High Job Demands, Job Strain, and Iso-Strain are Risk Factors for Sick Leave due to Mental Disorders: A Prospective Swedish Twin Study With a 5-Year Follow-Up

The role of familial factors and neuroticism in the association between exposure to offensive behaviors at work and long-term sickness absence due to common mental disorders - a prospective twin study

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate associations between exposure to work-related violence/threats and harassment, and future sickness absence (SA) due to common mental disorders (CMDs), taking familial factors (shared genetics and early-life environment) and neuroticism into account.

METHODS

The study sample included 8795 twin individuals from the Swedish Twin Project of Disability Pension and Sickness Absence (STODS), including survey data from the Study of Twin Adults: Genes and Environment (STAGE). Self-reported work-related violence and/or threats as well as work-related harassment (including bullying) and national register data on SA due to CMDs were analyzed using standard logistic regression, and conditional logistic regression among complete twin pairs discordant on exposures. Individuals were followed for a maximum of 13 years. Interactions between neuroticism and exposures were assessed using both multiplicative and additive interaction analyses.

RESULTS

Exposure to work-related violence/threats was associated with higher odds of SA due to CMDs when adjusting for age, sex, marital status, children, education, type of living area, work characteristics, and symptoms of depression and burnout (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.52-2.95). Higher odds of SA due to CMDs were also found for exposure to harassment (OR 1.52, 95% CI 1.10-2.11) and a combined indicator of exposure to violence/threats and/or harassment (OR 1.98, 95% CI 1.52-2.59), compared with the unexposed. Analyses of twins discordant on exposure, using the unexposed co-twin as reference, showed reduced ORs. These ORs were still elevated but no longer statistically significant, potentially due to a lack of statistical power. No multiplicative interaction was found between neuroticism and exposure to work-related violence/threats, or harassment. However, a statistically significant additive interaction was found between neuroticism and exposure to violence/threats, indicating higher odds of SA due to CMDs in the group scoring lower on neuroticism.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to work-related offensive behaviors was associated with SA due to CMDs. However, the results indicated that these associations may be partly confounded by familial factors. In addition, an interaction between exposure and neuroticism was suggested. Thus, when possible, future studies investigating associations and causality between offensive behaviors at work and mental health-related outcomes, should consider familial factors and neuroticism.

Genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in sustainable working life-A Swedish twin cohort study

Although genetics is known to have a role in sickness absences (SA), disability pensions (DP) and in their mutual associations, the empirical knowledge is scarce on not having these interruptions, i.e., sustainable working life. Hence, we aimed to investigate how genetic and environmental factors affect individual variation in sustainable working life in short-term (two consecutive years) and in long-term (22 years of follow-up) using the classical twin modeling based on different genetic relatedness of mono- and dizygotic twins. The final sample (n = 51 071) included Swedish same-sex twins with known zygosity born between 1930 and 1990 (53% women) with complete national register data of employment, SA, DP, unemployment, old-age pension, emigration, and death. For the short-term sustainable working life, genetic factors explained 36% (95% confidence intervals (CI) 31-41%), environmental factors shared by co-twins such as family background 8% (95% CI 5-14%) and environmental factors unique to each twin individual 56% (95% CI 56-56%) on the individual differences. For the long-term sustainable working life, the largest proportions on individual differences were explained by environmental factors shared by co-twins (46%, 95% CI 44-48%) and unique to each twin individual (37% 95% CI 36-38%) whereas a small proportion was explained by genetic factors (18%, 95%CI 14-22%). To conclude, short-term sustainable working life was explained to a large extent by unique environment and to lesser extent by genetic factors whereas long-term (22 years) sustainable working life had both moderate unique and common environmental effect, and to lower extent genetic effects contributing to individual differences. These findings suggest that sustainable working life have different short- and long-term predictors.

Primary Care Consultations Among UK Police Officers and Staff: Links With Adverse Mental Health and Job Strain

OBJECTIVE

The current study examined links between adverse mental health, job strain, and likelihood and frequency of primary care consultations among police employees.

METHODS

We conducted secondary data analysis on the Airwave Health Monitoring Study data ( n = 33,730). Measures included self-report data on mental health, job strain, job support, and primary care consultations in the past 12 months. Data were analyzed using a zero-inflated Poisson regression framework.

RESULTS

Findings showed that overall, help seeking was low based on mental health status and job strain. Adverse mental health was associated with more primary care consultations. Police employees with high, active, or passive job strain reported more primary care consultation compared with police employees with low strain.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings suggest that more work to reduce stigma of taking the initial step of help seeking would be beneficial.

Psychosocial work conditions and prediabetes risks: a cross-sectional study in middle-aged men and women

Prediabetes is a condition between diabetes and normoglycemia, and is a state of major health concern, as a large proportion of people with prediabetes are likely to develop diabetes which is associated with high mortality and morbidity. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether adverse psychosocial work conditions, based on the Job Demand-Control-social support model, increases risk for early dysregulated glucose metabolism in 50-64-year-old men and women. Job conditions were measured with the Swedish Demand-Control-Support questionnaire. Impaired glucose metabolism was assessed by an oral glucose tolerance test. Differences between groups were analyzed with Chi-square test and one-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc test. Odds ratios (OR) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) between Job Demand-control-support and prediabetes outcome were calculated with multiple logistic regression. Results from an adjusted logistic regression model showed that in men and woman separately, an active work situation (high demands-high control) was associated with significantly lower prediabetes risk (OR 0.657, 95% CI 0.513-0.842). This finding is consistent through all logistic regression models with different levels of adjustments. Further, the current study does not lend support for the hypothesis that work conditions characterized by high demands-low control were associated with dysregulated glucose metabolism in men nor women despite accumulation of many life-style related risk factors in the high strain group. In conclusion, we could show that men and women assessing their work conditions as active, had lower risk for prediabetes.

What works? A qualitative study of participants experiences of a traditional lifestyle intervention with a work focus

Purpose

Obesity is related to lower labour force participation, increased sickness absence and reduced productivity. The rehabilitation services in Norway have not had much experience introducing a work dimension into lifestyle interventions for persons with obesity. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate one such type of intervention.

Methods

This is a qualitative study seeking to gather data on the participants’ experiences. Twenty participants were recruited from two lifestyle interventions. Intervention A, with work focus, included lectures and individual guidance from a work consultant in addition to the lifestyle intervention. Intervention B was a traditional lifestyle intervention. Data were collected by semi-structured interviews held at each stay.

Results

Seven main themes emerged and one of them pointed towards a confusion of the aim of the intervention, which was viewed as focusing on lifestyle rather than a process focused on work. Otherwise, the results showed that persons with obesity struggle with many of the same inhibiting factors as other groups with reduced work ability.

Conclusions

The application process might explain the focus on lifestyle change. Communication, guidance and support reduce barriers for lifestyle change, but work is important for general health and social well-being and a work focus may therefore be beneficial in all lifestyle interventions.

A latent class analysis of health risk behaviours in the UK Police Service and their associations with mental health and job strain

BACKGROUND

Health risk behaviours (e.g., harmful drinking and smoking) often cluster together and can be associated with poor mental health and stress. This study examined how health risk behaviours cluster together in individuals in a high stress occupation (UK Police Service), and the associations with mental health and job strain.

METHODS

Data was obtained from the Airwave Health Monitoring Study (25,234 male and 14,989 female police employees), which included measures of health risk behaviours (alcohol use, diet, smoking status, physical activity), poor mental health (depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD]), and job strain (low, high, active, passive). Classes of health risk behaviours were identified using Latent Class Analysis (LCA) and the associations with mental health and job strain were analysed through multinomial logistic regressions.

RESULTS

For men and women, a 5-class solution was the best fit. Men and women with depression, anxiety, and/or PTSD (analysed as separate variables) had at least double the odds of being assigned to the "high health risk behaviours" class, compared to those with no mental health problem. Compared to those reporting low strain, men and women reporting high strain had increased odds of being assigned to the "low risk drinkers with other health risk behaviours" classes.

CONCLUSIONS

These finding highlight the importance of holistic interventions which target co-occurring health risk behaviours, to prevent more adverse physical health consequences. Police employees with poor mental health are more likely to engage in multiple health risk behaviours, which suggests they may need additional support. However, as the data was cross-sectional, the temporal associations between the classes and mental health or job strain could not be determined.

Job demands, job resources, and health outcomes among nursing professionals in private and public healthcare sectors in Sweden - a prospective study

BACKGROUND

Nursing professionals exhibit high prevalence of stress-related health problems. Job demands and job resources are parallel drivers of health and well-being among employees. Better job resources associate with better job satisfaction, job motivation and engagement even when job demands are high. To date, there is limited research which explores the association between job demands, job resources and health outcomes among nursing professionals in the Swedish context. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate Swedish nursing professionals' job demands and job resources in relation to health outcomes, with comparisons between the private and public healthcare sectors. The specific research questions were as follows: (1) Are there differences between private and public healthcare regarding job demands, job resources, and health outcomes? and (2) Are there prospective associations between job demands and job resources in relation to health outcomes?

METHODS

Data were drawn from the Swedish Longitudinal Occupational Survey of Health (SLOSH) 2016 and 2018, including 520 nurses and 544 assistant nurses working in the private and public healthcare sectors from 2016 (baseline). Data were analyzed using binary logistic regression.

RESULTS

Nursing professionals reported higher threats, lower bullying, lower control, lower social support, and lower cohesion in the public healthcare units compared to the private healthcare units. The prospective analyses showed that job resources in terms of social support and rewards were associated with higher self-rated health and lower burnout. Cohesion was associated with higher self-rated health. Job demands in terms of psychological demands and job efforts were associated with lower self-rated health, higher burnout, and higher sickness absence, while emotional demands were associated with higher burnout.

CONCLUSIONS

Nursing professionals' job resources are deficient in public healthcare units. Job resources are associated with positive health outcomes, whereas job demands are associated with negative health outcomes, among nursing professionals. Strengthening job resources among nursing professionals in the private and public healthcare sectors can promote and sustain their work-related health.

Psychosocial Working Conditions and Subsequent Sickness Absence-Effects of Pain and Common Mental Disorders in a Population-Based Swedish Twin Sample

OBJECTIVE

To investigate pain and/or common mental disorders (CMDs) in the associations between psychosocial working conditions and sickness absence (SA) while controlling familial confounding.

METHODS

Prospective Prospective twin cohort study included survey data for pain and CMD, register data for SA and psychosocial working conditions. The follow-up from 2005 to 2016 of 28,916 twin individuals for first incident SA spell measured as the main International Classification of Diseases version 10 (ICD-10) diagnosis groups (F00-F99, I00-I99, and M00-M99), or the duration. We used regression models to obtain odds ratio (OR), incidence rate ratio (IRR), or relative risk ratio (RRR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

The covariate adjusted models of 9156 SA spells indicated almost no statistically significant associations between psychosocial working conditions and SA.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychosocial working conditions were not associated with SA while familial confounding could not be ruled out.

Working Conditions and Long-Term Sickness Absence Due to Mental Disorders: A Prospective Record Linkage Cohort Study Among 19- to 39-Year-Old Female Municipal Employees

OBJECTIVE

We examined associations between working conditions and long-term sickness absence due to mental disorders (LTSA-MD) among younger female public sector employees from different employment sectors.

METHODS

Survey data collected in 2017 (n = 3048) among 19- to 39-year-old female employees of the City of Helsinki, Finland, were used to examine job demands, job control, physical workload, computer work, and covariates. Register data on LTSA-MD were used over 1-year follow-up. Negative binomial regression models were applied.

RESULTS

Adverse psychosocial and physical working conditions were associated with higher LTSA-MD during the follow-up. Health and social care workers had the highest number of days of LTSA-MD.

CONCLUSION

Working conditions are important factors when aiming to prevent LTSA-MD among younger employees, in the health and social care sector in particular.

Bandura's Self-Efficacy Model Used to Explore Participants' Experiences of Health, Lifestyle, and Work After Attending a Vocational Rehabilitation Program with Lifestyle Intervention - A Focus Group Study

Purpose

We aimed to use the self-efficacy model to examine the participants’ experience, attitudes, and viewpoints regarding the association between work, health and lifestyle factors that influence work participation after completing a new one-year multidisciplinary vocational rehabilitation (VR) programme with a lifestyle intervention for people on or at risk of sick leave due to obesity or obesity-related problems.

Materials and Methods

This case study was based on focus group (FG) interviews with 11 previous participants. The interviews were conducted 2 to 4 years after they completed the program, between August and September 2019. The analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s six-phase reflexive thematic analysis (RTA) approach.

Results

The main theme “Work participation enhances quality of life” was prominent and related to mastery experience. Four sub-themes directly and indirectly affect work participation. The first sub-theme is “My attitude to life”, influenced by mastery experiences. Next, “Body size matters”, related to physiological and affective states. “Good physical capacity profit in everyday life” is associated to physiological and affective states, and the last “Support from the surroundings” influenced by vicarious experience and Verbal Persuasion.

Conclusion

This study’s main finding highlights how participants value work participation as a meaningful activity that positively influences their work self-efficacy. Future VR programs should pay attention to interventions focusing on the workplace, cognitive approaches to develop skills for coping strategies, lifestyle change purposing BMI reduction, physical activity, and support from the surroundings.

Clinical Trials

Technical information about the study on Clinical Trials NCT03286374.

Effects of age on psychosocial working conditions and future labour market marginalisation: a cohort study of 56,867 Swedish twins

PURPOSE

Previous studies have reported an elevated risk of sickness absence (SA) and disability pension (DP) due to adverse psychosocial working conditions, yet the influence of age and familial factors on the associations have not been examined. We aimed to investigate associations between psychosocial working conditions and labour market marginalisation (LMM) in terms of unemployment, SA and DP adjusting for familial confounding and possible differences in these associations with different age groups and different unemployment and sick leave days.

METHODS

All twins living in Sweden in 2001, aged 16-64 years and not on old-age pension or DP were included (n = 56,867). The twins were followed from 2002 to 2016 regarding unemployment, SA and DP. Cox proportional hazards regression models were performed for the whole sample, and for discordant twin pairs, in five age groups.

RESULTS

Each one-unit increase in job demands and job control was associated with a lower risk of unemployment, SA and DP in all age groups. Moreover, each one-unit increase in social support was associated with an increased risk of 1-30 days unemployment in individuals older than 45 years and SA and DP. Social support decreased the risk of unemployment longer than 365 days in age groups 16-25 and 36-45 years. In the discordant twin pair analyses, the estimates attenuated towards statistical non-significance.

CONCLUSION

Even though familial factors seem to influence the associations between psychosocial working conditions and LMM, improving psychosocial working conditions by for example promoting high job control and social support at workplace may reduce the risk of future short- and long-term LMM in all age groups.

Does the Number of Reasons for Seeking Care and Self-Rated Health Predict Sick Leave during the Following 12 Months? A Prospective, Longitudinal Study in Swedish Primary Health Care

BACKGROUND

Sick leave has major social and economic consequences for both individuals and society. Primary Health Care (PHC) meets people who seek care before they risk going on sick leave. This study examined the impact of self-perceived health on sick leave within 12 months for workers seeking care in PHC.

METHODS

The study had a prospective longitudinal design with 271 employed, non-sick-listed patients aged 18-64 years seeking care for physical and/or mental symptoms at PHC. In a logistic regression, an estimation of the odds ratio (OR) for belonging to the group workers with >14 days of sick-leave (W-SL) was made.

RESULTS

A high number of reasons when seeking care, with an OR of 1.33 (confidence interval 1.14 to 1.56), and lower self-rated health, with an OR of 1.45 (confidence interval 1.10 to 1.91), were determinants for sick leave at 12 months after adjusting for covariates and confounders. Mental symptoms constituted the main reason for seeking care, followed by musculoskeletal pain, and significant differences in proportions regarding most symptoms were shown between the groups with and without sick-leave >14 days.

CONCLUSION

Health care professionals in PHC need to be aware of the risk of future sick leave at comorbidity and low self-perceived health. Preventive rehabilitation interventions should be offered to improve health and prevent sick leave for this group.

Role of social benefits for future long-term sickness absence, disability pension and unemployment among individuals on sickness absence due to mental diagnoses: a competing risk approach

Purpose

To investigate associations between social benefits and disability pension (DP), long-term sickness absence (LTSA, ≥ 90 days), or unemployment among Swedish twins with sickness absence (SA) due to mental diagnoses.

Methods

This population-based prospective twin study included register data on first incident SA spell (< 90 days) due to mental diagnoses (ICD 10 codes F00-F99) during the follow-up 2005–2016. SA < 90 days due to other diagnoses than mental diagnoses or any other social insurance benefit was identified for the preceding year of the first incident SA spell due to mental diagnoses (coded yes/no). Comparing those with any previous social benefits vs without, cumulative incidence curve to compare time to an event, and Cox proportional hazards models for cause-specific hazard ratios (HR, 95% confidence intervals, CI) treating first incident DP, LTSA and unemployment as competing risks were modeled.

Results

During follow-up, 21 DP, 1619 LTSA, and 808 unemployment events took place. Compared to those without, those with at least one benefit had a higher risk for DP (HR 5.03; 95%CI 1.80, 14.01), LTSA (1.67; 1.50, 1.84) and unemployment (1.24; 1.03, 1.50). The cumulative incidence for DP was very low, < 1%, for LTSA 80% with any previous social benefits vs. 60% without, and for unemployment ≤ 5%.

Conclusion

Social benefits received during the preceding year of SA due to mental diagnoses (< 90 days) predict DP, LTSA, and unemployment. Hence, previous social benefits may provide means for early identification of persons at risk for exit from labor market.

Psychological distress and its associations with psychosocial work environment factors in four professional groups: A cross-sectional study

This study aimed to explore associations between psychosocial work environment factors and psychological distress in four groups of professionals in Norway. Eight hundred fifty-six professionals participated in this cross-sectional study 6 years after graduation. Data were analyzed with linear and logistic regression analyses. For the sample as a whole, higher psychological distress was associated with higher demands, lower support, lower job satisfaction, more work-home interaction problems, and lower coping in the job. Work-home interaction problems increased the likelihood of having case-level psychological distress. The strength of associations between psychological distress and other factors, such as demands, support, and coping in the job, varied by professional group. In conclusion, problems concerned with work-home interaction were generally associated with higher psychological distress. Between professional groups, other independent variables were differently associated with psychological distress. Work environment factors should receive continued attention in efforts to promote mental health.

Expected Labor Market Affiliation: A New Method Illustrated by Estimating the Impact of Perceived Stress on Time in Work, Sickness Absence and Unemployment of 37,605 Danish Employees

As detailed data on labor market affiliation become more accessible, new approaches are needed to address the complex patterns of labor market affiliation. We introduce the expected labor market affiliation (ELMA) method by estimating the time-restricted impact of perceived stress on labor market affiliation in a large sample of Danish employees. Data from two national surveys were linked with a national register. A multi-state proportional hazards model was used to calculate ELMA estimates, i.e., the number of days in work, sickness absence, and unemployment during a 4-year follow-up period, stratified by gender and age. Among employees reporting frequent work-related stress, the expected number of working days decreased with age, ranging from 103 days lost among older women to 37 days lost among younger and middle-aged men. Young and middle-aged women reporting frequent work- and personal life-related stress lost 62 and 81 working days, respectively, and had more days of sickness absence (34 days and 42 days). In conclusion, we showed that perceived stress affects the labor market affiliation. The ELMA estimates provide a detailed understanding of the impact of perceived stress on labor market affiliation over time, and may inform policy and practice towards a more healthy and sustainable working life.

Self-reported sick leave following a brief preventive intervention on work-related stress: a randomised controlled trial in primary health care

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the effectiveness of a brief intervention about early identification of work-related stress combined with feedback at consultation with a general practitioner (GP) on the number of self-reported sick leave days.

DESIGN

Randomised controlled trial. Prospective analyses of self-reported sick leave data collected between November 2015 and January 2017.

SETTING

Seven primary healthcare centres in western Sweden.

PARTICIPANTS

The study included 271 employed, non-sick-listed patients aged 18-64 years seeking care for mental and/or physical health complaints. Of these, 132 patients were allocated to intervention and 139 patients to control.

INTERVENTIONS

The intervention group received a brief intervention about work-related stress, including training for GPs, screening of patients' work-related stress, feedback to patients on screening results and discussion of measures at GP consultation. The control group received treatment as usual.

OUTCOME MEASURES

The number of self-reported gross sick leave days and the number of self-reported net sick leave days, thereby also considering part-time sick leave.

RESULTS

At 6 months' follow-up, 220/271 (81%) participants were assessed, while at 12 months' follow-up, 241/271 (89%) participants were assessed. At 6-month follow-up, 59/105 (56%) in the intervention group and 61/115 (53%) in the control group reported no sick leave. At 12-month follow-up, the corresponding numbers were 61/119 (51%) and 57/122 (47%), respectively. There were no statistically significant differences between the intervention group and the control group in the median number of self-reported gross sick leave days and the median number of self-reported net sick leave days.

CONCLUSIONS

The brief intervention showed no effect on the numbers of self-reported sick leave days for patients seeking care at the primary healthcare centres. Other actions and new types of interventions need to be explored to address patients' perceiving of ill health due to work-related stress.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02480855.

Andropause symptoms and sickness absence in Japanese male workers: a prospective study

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of the study was to investigate the association between andropause symptoms and sickness absence in Japanese male workers over 2 years.

METHODS

A baseline survey asking about andropause symptoms, along with blood sampling for testosterone level, was conducted in June 2009. A total of 418 men (mean age = 52.4 years, SD = 8.6) participated and were followed through 2011. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for sickness absence were calculated using Cox proportional hazard models.

RESULTS

During the follow-up period, 31 of 35 participants who took sickness absences had physical illnesses. A higher andropause symptom score was associated with an increased risk of sickness absence. Testosterone deficiency (<350 ng/dL) was not associated with sickness absence. Among the subscales of andropause symptoms, the somatic symptom score was positively associated with sickness absence, whereas testosterone deficiency combined with high sexual symptoms was not associated with sickness absence. Results were similar when limited to sickness absence because of physical illness. No significant interaction between andropause symptoms and testosterone deficiency was found.

CONCLUSIONS

Non-specific andropause symptoms unrelated to testosterone deficiency were positively associated with sickness absence.

Job stress factors measured by Brief Job Stress Questionnaire and sickness absence among Japanese workers: A longitudinal study

This study aimed to investigate associations between Brief Job Stress Questionnaire (BJSQ)-measured job stress factors and sickness absence in Japanese workers. Among 551 healthy, employed Japanese men and women (age range: 21-73 years) who underwent mental health examinations at the Osaka Medical Center for Health Science and Promotion between 2006 and 2009, 197 (67 men, 130 women) consented to participate in this study. Their sickness absences until the end of March 2010 were then followed-up via postal mail survey, with 112 participants effectively responding to the question on sickness absence (56.9%). The hazard ratio (HR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) were calculated using the Cox proportional hazards model, adjusting for age, sex, and lifestyle factors. Among the 112 respondents, 12 took sickness absence after their study entry, as found during the mean 2.3 years of follow-up (258.8 person-years). Among all sickness absences, those of eight participants were because of mental illness. Physical demands were positively associated with increased risks of all sickness absence (adjusted HR: 2.78, 95% CI: 1.01-7.64). Physical demands were predictive for all sickness absence, and should be alleviated at workplaces to prevent such absence.

Psychosocial Stressors at Work and the Risk of Sickness Absence Due to a Diagnosed Mental Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

IMPORTANCE

Mental health problems are associated with considerable occupational, medical, social, and economic burdens. Psychosocial stressors at work have been associated with a higher risk of mental disorders, but the risk of sickness absence due to a diagnosed mental disorder, indicating a more severe condition, has never been investigated in a systematic review and meta-analysis.

OBJECTIVE

To synthesize the evidence of the association of psychosocial stressors at work with sickness absence due to a diagnosed mental disorder among adult workers.

DATA SOURCES

Seven electronic databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycInfo, Web of Science, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, and International Bibliography of the Social Sciences), 3 gray literature databases (Grey Literature Report, WHO-IRIS and Open Grey), and the reference lists of all eligible studies and reviews were searched in January 2017 and updated in February 2019.

STUDY SELECTION

Only original prospective studies evaluating the association of at least 1 psychosocial stressor at work from the 3 most recognized theoretical models were eligible: the job demand-control-support model, including exposure to job strain (high psychological demands with low job control); effort-reward imbalance model; and organizational justice model. Study selection was performed in duplicate by blinded independent reviewers. Among the 28 467 citations screened, 23 studies were eligible for systematic review.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

This meta-analysis followed the PRISMA and MOOSE guidelines. Data extraction and risk of bias evaluation, using the Risk of Bias in Nonrandomized Studies-Interventions tool, were performed in duplicate by blinded independent reviewers. Data were pooled using random-effect models.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Sickness absence due to a mental disorder with a diagnosis obtained objectively.

RESULTS

A total of 13 studies representing 130 056 participants were included in the 6 meta-analyses. Workers exposed to low reward were associated with a higher risk of sickness absence due to a diagnosed mental disorder compared with nonexposed workers (pooled risk ratio [RR], 1.76 [95% CI, 1.49-2.08]), as were those exposed to effort-reward imbalance (pooled RR, 1.66 [95% CI, 1.37-2.00]), job strain (pooled RR, 1.47 [95% CI, 1.24-1.74]), low job control (pooled RR, 1.25 [95% CI, 1.02-1.53]), and high psychological demands (pooled RR, 1.23 [95% CI, 1.04-1.45]).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

This meta-analysis found that workers exposed to psychosocial stressors at work were associated with a higher risk of sickness absence due to a mental disorder. A better understanding of the importance of these stressors could help physicians when evaluating their patients' mental health and work capacity.

Effects of a work stress intervention on healthcare use and treatment compared to treatment as usual: a randomised controlled trial in Swedish primary healthcare

BACKGROUND

Work stress is an increasing burden in society. Identifying early symptoms of work stress in primary healthcare (PHC) could result in earlier and better-targeted care. The Work Stress Questionnaire (WSQ) was developed in PHC for this task. We aimed to evaluate whether the use of the WSQ, in combination with physicians' feedback, resulted in differences in healthcare visits and treatment compared to treatment as usual (TAU) in patients reporting high stress. Our hypothesis was that patients receiving the intervention would generate more visits to rehabilitation providers during follow-up compared to TAU.

METHODS

A two-armed randomised controlled trial was conducted at seven primary healthcare centres (PHCCs) in Region Västra Götaland, Sweden. One group received the WSQ intervention, and the controls received TAU. Employed, not sick-listed persons aged 18-64 years who sought care for mental or physical health complaints at the PHCCs participated. Register data on healthcare visits and treatments 12 months prior to inclusion and 12 months after were obtained and analysed with Fisher's exact test together with questionnaire data (WSQ and background features).

RESULTS

A total of 271 participants were included in the study, 132 intervention and 139 controls. Visits to psychologists/psychotherapists were higher among intervention participants with high stress (20%, n = 87) during follow-up compared to corresponding controls (7%, n = 97) (p < 0.05). Collaborative care measures were more common among the stressed intervention participants (23%) post-inclusion compared to the stressed controls (11%) (p < 0.05). The amount of received cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) was higher among the stressed intervention group (16%) than among controls (10%) during follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The intervention group that used the WSQ with physicians' feedback had an increased number of rehabilitative measures and treatment more in line with established guidelines compared to treatment as usual. Findings of the study indicate that the WSQ can assist in identifying work stress in primary healthcare and contribute to physicians' recommendations of suitable rehabilitative measures at an earlier stage compared to treatment as usual.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier: NCT02480855 . Registered 20 May 2015.

Descriptive study of workplace demand, control and bullying among migrant and Australian-born workers by gender: does workplace support make a difference?

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study is to examine the relationship between bullying in migrants and Australians and types of workplace Iso-strain, by gender.

DESIGN AND SETTING

Two descriptive cross-sectional surveys of the Australian working population.

PARTICIPANTS

Australian-born workers of Caucasian ancestry (n=1051, participant response rate=87.3%) and workers born in New Zealand (n=566), India (n=633) and the Philippines (n=431) (participant response rate=79.5%).

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOMES MEASURES

Using logistic regression, we examined whether self-reported assessment of various forms of bullying in the workplace was associated with Iso-strain (job with high demands and low control and without social support), gender and migrant status.

RESULTS

The prevalence of workplace bullying within the previous year was 14.5%. Sexual harassment, though rare (n=47, 1.8%), was reported by more women than men (83% vs 17%, χ²=19.3, p<0.0001) and more Australia or New Zealand born workers compared to India or the Philippines workers (75.5% vs 25.5%, χ²=4.6, p=0.032). Indian-born women had lower adjusted OR for being bullied and for being intimidated compared to other women. Independent of migrant status, Iso-strain (1), (low support from boss) and Iso-strain (2), (low support from colleagues) predicted being bullied. Women were more likely to be in an Iso-strain (1) job than men (18.7% vs 13.6%, p=0.013) and had twice the risk of being both verbally abused and intimidated compared to men (OR 9 vs OR 5.5, p<0.0001).

CONCLUSION

Workplace bullying was more likely for women than men. There were few differences between workers from different migrant groups. Iso-strain was the strongest predictor of workplace bullying. Workplaces should encourage supportive and collegiate work environments.

Differences between women and men in the relationship between psychosocial stressors at work and work absence due to mental health problem

OBJECTIVES

Women have a higher incidence of mental health problems compared with men. Psychosocial stressors at work are associated with mental health problems. However, few prospective studies have examined the association between these stressors and objectively measured outcomes of mental health. Moreover, evidence regarding potential differences between women and men in this association is scarce and inconsistent. This study investigates whether psychosocial stressors at work are associated with the 7.5-year incidence of medically certified work absence due to a mental health problem, separately for women and men.

METHODS

Data from a prospective cohort of white-collar workers in Canada (n=7138; 47.3% women) were used. We performed Cox regression models to examine the prospective association between self-reported psychosocial stressors at work (job strain model) at baseline and the 7.5-year HR of medically certified work absence of ≥5 days due to a mental health problem.

RESULTS

During follow-up, 11.9% of participants had a certified work absence, with a twofold higher incidence among women. Women (HR 1.40, 95% CI 1.01 to 1.93) and men (HR 1.41, 95% CI 0.97 to 2.05) exposed to high strain (high demands and low control) had a higher incidence of work absence compared with those unexposed. Among women only, those exposed to an active job situation (high demands and high control) also had a higher risk (HR 1.82, 95% CI 1.29 to 2.56).

CONCLUSIONS

Prevention efforts aimed at reducing psychosocial stressors at work could help lower the risk of work absence for both women and men. However, important differences between women and men need to be further studied in order to orient these efforts.

Cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress associated with sickness absence among Japanese men and women: A prospective study

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to investigate associations between cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress and sickness absence among Japanese male and female workers, in a prospective study.

METHODS

Among healthy employed Japanese workers who underwent mental health checks between 2006 and 2009, data of 111 participants were analyzed. Changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, peripheral blood flow (PBF), and heart rate variability (HRV) (high frequency [HF] and low frequency [LF]) were calculated using differences between the two tasks, mirror drawing stress [MDS] and a maze task, and the postperiod value. Sickness absence through March 2010 was followed up by mail survey (average follow-up 2.3 years). Logistic regression analysis was used, adjusting for lifestyle factors.

RESULTS

Among 12 participants who took sickness absences, eight were owing to mental problems. Changes in the LF during the MDS and maze tasks and LF-to-HF ratio during the MDS task were positively associated with all sickness absences (odds ratio [OR], 95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.09, 1.03-4.22; 2.04, 1.09-3.82; and 3.10, 1.46-6.58, respectively). Changes in PBF during the MDS task were also associated with increased risk of sickness absence (OR, 95% CI: 2.53, 1.10-5.81).

CONCLUSION

Cardiovascular reactivity to acute stress should be considered at workers' health checks.

Suicide attempt following sickness absence and disability pension due to common mental disorders: a prospective Swedish twin study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate if sickness absence and disability pension (SA/DP) in general and due to specific common mental disorders (CMDs) are associated with subsequent suicide attempt among women and men by taking familial factors (genetics and shared environment) into consideration.

METHODS

This register-based cohort study includes 4871 twin pairs 18-65 years of age discordant for SA/DP due to CMDs 2005-2010. Twins were followed up for suicide attempt from inpatient and specialised outpatient care until December 2012. Conditional Cox proportional hazards regression models, adjusting for familial factors, were used to calculate hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

RESULTS

SA/DP due to CMDs was associated with a higher risk of suicide attempt (HR 3.14, CI 2.51-3.93). The risk of suicide attempt was five times higher among men and three times higher among women, compared to the SA/DP unaffected co-twins. In the diagnosis-specific analysis, SA/DP due to anxiety disorders resulted in the highest HR (4.09, CI 2.37-7.06) for suicide attempt, followed by depressive disorders (HR 3.70, CI 2.66-5.14) and stress-related disorders (HR 1.96, CI 1.35-2.84). The stratified analysis on zygosity indicates that there seems to be a genetic influence on the associations between SA/DP due to CMDs and suicide attempt, particularly among women and among those with SA/DP due to depressive disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

SA/DP due to CMDs was a risk factor for suicide attempt among women and men. Genetic factors might explain part of the associations for women and for those with SA/DP due to depressive disorders.

Who reported having a high-strain job, low-strain job, active job and passive job? The WIRUS Screening study

Objective

The Job Demands and Control model classifies job types as active, passive, low-strain or high-strain, based on a combination of job demands and control. While studies have shown high-strain jobs to have adverse consequences for health and work participation, prognostic factors for the four job types have been less explored. The aim of this study was to assess the associations between sociodemographic factors and job descriptors and being in high-strain, low-strain, active and passive jobs.

Methods

The WIRUS Screening study targeted Norwegian employees in private and public enterprises. In this study, associations with job types among 4,487 employees were investigated with binary logistic regression analyses, adjusting for sociodemographic and job-related variables.

Results

In fully adjusted models, high-strain job was associated with female gender; lower education; shift work; and doing work outside the workplace. Low-strain job was associated with opposite scores on the same variables, and with lower job position. Active job was associated with lower age; female gender; higher levels of education; higher job position level; shift work; and not doing work outside the workplace. Passive job was associated with opposite scores on the same variables.

Conclusions

The study corroborates the role gender and education have for experiencing the job, and expands on existing knowledge on the role of job position and irregular working hours and spaces. By identifying factors associated with job types, the prevention of health problems and work disability may become be more targeted.

Health, work and demographic factors associated with a lower risk of work disability and unemployment in employees with lower back, neck and shoulder pain

Background

Chronic musculoskeletal pain affects over 20% of the adult population and is one of the most common reasons for sick leave in Sweden. The aim of this study was to investigate which demographic, health and psychosocial work environment factors are of importance for a lower risk of future work disability and unemployment among workers with low back pain (LBP) and/or neck shoulder pain (NSP), and if familial factors influence these associations.

Methods

All 5556 persons that reported having LBP and/or NSP in a web-based questionnaire study in 2004–2006 were included. They were followed up for work disability (sick leave > 90 days or disability pension), and unemployment (> 180 days in a year) until 31 December 2013. Hazard ratios (HR) with 95% confidence intervals were calculated using cox proportional hazard models of the whole sample, adjusting for covariates. In addition, co-twin analyses of outcome discordant twin pairs were conducted to assess the impact of familial confounding on the associations.

Results

Being male, 19–28 years old, having higher education, only NSP, no history of depression or anxiety, good self-rated health, low job demands and high job control were associated with a lower risk of work disability (adjusted HR ranging between 0.29–0.85). No history of anxiety and depression and high job control was associated with a lower risk of unemployment (adjusted HR ranging from 0.53 and 0.67). Familial factors were found to affect the association between education and work disability, but none of the other associations investigated.

Conclusions

Among those with LBP or NSP, good health in terms of mental- and self-rated health, few pain sites, as well as good psychosocial working conditions seem to indicate a lower risk for work disability.

Psychosocial working conditions, trajectories of disability, and the mediating role of cognitive decline and chronic diseases: A population-based cohort study

BACKGROUND

Unfavorable psychosocial working conditions have been associated with cognitive decline and chronic diseases, both of which may subsequently accelerate functional dependence. This study aimed to investigate the association between job demand-control-support combinations and trajectories of disability in later life and to further explore the role of cognitive decline and the co-occurrence of chronic diseases in mediating this association.

METHODS AND FINDINGS

In this cohort study, 2,937 community dwellers aged 60+ years (mean age 73 ± 10.6; 62.9% female) residing in the Kungsholmen District of Stockholm, Sweden, participated in the baseline survey (2001-2004) and were followed up to 12 years. Lifelong occupational history was obtained through a standardized interview; job demands, job control, and social support at work in the longest-held occupation were graded with a psychosocial job-exposure matrix. Job control, demands, and social support were dichotomized using the median values from the matrix, respectively, to further generate demand-control-support combinations. Disability was measured by summing the number of impaired basic and instrumental activities of daily living. Global cognitive function was assessed by Mini-Mental State Examination. Chronic conditions were ascertained by clinical examinations, medical history, and patient clinical records; the total number of chronic diseases was summed. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models and mediation analysis. Age, sex, education, alcohol consumption, smoking, leisure activity engagement, early-life socioeconomic status, occupational characteristic and physical demands, and baseline cognitive function and number of chronic diseases were adjusted for in the analyses. Compared with active jobs (high control/high demands; n = 1,807), high strain (low control/high demands; n = 328), low strain (high control/low demands; n = 495), and passive jobs (low control/low demands; n = 307) were all associated with a faster rate of disability progression (β = 0.07, 95% CI 0.02-0.13, p = 0.01; β = 0.10, 95% CI 0.06-0.15, p < 0.001; β = 0.11, 95% CI 0.05-0.18, p < 0.001). The association between high strain and disability progression was only shown in people with low social support at work (β = 0.13, 95% CI 0.07-0.19, p < 0.001), but not in those with high social support (β = 0.004, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.10, p = 0.93). Moreover, we estimated that the association between demand-control status and disability trajectories was mediated 38.5% by cognitive decline and 18.4% by accumulation of chronic diseases during the follow-up period. The limitations of this study include unmeasured confounding, self-reported work experience, and the reliance on a psychosocial job-exposure matrix that does not consider variabilities in individuals' perception on working conditions or job characteristics within occupations.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that negative psychosocial working conditions during working life may accelerate disability progression in later life. Notably, social support at work may buffer the detrimental effect of high strain on disability progression. Cognitive decline and chronic-disease accumulation, and especially the former, partially mediate the association of psychosocial working conditions with trajectories of disability. Further studies are required to explore more mechanisms that underlie the association between psychosocial working conditions and disability trajectories.

Does early identification of work-related stress, combined with feedback at GP-consultation, prevent sick leave in the following 12 months? a randomized controlled trial in primary health care

Background

Experiencing work-related stress constitutes an obvious risk for becoming sick-listed. In primary health care, no established method to early identify, advise and treat people with work-related stress exists. The aim was to evaluate if the use of the Work Stress Questionnaire (WSQ) brief intervention, including feedback from the general practitioner (GP), had an impact on the level of sickness absence.

Method/design

In total 271 (intervention group, n = 132, control group, n = 139) non-sick-listed employed women and men, aged 18 to 64 years, who had mental and physical health complaints and sought care at primary health care centers participated in this two-armed randomized controlled trial. The main outcomes were the number of registered sick leave days and episodes, and time to first sick leave during the 12-months follow-up. The intervention included early identification of work-related stress by the WSQ, GP awareness supported by a brief training session, patients’ self-reflection by WSQ completion, GP feedback at consultation, and initiation of preventive measures.

Results

The mean days registered for the WSQ intervention group and the control group were 39 and 45 gross days respectively, and 31 and 39 net days respectively (ns). No statistical significant difference for the number of sick leave episodes or time to first day of sick leave episode were found between the groups.

Conclusions

The WSQ brief intervention combined with feedback and suggestions of measures at patient–GP-consultation was not proven effective in preventing sick leave in the following 12 months compared to treatment as usual. More research is needed on methods to early identify, advise and treat people with work-related stress in primary health care, and on how and when GPs and other professionals in primary health care can be trained to understand this risk of sick leave due to work-related stress, on how to prevent it, and on how to advise and treat employees at risk.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier: NCT02480855. Registered 20 May 2015.

Psychosocial work environment and cross-cultural competence among native and foreign-born registered nurses

Cross-cultural competence is an essential component of the nursing profession, but little is known about the specific psychosocial work characteristics that potentially promote or hinder such competence. In the present study, psychosocial work characteristics were based on Karasek's Job Demand-Control Model. The researchers examined whether Karasek's psychosocial work characteristics, such as high-strain jobs, high-strain isolated jobs, active jobs, and active collective jobs, are associated with cross-cultural competence (empathy, skills, positive attitudes, and motivation), and whether there are differences between native and foreign-born registered nurses (RN) in these potential associations. A random sample of 744 native RNs (91.0% women) and a total sample (n = 212) of foreign-born RNs (94.3% women) working in Finland were used. Data were collected using a questionnaire and analyzed with a series of multiple linear regression analyses. High-strain and high-strain isolated jobs were negatively associated with all four dimensions of cross-cultural competence. Active collective jobs, but not active jobs, were positively associated with cross-cultural skills. There were no differences between native and migrant nurses in these associations. The psychosocial work environment is associated with cross-cultural competence in both native and migrant nurses. Improvements in psychosocial working conditions, especially minimizing negative factors in the work environment, such as high-strain and high-strain isolated jobs, may need to be considered as a part of the efforts aimed to enhance cross-cultural competence among nursing personnel.

Work-Home Interference, Perceived Total Workload, and the Risk of Future Sickness Absence Due to Stress-Related Mental Diagnoses Among Women and Men: a Prospective Twin Study

Purpose

Work-home interference has been proposed as an important explanation for sickness absence (SA). Previous studies show mixed results, have not accounted for familial factors (genetics and shared everyday environment), or investigated diagnosis specific SA. The aim was to study whether work-home interference and perceived total workload predict SA due to stress-related mental diagnoses, or SA due to other mental diagnoses, among women and men, when adjusting for various confounders and familial factors.

Methods

This study included 11,916 twins, 19–47 years (49% women). Data on work-to-home and home-to-work conflicts, perceived total workload, and relevant confounders were derived from a 2005 survey, and national register data on SA spells until 2013 were obtained. Odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. Discordant twin pair design was applied to adjust for familial factors.

Results

Each one unit increase in work-to-home and home-to-work conflicts, and perceived total workload was associated with higher odds for SA due to stress-related mental diagnoses and to SA due to other mental diagnoses among women, when adjusting for sociodemographic factors (ORs 1.15–1.31). Including health or familial factors, no associations remained. For men, each one unit increase in work-to-home conflicts was associated with higher odds for SA due to stress-related diagnoses (ORs 1.23–1.35), independently of confounders.

Conclusion

Work-to-home conflict was independently associated with future SA due to stress-related diagnoses among men only. Health- and work-related factors seem to be important confounders when researching work-home interference, perceived total workload, and SA. Not including such confounders involves risking drawing incorrect conclusions. Further studies are needed to confirm sex differences and whether genetic factors are important for the associations studied.

Trajectories of work disability and unemployment among young adults with common mental disorders

BACKGROUND

Labour-market marginalisation (LMM) and common mental disorders (CMDs) are serious societal problems. The aims were to describe trajectories of LMM (both work disability and unemployment) among young adults with and without CMDs, and to elucidate the characteristics associated with these trajectories.

METHODS

The study was based on Swedish registers and consisted of all individuals 19-30 years with an incident diagnosis of a CMD in year 2007 (n = 7245), and a matched comparison group of individuals without mental disorders during the years 2004-07 (n = 7245). Group-based trajectory models were used to describe patterns of LMM both before, and after the incident diagnosis of a CMD. Multinomial logistic regressions investigated the associations between sociodemographic and medical covariates and the identified trajectories.

RESULTS

Twenty-six percent (n = 1859) of young adults with CMDs followed trajectories of increasing or constant high levels of work disability, and 32 % (n = 2302) followed trajectories of increasing or constant high unemployment. In the comparison group, just 9 % (n = 665) followed increasing or constant high levels of work disability and 21 % (n = 1528) followed trajectories of increasing or constant high levels of unemployment. A lower share of young adults with CMDs followed trajectories of constant low levels of work disability (n = 4546, 63%) or unemployment (n = 2745, 38%), compared to the level of constant low work disability (n = 6158, 85%) and unemployment (n = 3385, 50%) in the comparison group. Remaining trajectories were fluctuating or decreasing. Around 50% of young adults with CMDs had persistent levels of LMM at the end of follow-up. The multinomial logistic regression revealed that educational level and comorbid mental disorders discriminated trajectories of work disability, while educational level, living area and age determined differences in trajectories of unemployment (R2difference = 0.02-0.05, p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

A large share, nearly 50%, of young adults with CMDs, substantially higher than in the comparison group of individuals without mental disorders, display increasing or high persistent levels of either work disability or unemployment throughout the follow-up period. Low educational level, comorbidity with other mental disorders and living in rural areas were factors that increased the probability for LMM.

Effect of psychosocial work factors on the risk of certified absences from work for a diagnosed mental health problem: a protocol of a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies

INTRODUCTION

Mental health problems (MHPs) are frequent and disabling and are the first or second leading cause of certified sickness absences from work in industrialised countries. They are generally long lasting and generate a considerable human and socioeconomic burden. The deleterious effect of adverse psychosocial work factors on MHP has been documented. However, the evidence regarding the effect of these factors on absences from work for an MHP has not been synthesised since 2007. The proposed systematic review aims to synthesise the effect of adverse psychosocial work factors from three validated theoretical models (the demand-control-support, effort-reward-imbalance and organisational justice models) on the risk of certified absences from work for diagnosed MHP among workers.

METHOD AND ANALYSIS

A systematic search strategy will be conducted in seven databases: Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science, PsycInfo, Sociological abstracts and IBSS. Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses recommendations, a multistep screening process by independent reviewers will lead to study selection. The search strategy was first run in 16 January 2017 and will be updated in October 2018. Only quantitative, prospective studies evaluating the effect of at least one psychosocial work factor from the validated theoretical models on certified absence from work for a diagnosed MHP will be considered for inclusion. Extracted data will be used for quantitative and qualitative evidence synthesis as well as to assess risk of bias and methodological quality. Meta-estimates will be provided for high-quality studies and by each psychosocial work factor, after considering homogeneity and number of studies.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

As this study will be based only on published studies, ethics approval is not required. Given that psychosocial works factors are frequent and modifiable, the results of this systematic review may provide evidence to support prevention strategies that can help to reduce the human social and economic burden associated with medically certified absences from work for an MHP.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42018091632.

Mental disorder sick leave in Sweden: A population study

BACKGROUND

The inability to perform productive work due to mental disorders is a growing concern in advanced societies.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate medically certified mental disorder and all-cause sick leave in a working population using demographic, socioeconomic and occupational predictors.

METHODS

The study population was the entire Swedish work force aged 16-64 years in December 31st 2011. The outcome was sick leave exceeding 14 days in 2012 with adjustment for 13 confounders.

RESULTS

The risk of sick leave with a mental disorder is higher among women compared to men, among persons aged 30-39 and among parents in families with underage children. Employees in welfare service occupations within health care, education and social services have an elevated risk of mental disorder sick leave and constitute a large proportion of the workforce.

CONCLUSION

The results support the need for improving early detection and prevention of mental disorders in the workforce. Improvements in psychosocial work environments are essential, where the higher risk in female dominated welfare occupations particularly, have repercussions on the quality of the welfare services provided for vulnerable groups in society. Better work-life balance in families with younger children could also mitigate the effects of a high total workload in that particular phase of life.

Determinants of Sickness Absence and Return to Work Among Employees with Common Mental Disorders: A Scoping Review

Purpose To present an overview of the existing evidence on prognostic factors of (recurrent) sickness absence (SA) and return to work (RTW) among workers with a common mental disorder (CMD). This scoping review provides information about determinants for SA and RTW, which could be used to develop better interventions aimed at the prevention of SA and promotion of RTW among workers with a CMD. Methods Relevant articles were identified in PubMed, Embase, PsycINFO, PSYNDEX, and SINGLE up to October 2016. In order to be included, studies should provide insight into prognostic factors of SA or RTW of workers with a CMD. We classified all factors according to the domains of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Results Our searches identified 2447 possible relevant articles, of which 71 were included for data extraction. There is consistent evidence in ≥3 studies that previous episodes of CMD, higher symptom severity, previous absenteeism, co-morbidity, high job demands, low job control, high job strain, female gender, lower educational level, smoking behavior, and low perceived general health are predictors of SA in people with CMDs. Earlier RTW is consistently predicted by lower symptom severity, having no previous absenteeism, younger age, and positive expectations concerning sick-leave duration or RTW. Conclusions The amount of research on determinants for SA and RTW in workers with CMD has increased dramatically in recent years, although most studies are from the Netherlands and Scandinavia. There are some research gaps identified in this scoping review that need further attention in primary and secondary studies. Based on the summary of the evidence, we provide guidance for policy, practice and research.

Time pressure and sleep problems due to thoughts about work as risk factors for future sickness absence

Purpose

This study investigated whether time pressure or sleep problems due to thoughts about work are associated with future sickness absence (SA) among women and men employed in different sectors, also when adjusting for confounders including familial factors (genetics and shared environment).

Methods

The study sample included 16,127 twin individuals (52% women), aged 19–47 years who in 2005 participated in an online survey including questions regarding time pressure, sleep, work and health. Register data on SA (> 14 days) were obtained from the National Social Insurance Agency and individuals were followed from date of survey response until 12/31/2013. Associations between time pressure, sleep problems due to thoughts about work and future SA were investigated using logistic regression analyses to assess odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

Results

In total 5723 (35%) individuals had an incident SA spell during follow-up. Sleep problems due to thoughts about work were associated with SA in the fully adjusted model (OR 1.22, CI 1.10–1.36). Stratified by sector, the highest estimate was found for state employees (OR 1.54, CI 1.11–2.13). Familial factors did not seem to influence the associations. We found no statistically significant associations between time pressure and SA. No sex differences were found.

Conclusions

Results indicated that sleep problems due to thoughts about work is a risk factor for future SA. This follows previous research showing that sleep length and sleep disturbances, regardless of reason, are associated with SA. But, experiences of work-related time pressure seem to have no effect on SA.

A three-step model of stress management for health leaders

The current healthcare system is often as highly stressful environment for patients, their families, and for the employees of the system. Health leaders also experience stress, which can have profound repercussions if not well managed. This article describes the impact of stress on the brain and nervous system functioning of health leaders, then, drawing on evidence from the literature, presents a three-step model for managing stress at the individual, team/organizational, and system levels.

High Stress and Negative Health Behaviors: A Five-Year Wellness Center Member Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the association between having a high stress level and health behaviors in employees of an academic medical center.

METHODS

Beginning January 1, 2009, through December 31, 2013, an annual survey was completed by 676 worksite wellness members.

RESULTS

Each year, about one-sixth of members had a high stress level, high stress individuals visited the wellness center less often, and most years there was a significant relationship (P < 0.05) between stress level and poor physical health behaviors (physical activity level and confidence, strength, climbing stairs), low mental health (quality of life, support, spiritual well-being and fatigue), poor nutritional habits (habits and confidence), and lower perceived overall health.

CONCLUSIONS

High stress is associated with negative health behavior, and future studies, therefore, should explore strategies to effectively engage high stress employees into comprehensive wellness programs.

Directive and nondirective social support in the workplace - is this social support distinction important for subjective health complaints, job satisfaction, and perception of job demands and job control?

AIMS

Social support is associated with well-being and positive health outcomes. However, positive outcomes of social support might be more dependent on the way support is provided than the amount of support received. A distinction can be made between directive social support, where the provider resumes responsibility, and nondirective social support, where the receiver has the control. This study examined the relationship between directive and nondirective social support, and subjective health complaints, job satisfaction and perception of job demands and job control.

METHODS

A survey was conducted among 957 Norwegian employees, working in 114 private kindergartens (mean age 40.7 years, SD = 10.5, 92.8% female), as part of a randomized controlled trial. This study used only baseline data. A factor analysis of the Norwegian version of the Social Support Inventory was conducted, identifying two factors: nondirective and directive social support. Hierarchical regression analyses were then performed.

RESULTS

Nondirective social support was related to fewer musculoskeletal and pseudoneurological complaints, higher job satisfaction, and the perception of lower job demands and higher job control. Directive social support had the opposite relationship, but was not statistically significant for pseudoneurological complaints.

CONCLUSIONS

It appears that for social support to be positively related with job characteristics and subjective health complaints, it has to be nondirective. Directive social support was not only without any association, but had a significant negative relationship with several of the variables. Nondirective social support may be an important factor to consider when aiming to improve the psychosocial work environment.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Clinicaltrials.gov: NCT02396797. Registered 23 March 2015.

Social support and its interrelationships with demand-control model factors on presenteeism and absenteeism in Japanese civil servants

OBJECTIVES

To elucidate the impact of social support and its interrelations with other demand-control-support (DCS) model factors on presenteeism and absenteeism, and to determine which DCS factors were most influential.

METHODS

Questionnaires from 2535 local government employees were analyzed. The Brief Job Stress Questionnaire (BJSQ) was used to assess DCS factors including job demand, job control, and social support from supervisors and coworkers. The Stanford Presenteeism Scale 13-item version (SPS-13) was used to evaluate both absenteeism (absent days) and presenteeism. For the latter, the Work Impairment Score (WIS) and the Work Output Score (WOS) were also used. Possible confounder-adjusted logistic and negative binomial regression analyses were performed to obtain odds ratios (ORs) for WIS and WOS and relative risks (RRs) for absenteeism according to DCS factors.

RESULTS

Higher job control had a significantly protective effect on higher WIS in both males and females and a lower WOS in males. Based on a point estimate of an OR per 1 standard deviation change of each DCS factor, job control had the strongest effect on higher WIS in both males and females and a lower WOS in males. Higher job demand resulted in significantly higher ORs for both male and female WIS, and a lower WOS in females. Support from supervisors had a significantly protective effect on higher WIS in females and a lower WOS in males. Support from coworkers had a significantly protective effect on higher WIS in males. Higher support from coworkers had a significantly protective effect on absenteeism among both males and females, and higher job control had a significantly protective effect in females. The combination of high job strain and low support from supervisors had a significantly worsening effect, except for absenteeism in females. High job strain and low support from coworkers had a significantly worsening effect except for WOS in males.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest job control was the DCS factor most related to presenteeism. Higher support from supervisors and coworkers had a protective effect on presenteeism, and higher job demand had a worsening effect. Higher support from coworkers had a protective effect on absenteeism among both males and females. Interventions should focus on improving job control as a possible countermeasure to presenteeism, and encouraging support from coworkers as a possible countermeasure to absenteeism.

Early identification in primary health care of people at risk for sick leave due to work-related stress - study protocol of a randomized controlled trial (RCT)

BACKGROUND

Early identification of persons at risk of sickness absence due to work-related stress is a crucial problem for society in general, and primary health care in particular. Tho date, no established method to do this exists. This project's aim is to evaluate whether systematic early identification of work-related stress can prevent sickness absence. This paper presents the study design, procedure and outcome measurements, as well as allocation and baseline characteristics of the study population.

METHOD/DESIGN

The study is a two-armed randomized controlled trial with follow-up at 3, 6 and 12 months. Non-sick-listed employed women and men, aged 18 to 64 years, who had mental and physical health complaints and sought care at primary health care centers (PHCC) were eligible to participate. At baseline work-related stress was measured by the Work Stress Questionnaire (WSQ), combined with feedback at consultation, at PHCC. The preventive intervention included early identification of work-related stress by the WSQ, GP training in the use of WSQ, GP feedback at consultation and finding suitable preventive measures. A process evaluation was used to explore how to facilitate future implementation and structural use of the WSQ at the PHCC. The primary outcome to compare the preventive sick leave intervention by the general practitioner (GP) versus treatment as usual is sick leave data obtained from the Swedish Social Insurance Agency register.

DISCUSSION

Early screening for sick leave due to work-related stress makes it possible not only to identify those at risk for sick leave, but also to put focus on the patient's specific work-related stress problems, which can be helpful in finding suitable preventive measures. This study investigates if use of the WSQ by GPs at PHCCs, combined with feedback at consultation, prevents future sickness absence.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov. Identifier: NCT02480855 . Registered 20 May 2015.

Absenteeism due to mental health problems and systems for return to work: an internet-based unmatched case-control study

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to investigate the risk factors for absenteeism due to mental health problems with regard to company characteristics and systems for return to work in Japan.

METHODS

This was an Internet-based unmatched case-control study. Two hundred and fifty-eight workers who experienced over 28 days of sick leave due to mental health problems (cases) and 258 workers who have not taken sick leave (controls) were recruited. Company characteristics and the awareness and presence of systems for return to work were analysed as indicators of absenteeism.

RESULTS

A total of 501 workers were included in the analysis. Females were less likely to experience absenteeism when adjustments were made for both the awareness and presence of systems [odds ratio (OR) = 0.51 and 0.41, respectively]. Large companies showed an increased risk of having absentee workers than small companies. The awareness of a gradual resumption system and the presence of a sick pay system were related to absenteeism (OR = 2.75 and 2.40, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The awareness and presence of systems for return to work are related to the long-term absenteeism. The predictors of sex and company size are also related to the experience of the long-term absenteeism. To understand the effect of systems for return to work on absenteeism due to mental problems, further studies are needed.

Psychological and Social Work Factors as Predictors of Mental Distress and Positive Affect: A Prospective, Multilevel Study

Occupational health research has mainly addressed determinants of negative health effects, typically employing individual-level self-report data. The present study investigated individual- and department-level (means of each work unit) effects of psychological/social work factors on mental distress and positive affect. Employees were recruited from 63 Norwegian organizations, representing a wide variety of job types. A total of 4158 employees, in 918 departments, responded at baseline and at follow-up two years later. Multilevel linear regressions estimated individual- and department-level effects simultaneously, and accounted for clustering of data. Baseline exposures and average exposures over time ([T1+T2]/2) were tested. All work factors; decision control, role conflict, positive challenge, support from immediate superior, fair leadership, predictability during the next month, commitment to organization, rumors of change, human resource primacy, and social climate, were related to mental distress and positive affect at the individual and department level. However, analyses of baseline exposures adjusted for baseline outcome, demonstrated significant associations at the individual level only. Baseline “rumors of change” was related to mental distress only and baseline “predictability during the next month” was not a statistical significant predictor of either outcome when adjusted for outcome at baseline. Psychological and social work factors were generally related to mental distress and positive affect in a mirrored way. Impact of exposures seemed most pervasive at the individual level. However, department-level relations were also discovered. Supplementing individual-level measures with aggregated measures may increase understanding of working conditions influence on employees`health and well-being. Organizational improvements focusing on the work factors in the current study should be able to reduce distress and enhance positive affect. Furthermore, both targeting individual employees and redesigning working conditions at the work unit level seems important.