeutic actions but might also share some of the adverse effects of cannabis, it is noteworthy that at least one FAAH-inhibiting drug (URB597) has been found to have potentially beneficial effects but no indication of liability for abuse or dependence. Although these areas of research are new, the preliminary evidence indicates that they might lead to improved therapeutic interventions and a better understanding of the brain mechanisms underlying addiction and memory.

Dissociable effects of the cannabinoid receptor agonists Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and CP55940 on pain-stimulated versus pain-depressed behavior in rats

Cannabinoid receptor agonists produce reliable antinociception in most preclinical pain assays but have inconsistent analgesic efficacy in humans. This disparity suggests that conventional preclinical assays of nociception are not sufficient for the prediction of cannabinoid effects related to clinical analgesia. To extend the range of preclinical cannabinoid assessment, this study compared the effects of the marijuana constituent and low-efficacy cannabinoid agonist Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and the high-efficacy synthetic cannabinoid agonist 3-(2-hydroxy-4-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)phenyl)-4-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexanol (CP55940) in assays of pain-stimulated and pain-depressed behavior. Intraperitoneal injection of dilute lactic acid (1.8% in 1 ml/kg) stimulated a stretching response or depressed intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) in separate groups of male Sprague-Dawley rats. THC (0.1-10 mg/kg) and CP55940 (0.0032-0.32 mg/kg) dose-dependently blocked acid- stimulated stretching but only exacerbated acid-induced depression of ICSS at doses that also decreased control ICSS in the absence of a noxious stimulus. Repeated THC produced tolerance to sedative rate-decreasing effects of THC on control ICSS in the absence of the noxious stimulus but failed to unmask antinociception in the presence of the noxious stimulus. THC and CP55940 also failed to block pain-related depression of feeding in rats, although THC did attenuate satiation-related depression of feeding. In contrast to the effects of the cannabinoid agonists, the clinically effective analgesic and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug ketoprofen (1 mg/kg) blocked acid-stimulated stretching and acid-induced depression of both ICSS and feeding. The poor efficacy of THC and CP55940 to block acute pain-related depression of behavior in rats agrees with the poor efficacy of cannabinoids to treat acute pain in humans.

The endocannabinoid system and the brain

The psychoactive constituent in cannabis, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), was isolated in the mid-1960s, but the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, and the major endogenous cannabinoids (anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol) were identified only 20 to 25 years later. The cannabinoid system affects both central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral processes. In this review, we have tried to summarize research--with an emphasis on recent publications--on the actions of the endocannabinoid system on anxiety, depression, neurogenesis, reward, cognition, learning, and memory. The effects are at times biphasic--lower doses causing effects opposite to those seen at high doses. Recently, numerous endocannabinoid-like compounds have been identified in the brain. Only a few have been investigated for their CNS activity, and future investigations on their action may throw light on a wide spectrum of brain functions.

Functional interaction between morphine and central amygdala cannabinoid CB1 receptors in the acquisition and expression of conditioned place preference

The present study was done to determine whether cannabinoid CB1 receptors of the central amygdala (CeA) are implicated in morphine-induced place preference. Using a 3-day schedule of conditioning, it was found that subcutaneous (s.c.) administration of morphine (2, 4 and 6 mg/kg) caused a significant dose-dependent conditioned place preference (CPP) in male Wistar rats. Intra-CeA microinjection of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor agonist arachidonylcyclopropylamide (ACPA; 0.5, 2.5 and 5 ng/rat) dose-dependently potentiated the morphine (2mg/kg)-induced CPP. Furthermore, the administration of ACPA (5 ng/rat, intra-CeA) alone induced a significant CPP. It should be considered that the higher dose of ACPA (5 ng/rat, intra-CeA) in combination with morphine decreased locomotor activity on the testing phase. On the other hand, intra-CeA microinjection of the cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist AM251 (120 ng/rat) alone induced a significant conditioned place aversion (CPA). Moreover, intra-CeA microinjection of AM251 (90 and 120 ng/rat) inhibited the morphine-induced place preference with a significant interaction. Intra-CeA microinjection of AM251 reversed the effect of ACPA on morphine response. Interestingly, microinjection of ACPA (2.5 and 5 ng/rat) or AM251 (60-120 ng/rat) into the CeA increased or decreased the expression of morphine (6 mg/kg)-induced place preference respectively. These observations provide evidence that cannabinoid CB1 receptors of the CeA are involved in mediating reward and these receptors are also implicated in the acquisition and expression of morphine-induced CPP.

Effects of delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol on reward and anxiety in rats exposed to chronic unpredictable stress

Although cannabis derivatives produce clear subjective motivational responses in humans leading to drug-seeking behaviour, the reinforcing attributes of these subjective effects are difficult to define in experimental animals. The aim of this study was to examine how exposure to chronic unpredictable stress (CUS) will affect reward function and anxiety after acute administration of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (Delta(9)-THC) in rats. Male rats were exposed to either 10 days of CUS or no stressor. Alterations in brain reward function were assessed with the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) paradigm, and anxiety responses were measured with the elevated plus maze. CUS did not affect baseline brain stimulation reward thresholds. Delta(9)-THC did not exhibit reinforcing actions in the ICSS paradigm neither in nonstressed nor in stressed animals. More importantly, in nonstressed animals, both the low and the high dose of Delta(9)-THC exerted anxiolytic-like effects. In stressed animals, however, only the high dose of THC induced an anxiolytic-like response, whereas the low dose induced anxiogenic effects. The present results provide clear evidence for an anxiolytic effect of Delta(9)-THC both in stressed and in nonstressed animals, and indicate that environmental conditions, such as stressful experiences, do not alter the behavioural effects of Delta( 9)-THC in the ICSS paradigm.

Cannabinoid conditioned reward and aversion: behavioral and neural processes

The discovery that delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ(9)-THC) is the primary psychoactive ingredient in marijuana prompted research that helped elucidate the endogenous cannabinoid system of the brain. Δ(9)-THC and other cannabinoid ligands with agonist action (CP 55,940, HU210, and WIN 55,212-2) increase firing of dopamine neurons and increase synaptic dopamine in brain regions associated with reward and drug addiction. Such changes in cellular processes have prompted investigators to examine the conditioned rewarding effects of the cannabinoid ligands using the place conditioning task with rats and mice. As reviewed here, these cannabinoid ligands can condition place preferences (evidence for rewarding effects) and place aversions (evidence for aversive qualities). Notably, the procedural details used in these place conditioning studies have varied across laboratories. Such variation includes differences in apparatus type, existence of procedural biases, dose, number of conditioning trials, injection-to-placement intervals, and pre-training drug exposure. Some differences in outcome across studies can be explained by these procedural variables. For example, low doses of Δ(9)-THC appear to have conditioned rewarding effects, whereas higher doses have aversive effects that either mask these rewarding effects or condition a place aversion. Throughout this review we highlight key areas that need further research.

Chronic WIN55,212-2 elicits sustained and conditioned increases in intracranial self-stimulation thresholds in the rat

The present study sought to examine whether repeated administration of the CB(1) receptor agonist WIN55,212-2 affected intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) behavior and induced phenomena of tolerance or sensitization, similar to typical addictive drugs. Rats received intraperitoneal injections of vehicle for 5 days, vehicle or WIN55,212-2 (0.1, 0.3 or 1mg/kg) for 20 subsequent days, and vehicle for 5 additional days. Thresholds for ICSS were measured before and after each injection. The initial five injections of vehicle did not affect ICSS thresholds. WIN55,212-2 (1mg/kg) significantly increased ICSS thresholds from the first day of administration, an effect that remained stable across the subsequent days of administration. During the 5 additional days, where WIN55,212-2 was substituted with vehicle, rats demonstrated a conditioned increase in postinjection thresholds that was significant the first 3 days of this period. These findings indicate that repeated WIN55,212-2 administration elicited a sustained increase in ICSS, i.e., phenomena of tolerance or sensitization were not observed. The present data demonstrate cannabinoid-predictive stimuli that may gain affective salience and play an important role in maintaining cannabinoid administration.

Cannabinoid-induced conditioned place preference in the spontaneously hypertensive rat-an animal model of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

RATIONALE

Cannabis preparations are the most widely consumed illicit drugs, and their use typically begins in adolescence. The prevalence of cannabis abuse is higher in patients with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) than in the general population, yet, knowledge about the motivational properties of cannabinoids in animal models of ADHD are lacking.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the motivational effects of the synthetic cannabinoid agonist WIN55,212-2 (WIN) in adolescent and adult spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), a validated animal model of ADHD, and Wistar rats, representing a "normal" genetically heterogeneous population. We also asked whether the effects of WIN depended (1) on the activation of the cerebral subtype of cannabinoid receptors, namely, the CB(1) cannabinoid receptor and (2) on putative changes by WIN in blood pressure.

METHODS

WIN was tested under an unbiased conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. Blood pressure after WIN administration was also monitored in additional groups of rats.

RESULTS

In the Wistar rats, WIN produced place aversion only in the adult but not adolescent rats. In contrast, WIN produced CPP in both adolescent and adult SHR rats. The behavioral effects of WIN were CB(1)-mediated and not related to blood pressure.

CONCLUSION

The contrasting effects of WIN in Wistar and SHR, and the higher resistance of adolescent rats to the aversive and rewarding effects of WIN in these two strains suggests that both adolescence and the ADHD-like profile exhibited by the SHR strain constitute factors that influence the motivational properties of cannabinoids.