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Stephens RE, Gallagher RV, Méndez M, Sauquet H. Zygomorphic flowers last longer: the evolution of floral symmetry and floral longevity. Biol Lett 2024; 20:20240082. [PMID: 38889773 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2024.0082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Floral longevity, the length of time a flower remains open and functional, is a phylogenetically conserved trait that balances floral costs against the rate at which flowers are pollinated. Floral symmetry has long been considered a key trait in floral evolution. Although zygomorphic (bilaterally symmetric) flowers typically receive fewer floral visitors than actinomorphic (radially symmetric) flowers, it is yet to be determined whether this could be associated with longer floral longevity. Using newly collected field data combined with data from the literature on 1452 species in 168 families, we assess whether floral longevity covaries with floral symmetry in a phylogenetic framework. We find that zygomorphic flowers last on average 1.1 days longer than actinomorphic flowers, a 26.5% increase in longevity, with considerable variation across both groups. Our results provide a basis to discuss the ecological and evolutionary costs of zygomorphy for plants. Despite these costs, zygomorphy has evolved numerous times throughout angiosperm history, and we discuss which rewards may outweigh the costs of slower pollination in zygomorphic flowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- R E Stephens
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University , Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
- National Herbarium of NSW, Botanic Gardens of Sydney , Mount Annan, New South Wales, Australia
| | - R V Gallagher
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University , Ryde, New South Wales, Australia
- Hawkesbury Institute for the Environment, Western Sydney University , Richmond, New South Wales, Australia
| | - M Méndez
- Area of Biodiversity and Conservation, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos , Madrid, Spain
| | - H Sauquet
- National Herbarium of NSW, Botanic Gardens of Sydney , Mount Annan, New South Wales, Australia
- Evolution & Ecology Research Centre, University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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2
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Huntsman SV, Leslie AB. The ontogeny of disparity in Cupressaceae seed cones. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023. [PMID: 38148572 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 11/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Ontogenetic shape change has long been recognized to be important in generating patterns of morphological diversity and may be especially important in plant reproductive structures. We explore how seed cone disparity in Cupressaceae changes over ontogeny by comparing pollination-stage and mature cones. We sampled cones at pollen and seed release and measured cone scales using basic morphometric shape variables. We used multivariate statistical methods, particularly hypervolume overlap calculations, to measure morphospace occupation and disparity. Cone scales at both pollination and maturity exhibit substantial variability, although the disparity is greater at maturity. Mature cone scales are also more clustered in trait space, showing less overlap with other taxa than at pollination. These patterns reflect two growth strategies that generate closed cones over maturation, either through thin laminar scales or relatively thick, peltate scales, resulting in two distinct regions of morphospace occupation. Disparity patterns in Cupressaceae seed cones change over ontogeny, reflecting shifting functional demands that require specific patterns of cone scale growth. The evolution of Cupressaceae reproductive disparity therefore represents selection for trajectories of ontogenetic shape change, a phenomenon that should be widespread across seed plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stepfan V Huntsman
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Stanford University, 450 Jane Stanford Way, Building 320, Room 118, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
| | - Andrew B Leslie
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Stanford University, 450 Jane Stanford Way, Building 320, Room 118, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA
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3
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Lanuza JB, Allen-Perkins A, Bartomeus I. The non-random assembly of network motifs in plant-pollinator networks. J Anim Ecol 2023; 92:760-773. [PMID: 36700304 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Ecological processes leave distinct structural imprints on the species interactions that shape the topology of animal-plant mutualistic networks. Detecting how direct and indirect interactions between animals and plants are organised is not trivial since they go beyond pairwise interactions, but may get blurred when considering global network descriptors. Recent work has shown that the meso-scale, the intermediate level of network complexity between the species and the global network, can capture this important information. The meso-scale describes network subgraphs representing patterns of direct and indirect interactions between a small number of species, and when these network subgraphs differ statistically from a benchmark, they are often referred to as 'network motifs'. Although motifs can capture relevant ecological information of species interactions, they remain overlooked in natural plant-pollinator networks. By exploring 60 empirical plant-pollinator networks from 18 different studies with wide geographical coverage, we show that some network subgraphs are consistently under- or over-represented, suggesting the presence of worldwide network motifs in plant-pollinator networks. In addition, we found a higher proportion of densely connected network subgraphs that, based on previous findings, could reflect that species relative abundances are the main driver shaping the structure of the meso-scale on plant-pollinator communities. Moreover, we found that distinct subgraph positions describing species ecological roles (e.g. generalisation and number of indirect interactions) are occupied by different groups of animal and plant species representing their main life-history strategies (i.e. functional groups). For instance, we found that the functional group of 'bees' was over-represented in subgraph positions with a lower number of indirect interactions in contrast to the rest of floral visitors groups. Finally, we show that the observed functional group combinations within a subgraph cannot be retrieved from their expected probabilities (i.e. joint probability distributions), indicating that plant and floral visitor associations within subgraphs are not random either. Our results highlight the presence of common network motifs in plant-pollinator communities that are formed by a non-random association of plants and floral visitors functional groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose B Lanuza
- School of Environmental and Rural Science, University of New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia.,Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville, Spain
| | - Alfonso Allen-Perkins
- Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Seville, Spain.,Departamento de Ingeniería Eléctrica, Electrónica, Automática y Física Aplicada, ETSIDI, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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4
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Watson TL, Martel C, Arceo‐Gómez G. Plant species richness and sunlight exposure increase pollinator attraction to pollinator gardens. Ecosphere 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.4317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Travis L. Watson
- Department of Biological Sciences East Tennessee State University Johnson City Tennessee USA
| | - Carlos Martel
- Department of Biological Sciences East Tennessee State University Johnson City Tennessee USA
- Instituto de Ciencias Ómicas y Biotecnología Aplicada Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú Lima Peru
| | - Gerardo Arceo‐Gómez
- Department of Biological Sciences East Tennessee State University Johnson City Tennessee USA
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5
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Stewart AB, Diller C, Dudash MR, Fenster CB. Pollination-precision hypothesis: support from native honey bees and nectar bats. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 235:1629-1640. [PMID: 35194792 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of floral traits is often considered to reflect selection for increased pollination efficiency. Known as the pollination-precision hypothesis, increased pollination efficiency is achieved by enhancing pollen deposition on precise areas of the pollinator. Most research to date addressing this hypothesis has examined plant species that are a priori predicted to place pollen precisely, but we still lack comparisons with species predicted to have low pollination efficiency. We studied 39 plant species with diverse floral morphologies and measured the precision of pollen placement on two pollinator groups: honey bees (genus Apis) and nectar bats (family Pteropodidae). Pollen was collected from four locations of each pollinator's body (bees: dorsal thorax, ventral thorax, dorsal abdomen, ventral abdomen; bats: crown, face, chest, wing) to calculate pollen placement precision using Pielou's evenness index. We also quantified variation in floral design by scoring floral symmetry, corolla fusion, floral orientation and stamen number. We confirm the importance of four floral character states (bilateral symmetry, fused corollas, horizontal orientation and reduced stamen number) in promoting precise pollen placement on diverse pollinators. Our findings provide phylogenetically corrected, empirical support that the evolution of the four floral characters reflect selection for enhanced precision of pollen placed on pollinators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa B Stewart
- Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Carolina Diller
- Department of Plant Protection Biology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, 234 56, Sweden
| | - Michele R Dudash
- Department of Natural Resource Management, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, 20742, USA
| | - Charles B Fenster
- Oak Lake Field Station, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, 57007, USA
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6
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Murakami K, Katsuhara KR, Ushimaru A. Intersexual flower differences in an andromonoecious species: small pollen-rich staminate flowers under resource limitation. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2022; 24:259-265. [PMID: 34990065 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Andromonoecy, the presence of perfect and staminate flowers in the same individual, has evolved repeatedly in angiosperms. The staminate flowers are generally smaller than the perfect flowers in species that produce staminate flowers plastically when resources are limited. The smaller staminate flowers are expected to be less attractive to pollinators and have reduced size-matching with pollinators than perfect flowers. We hypothesized that these potential disadvantages of staminate versus perfect flowers facilitate the evolution of sex-specific floral morphology, such as allometric relationship between flower size and male reproductive organ. We compared six floral morphology traits, pollen production, pollinator visits and pollen removal from anthers between staminate and perfect flowers in several natural Commelina communis populations. Nectarless and zygomorphic C. communis flowers have polymorphic stamens with attracting, feeding and pollinating anthers and were visited by diverse pollinators. Staminate flowers were significantly smaller than perfect flowers, despite a large overlap in size between sexes. The lengths of pollinating stamens did not differ between staminate and perfect flowers, and staminate flowers produced significantly more pollen. We observed significantly more pollinator visits to perfect flowers than to staminate flowers. By contrast, pollen removal from pollinating stamens was significantly higher in staminate flowers than in perfect flowers. There is sexual dimorphism in flower morphology in C. communis. Staminate flowers with smaller attraction organs, similar pollinating stamens and higher pollen production assure higher pollen donor success relative to perfect flowers. Our results suggest that the morphological changes in staminate flowers enhance pollination success, even with limited resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Murakami
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - K R Katsuhara
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
| | - A Ushimaru
- Graduate School of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, Kobe, Japan
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7
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OUP accepted manuscript. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blac017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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8
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Ortiz PL, Fernández‐Díaz P, Pareja D, Escudero M, Arista M. Do visual traits honestly signal floral rewards at community level? Funct Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pedro L. Ortiz
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Pilar Fernández‐Díaz
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Daniel Pareja
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Marcial Escudero
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
| | - Montserrat Arista
- Departamento de Biología Vegetal y Ecología Universidad de Sevilla Sevilla Spain
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9
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Hao K, Tian ZX, Wang ZC, Huang SQ. Pollen grain size associated with pollinator feeding strategy. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20201191. [PMID: 32811305 PMCID: PMC7482274 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.1191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Angiosperm pollen grain diameter varies greatly from a few microns to over 100, but the selective forces driving the interspecific variation in pollen size remain unclear. Although both pre- and post-pollination hypotheses have been proposed, empirical evidence remains scarce. Here we propose that visits by pollen-foraging pollinators have selected against large pollen grains. An association between pollinator behaviour and pollen grain size was confirmed by field studies of 80 flowering species in natural communities, showing that pollinators positively collected pollen in those species with relatively smaller pollen grains but rarely did so in species with larger ones. Allowing for the confounding effects of pollinator type, flower size or style length and pollen grain number, we found a significant effect of pollen-foraging behaviour on variation in pollen grain size, particularly in bee-pollinated plants. While these results suggest that many plant species whose pollen is collected or consumed by pollinators produce small pollen grains, it remains unclear whether pollen grain size is directly affected by pollinator foraging habit or indirectly mediated by pollen number trade-offs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Shuang-Quan Huang
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, People's Republic of China
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10
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Tan K, Lu T, Ren MX. Biogeography and evolution of Asian Gesneriaceae based on updated taxonomy. PHYTOKEYS 2020; 157:7-26. [PMID: 32934445 PMCID: PMC7467973 DOI: 10.3897/phytokeys.157.34032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Based on an updated taxonomy of Gesneriaceae, the biogeography and evolution of the Asian Gesneriaceae are outlined and discussed. Most of the Asian Gesneriaceae belongs to Didymocarpoideae, except Titanotrichum was recently moved into Gesnerioideae. Most basal taxa of the Asian Gesneriaceae are found in the Indian subcontinent and Indo-China Peninsula, suggesting Didymocarpoideae might originate in these regions. Four species diversification centers were recognized, i.e. Sino-Vietnam regions, Malay Peninsula, North Borneo and Northwest Yunnan (Hengduan Mountains). The first three regions are dominated by limestone landscapes, while the Northwest Yunnan is well-known for its numerous deep gorges and high mountains. The places with at least 25% species are neoendemics (newly evolved and narrowly endemic) which were determined as evolutionary hotspots, including Hengduan Mountains, boundary areas of Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi in Southwest China, North Borneo, Pahang and Terengganu in Malay Peninsula, and mountainous areas in North Thailand, North Sulawesi Island. Finally, the underlying mechanisms for biogeographical patterns and species diversification of the Asian Gesneriaceae are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Tan
- Center for Terrestrial Biodiversity of the South China Sea, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, ChinaHainan UniversityHaikouChina
| | - Tao Lu
- Center for Terrestrial Biodiversity of the South China Sea, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, ChinaHainan UniversityHaikouChina
| | - Ming-Xun Ren
- Center for Terrestrial Biodiversity of the South China Sea, College of Ecology and Environment, Hainan University, Haikou 570228, ChinaHainan UniversityHaikouChina
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11
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Xiong YZ, Jia LB, Zhang C, Huang SQ. Color-matching between pollen and corolla: hiding pollen via visual crypsis? THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 224:1142-1150. [PMID: 31225909 DOI: 10.1111/nph.16012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Visual signals attractive to friends may also attract enemies. The bright colors of anthers and pollen have generally been thought to attract pollinators. We hypothesize that visual crypsis of anthers, and particularly pollen, should be favored in flowering plants because protection from pollen collectors reduces the loss of male gametes. To understand adaptive strategies relating to the color of pollen, we measured the color of pollen, undehisced anther sacs, and their background, the corolla, with a spectrometer for 104 insect-pollinated flowering species from a natural community in Hengduan Mountains, southwest China. The colors of anthers, pollen and corollas were diverse in these species. The color diversity of exposed pollen was significantly higher than that of concealed pollen (i.e. where anthers are enclosed or shielded by corollas). The color contrast between pollen and corolla was significantly smaller in species with exposed pollen than in those with concealed pollen. Unlike anther color, exposed pollen color tended to match its background corolla color. Our phylogenetic comparative analysis showed contrasting effects of pollen color patterns between flowers with exposed pollen and those with concealed pollen, revealing a strategy of hiding pollen from pollen thieves via visual crypsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying-Ze Xiong
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, New England Biolabs, 430079, China
| | - Li-Bing Jia
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, New England Biolabs, 430079, China
| | - Chuan Zhang
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, New England Biolabs, 430079, China
| | - Shuang-Quan Huang
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, New England Biolabs, 430079, China
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12
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Mochizuki J, Itagaki T, Aoyagi Blue Y, Ito M, Sakai S. Ovule and seed production patterns in relation to flower size variations in actinomorphic and zygomorphic flower species. AOB PLANTS 2019; 11:plz061. [PMID: 31656557 PMCID: PMC6804480 DOI: 10.1093/aobpla/plz061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Zygomorphic flower species tend to show lower flower size variation than actinomorphic flower species. Have these differences also brought an association in ovule and seed production that has arisen due to natural selection in these species? Flowers were collected from 29 actinomorphic and 20 zygomorphic flower species, and fruits were collected from 21 actinomorphic and 14 zygomorphic flower species in Miyagi and Aomori prefectures, in Japan. The coefficient of variations (CVs) of flower sizes, mean ovule sizes of flowers, ovule numbers of flowers and mean seed sizes of fruits were calculated. The CV of flower sizes was marginally different between the floral symmetry types; tending to be lower in the zygomorphic flower species than in the actinomorphic flower species. The CVs of mean ovule sizes and ovule numbers of flowers increased with increase in the CV of flower sizes in the actinomorphic flower species but not in the zygomorphic flower species. Mean ovule number of flowers tends to increase with increase in mean flower size in the actinomorphic flower species but not in the zygomorphic flower species. The degrees in variations in ovule size and number of flowers were influenced by the interaction of floral symmetry type and flower size variation, suggesting that floral symmetry also has brought an evolutionary association in ovule production by flowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Mochizuki
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Sendai, Japan
| | - Tomoyuki Itagaki
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yuta Aoyagi Blue
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Sendai, Japan
| | - Masaya Ito
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Sendai, Japan
| | - Satoki Sakai
- Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Sendai, Japan
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13
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Yang M, Deng GC, Gong YB, Huang SQ. Nectar yeasts enhance the interaction between Clematis akebioides and its bumblebee pollinator. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2019; 21:732-737. [PMID: 30636362 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
It has been hypothesised that intense metabolism of nectar-inhabiting yeasts (NIY) may change nectar chemistry, including volatile profile, which may affect pollinator foraging behaviours and consequently plant fitness. However, empirical evidence for the plant-microbe-pollinator interactions remains little known. To test this hypothesis, we use a bumblebee-pollinated vine Clematis akebioides endemic to southwest China as an experimental model plant. To quantify the incidence and density of Metschnikowia reukaufii, a cosmopolitan NIY in floral nectar, a combination of yeast cultivation and microscopic cell-counting method was used. To examine the effects of NIY on plant-pollinator interactions, we used real flowers filled with artificial nectar with or without yeast cells. Then the volatile metabolites produced in the yeast-inoculated nectar were analysed with coupled gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). On average 79.3% of the C. akebioides flowers harboured M. reukaufii, and cell density of NIY was high to 7.4 × 104 cells mm-3 . In the field population, the presence of NIY in flowers of C. akebioides increased bumblebee (Bombus friseanus) pollinator visitation rate and consequently seed set per flower. A variety of fatty acid derivatives produced by M. reukaufii may be responsible for the above beneficial interactions. The volatiles produced by the metabolism of M. reukaufii may serve as an honest signal to attract bumblebee pollinators and indirectly promote the female reproductive fitness of C. akebioides, forming a potentially tripartite plant-microbe-pollinator mutualism.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - G-C Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Y-B Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - S-Q Huang
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
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14
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Global geographic patterns of heterospecific pollen receipt help uncover potential ecological and evolutionary impacts across plant communities worldwide. Sci Rep 2019; 9:8086. [PMID: 31147606 PMCID: PMC6542810 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44626-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Species interactions are known to be key in driving patterns of biodiversity across the globe. Plant-plant interactions through heterospecific pollen (HP) transfer by their shared pollinators is common and has consequences for plant reproductive success and floral evolution, and thus has the potential to influence global patterns of biodiversity and plant community assembly. The literature on HP transfer is growing and it is therefore timely to review patterns and causes of among-species variation in HP receipt at a global scale, thus uncovering its potential contribution to global patterns of biodiversity. Here we analyzed published data on 245 species distributed across five continents to evaluate latitudinal and altitudinal patterns of HP receipt. We further analyzed the role of floral symmetry and evolutionary history in mediating patterns of HP receipt. Latitude and elevation affected the likelihood and intensity of HP receipt indicating that HP transfer increases in species-rich communities and in areas with high abundance of vertebrate pollinators. Floral symmetry and evolutionary history determined HP load size across plant communities worldwide. Overall, our results suggest that HP receipt may have the potential to contribute to global geographic patterns of plant diversity by imposing strong selective pressures in species-rich areas across the globe.
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15
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Wang XY, Tang J, Wu T, Wu D, Huang SQ. Bumblebee Rejection of Toxic Pollen Facilitates Pollen Transfer. Curr Biol 2019; 29:1401-1406.e4. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Landis JB, Bell CD, Hernandez M, Zenil-Ferguson R, McCarthy EW, Soltis DE, Soltis PS. Evolution of floral traits and impact of reproductive mode on diversification in the phlox family (Polemoniaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2018; 127:878-890. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2018.06.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 06/20/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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17
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Fang Q, Huang SQ. A paradoxical mismatch between interspecific pollinator moves and heterospecific pollen receipt in a natural community. Ecology 2018; 97:1970-1978. [PMID: 27859194 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.1433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 03/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Pollinators visiting multiple plant species may cause heterospecific pollen transfer (HPT). To test a null model that more pollinator interspecific moves result in higher HPT among interacting species, we quantified the comparative magnitudes of the two networks involving 14 co-flowering species in an alpine meadow in the eastern Himalaya, southwest China. Interspecific moves accounted for 4% of the total visits,whereas heterospecific pollen constituted 22% of the total stigmatic pollen loads. On average, plant species received interspecific moves and HPT from 6.9 and 9.7 other species, respectively. Although the two networks were largely concordant, 21.6% of interspecific move links were not correspondingly linked by HPT, and 44.1% of heterospecific pollen transfer links were not linked by moves. Plant species with more outgoing pollinator moves tended to disperse more of their own pollen to others, as expected. Surprisingly, our data reveal that plant species which received more pollinator moves from other species tended to receive less HP, implying that only species with low acceptance of HP were likely to permit frequent pollinator moves. These new findings unveil a paradoxical relation between pollinator interspecific moves and HP receipt, suggesting an adaptive strategy of co-flowering species that reduces deleterious effects of HPT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Fang
- College of Agriculture, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471003, China.,Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Shuang-Quan Huang
- Institute of Evolution and Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
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18
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Gélvez-Zúñiga I, Teixido AL, Neves ACO, Fernandes GW. Floral antagonists counteract pollinator-mediated selection on attractiveness traits in the hummingbird-pollinatedCollaea cipoensis(Fabaceae). Biotropica 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Irene Gélvez-Zúñiga
- Laboratório de Ecologia Evolutiva & Biodiversidade; Departamento de Biologia Geral; ICB/Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; CP 486 30161-970 Belo Horizonte MG Brazil
| | - Alberto L. Teixido
- Departamento de Botânica; Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; Av. Antônio Carlos 6627 30161-970 Belo Horizonte MG Brazil
| | - Ana C. O. Neves
- Laboratório de Ecologia Evolutiva & Biodiversidade; Departamento de Biologia Geral; ICB/Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; CP 486 30161-970 Belo Horizonte MG Brazil
| | - Geraldo Wilson Fernandes
- Laboratório de Ecologia Evolutiva & Biodiversidade; Departamento de Biologia Geral; ICB/Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais; CP 486 30161-970 Belo Horizonte MG Brazil
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19
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Lebel M, Obolski U, Hadany L, Sapir Y. Pollinator-mediated selection on floral size and tube color in Linum pubescens: Can differential behavior and preference in different times of the day maintain dimorphism? Ecol Evol 2018; 8:1096-1106. [PMID: 29375782 PMCID: PMC5773291 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.3683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 10/01/2017] [Accepted: 11/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Diversity of flower traits is often proposed as the outcome of selection exerted by pollinators. Positive directional pollinator-mediated selection on floral size has been widely shown to reduce phenotypic variance. However, the underlying mechanism of maintaining within-population floral color polymorphism is poorly understood. Divergent selection, mediated by different pollinators or by both mutualists and antagonists, may create and maintain such polymorphism, but it has rarely been shown to result from differential behavior of one pollinator. We tested whether different behaviors of the same pollinators in morning and evening are associated with dimorphic floral trait in Linum pubescens, a Mediterranean annual plant that exhibits variable within-population frequencies of dark- and light-colored flower tubes. Usia bicolor bee-flies, the major pollinators of L. pubescens, are mostly feeding in the flower in the morning, while in the evening they are mostly visiting the flowers for mating. In 2 years of studying L. pubescens in a single large population in the Carmel, Israel, we found in one year that dark-centered flowers received significantly higher fraction of visits in the morning. Fitness was positively affected by number of visits, but no fitness differences were found between tube-color morphs, suggesting that both morphs have similar pollination success. Using mediation analysis, we found that flower size was under positive directional pollinator-mediated selection in both years, but pollinator behavior did not explain entirely this selection, which was possibly mediated also by other agents, such as florivores or a-biotic stresses. While most pollinator-mediated selection studies show that flower size signals food reward, in L. pubescens, it may also signal for mating place, which may drive positive selection. While flower size found to be under pollinator-mediated selection in L. pubescens, differential behavior of the pollinators in morning and evening did not seem to explain flower color polymorphism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merav Lebel
- The Botanical GardenTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- School of Plant Sciences and Food SecurityTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Present address:
Science DivisionNature‐Parks AuthorityJerusalemIsrael
| | - Uri Obolski
- The Botanical GardenTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- Present address:
Department of ZoologyUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Lilach Hadany
- The Botanical GardenTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Yuval Sapir
- The Botanical GardenTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
- School of Plant Sciences and Food SecurityTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
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20
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Zhu YR, Yang M, Vamosi JC, Armbruster WS, Wan T, Gong YB. Feeding the enemy: loss of nectar and nectaries to herbivores reduces tepal damage and increases pollinator attraction in Iris bulleyana. Biol Lett 2017; 13:rsbl.2017.0271. [PMID: 28768796 DOI: 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Floral nectar usually functions as a pollinator reward, yet it may also attract herbivores. However, the effects of herbivore consumption of nectar or nectaries on pollination have rarely been tested. We investigated Iris bulleyana, an alpine plant that has showy tepals and abundant nectar, in the Hengduan Mountains of SW China. In this region, flowers are visited mainly by pollen-collecting pollinators and nectarivorous herbivores. We tested the hypothesis that, in I. bulleyana, sacrificing nectar and nectaries to herbivores protects tepals and thus enhances pollinator attraction. We compared rates of pollination and herbivory on different floral tissues in plants with flowers protected from nectar and nectary consumption with rates in unprotected control plants. We found that nectar and nectaries suffered more herbivore damage than did tepals in natural conditions. However, the amount of tepal damage was significantly greater in the flowers with protected nectaries than in the controls; this resulted in significant differences in pollinator visitation rates. These results provide the first evidence that floral nectar and nectaries may be 'sacrificed' to herbivores, leading to reduced damage to other floral tissues that are more important for reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Ru Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Min Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Jana C Vamosi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada T2N 1N4
| | - W Scott Armbruster
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO1 2DY, UK.,Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA
| | - Tao Wan
- Key Laboratory of Southern Subtropical Plant Diversity, Fairylake Botanical Garden, Shenzhen 518004, China
| | - Yan-Bing Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
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21
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Arceo-Gómez G, Vargas CF, Parra-Tabla V. Selection on intra-individual variation in stigma-anther distance in the tropical tree Ipomoea wolcottiana (Convolvulaceae). PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2017; 19:454-459. [PMID: 28135024 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
It is well known that animals can exert strong selective pressures on plant traits. However, studies on the evolutionary consequences of plant-animal interactions have mainly focused on understanding how these interactions shape trait means, while overlooking its potential direct effect on the variability among structures within a plant (e.g. flowers and fruits). The degree of within-plant variability can have strong fitness effects but few studies have evaluated its role as a potential target of selection. Here we reanalysed data on Ipomoea wolcottiana stigma-anther distance to test alternate mechanisms driving selection on the mean as well as on intra-individual variance in 2 years. We found strong negative selection acting on intra-individual variation but not on mean stigma-anther distance, suggesting independent direct selection on the latter. Our result suggests that intra-individual variance has the potential to be an important target of selection in nature, and that ignoring it could lead to the wrong characterisation of the selection regime. We highlight the need for future studies to consider patterns of selection on the mean as well as on intra-individual variance if we want to understand the full extent of plant-animal interactions as an evolutionary force in nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Arceo-Gómez
- Department of Biological Sciences, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, TN, USA
| | - C F Vargas
- Laboratorio de Variación Biológica y Evolución, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, México, México
| | - V Parra-Tabla
- Departamento de Ecología Tropical, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, México
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22
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Testing the influence of gravity on flower symmetry in five Saxifraga species. Naturwissenschaften 2017; 104:37. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-017-1458-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2016] [Revised: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/21/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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23
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Fang Q, Huang S. Plant-pollinator interactions in a biodiverse meadow are rather stable and tight for 3 consecutive years. Integr Zool 2017; 11:199-206. [PMID: 26846890 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Plant-pollinator interactions can be highly variable across years in natural communities. Although variation in the species composition and its basic structure has been investigated to understand the dynamic nature of pollination networks, little is known about the temporal dynamic of interaction strength between the same plant and pollinator species in any natural community. Pollinator-mediated selection on the evolution of floral traits could be diminished if plant-pollinator interactions vary temporally. To quantify the temporal variation in plant-pollinator interactions and the interaction strength (observed visits), we compared weighted networks between plants and pollinators in a biodiverse alpine meadow in Shangri-La, southwest China for 3 consecutive years. Although plant-pollinator interactions were highly dynamic such that identical interactions only accounted for 10.7% of the total between pair years, the diversity of interactions was stable. These identical interactions contributed 41.2% of total visits and were similar in strength and weighted nestedness. For plant species, 72.6% of species were visited by identical pollinator species between pair years, accounting for over half of the total visits and three-quarters at the functional group level. More generalized pollinators contributed more connectiveness and were more central in networks across years. However, there was no similar or even opposite trend for plant species, which suggested that specialized plant species may also be central in pollinator networks. The variation in pollinator composition decreased as pollinator species numbers increased, suggesting that generalized plants experienced stable pollinator partition. The stable, tight interactions between generalized pollinators and specialized plants represent cornerstones of the studied community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Fang
- College of Agriculture, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, China.,Institute of Evolution & Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Shuangquan Huang
- Institute of Evolution & Ecology, School of Life Sciences, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
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24
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Madrigal Y, Alzate JF, Pabón-Mora N. Evolution and Expression Patterns of TCP Genes in Asparagales. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 8:9. [PMID: 28144250 PMCID: PMC5239819 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2017.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 01/03/2017] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
CYCLOIDEA-like genes are involved in the symmetry gene network, limiting cell proliferation in the dorsal regions of bilateral flowers in core eudicots. CYC-like and closely related TCP genes (acronym for TEOSINTE BRANCHED1, CYCLOIDEA, and PROLIFERATION CELL FACTOR) have been poorly studied in Asparagales, the largest order of monocots that includes both bilateral flowers in Orchidaceae (ca. 25.000 spp) and radially symmetrical flowers in Hypoxidaceae (ca. 200 spp). With the aim of assessing TCP gene evolution in the Asparagales, we isolated TCP-like genes from publicly available databases and our own transcriptomes of Cattleya trianae (Orchidaceae) and Hypoxis decumbens (Hypoxidaceae). Our matrix contains 452 sequences representing the three major clades of TCP genes. Besides the previously identified CYC specific core eudicot duplications, our ML phylogenetic analyses recovered an early CIN-like duplication predating all angiosperms, two CIN-like Asparagales-specific duplications and a duplication prior to the diversification of Orchidoideae and Epidendroideae. In addition, we provide evidence of at least three duplications of PCF-like genes in Asparagales. While CIN-like and PCF-like genes have multiplied in Asparagales, likely enhancing the genetic network for cell proliferation, CYC-like genes remain as single, shorter copies with low expression. Homogeneous expression of CYC-like genes in the labellum as well as the lateral petals suggests little contribution to the bilateral perianth in C. trianae. CIN-like and PCF-like gene expression suggests conserved roles in cell proliferation in leaves, sepals and petals, carpels, ovules and fruits in Asparagales by comparison with previously reported functions in core eudicots and monocots. This is the first large scale analysis of TCP-like genes in Asparagales that will serve as a platform for in-depth functional studies in emerging model monocots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yesenia Madrigal
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de AntioquiaMedellín, Colombia
| | - Juan F. Alzate
- Centro Nacional de Secuenciación Genómica, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de AntioquiaMedellín, Colombia
| | - Natalia Pabón-Mora
- Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de AntioquiaMedellín, Colombia
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25
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Armbruster WS. The specialization continuum in pollination systems: diversity of concepts and implications for ecology, evolution and conservation. Funct Ecol 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.12783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- William Scott Armbruster
- School of Biological Sciences University of Portsmouth PortsmouthPO1 2DY UK
- Institute of Arctic Biology University of Alaska Fairbanks Fairbanks AK99775‐7000 USA
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26
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Zhao YH, Ren ZX, Lázaro A, Wang H, Bernhardt P, Li HD, Li DZ. Floral traits influence pollen vectors' choices in higher elevation communities in the Himalaya-Hengduan Mountains. BMC Ecol 2016; 16:26. [PMID: 27221235 PMCID: PMC4879733 DOI: 10.1186/s12898-016-0080-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND How floral traits and community composition influence plant specialization is poorly understood and the existing evidence is restricted to regions where plant diversity is low. Here, we assessed whether plant specialization varied among four species-rich subalpine/alpine communities on the Yulong Mountain, SW China (elevation from 2725 to 3910 m). We analyzed two factors (floral traits and pollen vector community composition: richness and density) to determine the degree of plant specialization across 101 plant species in all four communities. Floral visitors were collected and pollen load analyses were conducted to identify and define pollen vectors. Plant specialization of each species was described by using both pollen vector diversity (Shannon's diversity index) and plant selectiveness (d' index), which reflected how selective a given species was relative to available pollen vectors. RESULTS Pollen vector diversity tended to be higher in communities at lower elevations, while plant selectiveness was significantly lower in a community with the highest proportion of unspecialized flowers (open flowers and clusters of flowers in open inflorescences). In particular, we found that plant species with large and unspecialized flowers attracted a greater diversity of pollen vectors and showed higher selectiveness in their use of pollen vectors. Plant species with large floral displays and high flower abundance were more selective in their exploitation of pollen vectors. Moreover, there was a negative relationship between plant selectiveness and pollen vector density. CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that flower shape and flower size can increase pollen vector diversity but they also increased plant selectiveness. This indicated that those floral traits that were more attractive to insects increased the diversity of pollen vectors to plants while decreasing overlap among co-blooming plant species for the same pollen vectors. Furthermore, floral traits had a more important impact on the diversity of pollen vectors than the composition of anthophilous insect communities. Plant selectiveness of pollen vectors was strongly influenced by both floral traits and insect community composition. These findings provide a basis for a better understanding of how floral traits and community context shape interactions between flowers and their pollen vectors in species-rich communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-Hui Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China.,Kunming College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Zong-Xin Ren
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - Amparo Lázaro
- Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies, c/Miquel Marquès 21, 07190, Esporles, Spain
| | - Hong Wang
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China.
| | - Peter Bernhardt
- Department of Biology, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, 63103, MO, USA
| | - Hai-Dong Li
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China.,Kunming College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China
| | - De-Zhu Li
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China. .,Germplasm Bank of Wild Species, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650201, People's Republic of China.
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27
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Villalobos S, Vamosi JC. Increasing land use drives changes in plant phylogenetic diversity and prevalence of specialists. PeerJ 2016; 4:e1740. [PMID: 26966669 PMCID: PMC4782714 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.1740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased human land use has resulted in the increased homogenization of biodiversity between sites, yet we lack sufficient indicators to predict which species decline and the consequence of their potential loss on ecosystem services. We used comparative phylogenetic analysis to (1) characterize how increasing conversion of forest and grasslands to grazing pasturelands changes plant diversity and composition; (2) examine how changes in land use relate to declines in functional trait diversity; and (3) specifically investigate how these changes in plant composition affect the prevalence of zygomorphy and the possible consequences that these changes may have on pollinator functional groups. As predicted, we found that the conversion to grazing pasturelands negatively impacted species richness and phylogenetic composition. Clades with significantly more represented taxa in grasslands (GL) were genera with a high representation of agricultural weeds, while the composition was biased towards clades of subalpine herbaceous wildflowers in Mixed Forest (MF). Changes in community composition and structure had strong effects on the prevalence of zygomorphic species likely driven by nitrogen-fixing abilities of certain clades with zygomorphic flowers (e.g., Fabaceae). Land conversion can thus have unexpected impacts on trait distributions relevant for the functioning of the community in other capacities (e.g., cascading effects to other trophic levels (i.e., pollinators). Finally, the combination of traits represented by the current composition of species in GL and MF might enhance the diagnostic value of productivity and ecosystem processes in the most eroded ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soraya Villalobos
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta , Canada
| | - Jana C Vamosi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary , Calgary, Alberta , Canada
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28
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Nikkeshi A, Kurimoto D, Ushimaru A. Low flower-size variation in bilaterally symmetrical flowers: Support for the pollination precision hypothesis. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2015; 102:2032-40. [PMID: 26656130 DOI: 10.3732/ajb.1500371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE OF THE STUDY The evolutionary shift from radial to bilateral symmetry in flowers is generally associated with the evolution of low flower-size variation. This phenomenon supports the hypothesis that the lower size variation in bilateral flowers can be attributed to low pollinator diversity. In this study, we propose two other hypotheses to explain low flower-size variation in bilateral symmetrical flowers. To test the three hypotheses, we examined the relative importance of pollinator diversity, composition, and bilateral symmetry itself as selective forces on low flower-size variation. METHODS We examined pollinator diversity and composition and flower-size variation for 36 species in a seminatural ecosystem with high bee richness and frequent lepidopteran visitation. KEY RESULTS Bilateral flowers were more frequently visited than radial flowers by larger bees, but functional-group diversity of the pollinators did not differ between symmetry types. Although bilateral flowers had significantly lower flower-size variation than radial flowers, flower-size variation did not vary with pollinator diversity and composition but was instead related to bilateral symmetry. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that the lower size variation in bilateral flowers might have evolved under selection favoring the control of pollinator behavior on flowers to enhance the accurate placement of pollen on the body of the pollinator, independent of pollinator type. Because of the limited research on this issue, future work should be conducted in various types of plant-pollinator communities worldwide to further clarify the issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aoi Nikkeshi
- Graduate school of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, 3-11 Tsurukabuto, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Daiki Kurimoto
- Faculty of Human Development, Kobe University, 3-11 Tsurukabuto, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
| | - Atushi Ushimaru
- Graduate school of Human Development and Environment, Kobe University, 3-11 Tsurukabuto, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan Faculty of Human Development, Kobe University, 3-11 Tsurukabuto, Nada, Kobe 657-8501, Japan
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29
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Gong WC, Chen G, Vereecken NJ, Dunn BL, Ma YP, Sun WB. Floral scent composition predicts bee pollination system in five butterfly bush (Buddleja, Scrophulariaceae) species. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2015; 17:245-55. [PMID: 24841694 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2013] [Accepted: 01/31/2014] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, plant-pollinator interactions have been interpreted as pollination syndrome. However, the validity of pollination syndrome has been widely doubted in modern studies of pollination ecology. The pollination ecology of five Asian Buddleja species, B. asiatica, B. crispa, B. forrestii, B. macrostachya and B. myriantha, in the Sino-Himalayan region in Asia, flowering in different local seasons, with scented inflorescences were investigated during 2011 and 2012. These five species exhibited diverse floral traits, with narrow and long corolla tubes and concealed nectar. According to their floral morphology, larger bees and Lepidoptera were expected to be the major pollinators. However, field observations showed that only larger bees (honeybee/bumblebee) were the primary pollinators, ranging from 77.95% to 97.90% of total visits. In this study, floral scents of each species were also analysed using coupled gas chromatography and mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Although the five Buddleja species emitted differentiated floral scent compositions, our results showed that floral scents of the five species are dominated by substances that can serve as attractive signals to bees, including species-specific scent compounds and principal compounds with larger relative amounts. This suggests that floral scent compositions are closely associated with the principal pollinator assemblages in these five species. Therefore, we conclude that floral scent compositions rather than floral morphology traits should be used to interpret plant-pollinator interactions in these Asian Buddleja species.
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Affiliation(s)
- W-C Gong
- Kunming Botanical Garden, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, Yunnan, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Gong YB, Huang SQ. Interspecific variation in pollen-ovule ratio is negatively correlated with pollen transfer efficiency in a natural community. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2014; 16:843-847. [PMID: 24628937 DOI: 10.1111/plb.12151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The pollination efficiency hypothesis has long been proposed as an explanation for interspecific variation in pollen-ovule (P:O) ratios. However, no empirical study on P:O ratios has directly and quantitatively measured pollen transfer efficiency (PE). Here, we use a PE index, defined as the proportion of pollen grains removed from anthers that are subsequently deposited on conspecific stigmas, as a direct and quantitative measure of PE. We investigated P:O ratios, pollen removal and pollen deposition in 26 plant species in an alpine meadow, over three consecutive years. Our community survey showed that nearly 5% of removed pollen was successfully deposited on conspecific stigmas. The PE index ranged from 0.01% up to 78.56% among species, and correlated negatively with the P:O ratio across years. This correlation was not changed by controlling for phylogenetic relationships among species, suggesting that the interspecific variation in P:O ratios can be attributed to the probability of pollen grains reaching a stigma. The results indicate that the pollination efficiency hypothesis can help to explain interspecific variation in P:O ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y-B Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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31
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Lázaro A, Totland O. The influence of floral symmetry, dependence on pollinators and pollination generalization on flower size variation. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2014; 114:157-65. [PMID: 24838838 PMCID: PMC4071101 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcu083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The pollinator-mediated stabilizing selection hypothesis suggests that the specialized pollination system of zygomorphic flowers might cause stabilizing selection, reducing their flower size variation compared with actinomorphic flowers. However, the degree of ecological generalization and of dependence on pollinators varies greatly among species of both flower symmetry types and this may also affect flower size variation. METHODS Data on 43 species from two contrasting communities (one alpine and one lowland community) were used to test the relationships and interactions between flower size phenotypic variation, floral symmetry, ecological pollination generalization and species' dependence on pollinators. KEY RESULTS Contrary to what was expected, higher flower size variation was found in zygomorphic than in actinomorphic species in the lowland community, and no difference in flower size variation was found between symmetry types in the alpine community. The relationship between floral symmetry and flower size variation depended on ecological generalization and species' dependence on pollinators, although the influence of ecological generalization was only detected in the alpine community. Zygomorphic species that were highly dependent on pollinators and that were ecologically specialized were less variable in flower size than ecologically generalist and selfing zygomorphic species, supporting the pollinator-mediated stabilizing selection hypothesis. However, these relationships were not found in actinomorphic species, probably because they are not dependent on any particular pollinator for efficient pollination and therefore their flower size always shows moderate levels of variation. CONCLUSIONS The study suggests that the relationship between flower size variation and floral symmetry may be influenced by population-dependent factors, such as ecological generalization and species' dependence on pollinators.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Lázaro
- Mediterranean Institute for Advanced Studies, C/ Miquel Marqués 21, 07190, Esporles, Balearic Islands, Spain
| | - O Totland
- Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, PO Box 5003 Ås, Norway
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Ma Y, Xie W, Tian X, Sun W, Wu Z, Milne R. Unidirectional hybridization and reproductive barriers between two heterostylous primrose species in north-west Yunnan, China. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2014; 113:763-75. [PMID: 24492637 PMCID: PMC3962241 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 12/13/2013] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Heteromorphy in flowers has a profound effect on breeding patterns within a species, but little is known about how it affects reproductive barriers between species. The heterostylous genus Primula is very diverse in the Himalaya region, but hybrids there have been little researched. This study examines in detail a natural hybrid zone between P. beesiana and P. bulleyana. METHODS Chloroplast sequencing, AFLP (amplified fragment length polymorphism) markers and morphological comparisons were employed to characterize putative hybrids in the field, using synthetic F1s from hand pollination as controls. Pollinator visits to parent species and hybrids were observed in the field. Hand pollinations were conducted to compare pollen tube growth, seed production and seed viability for crosses involving different morphs, species and directions of crossing. KEY RESULTS Molecular data revealed all hybrid derivatives examined to be backcrosses of first or later generations towards P. bulleyana: all had the chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) of this species. Some individuals had morphological traits suggesting they were hybrids, but they were genetically similar to P. bulleyana; they might have been advanced generation backcrosses. Viable F1s could not be produced with P. bulleyana pollen on P. beesiana females, irrespective of the flower morphs used. Within-morph crosses for each species had very low (<10 %) seed viability, whereas crosses between pin P. bulleyana (female) and pin P. beesiana had a higher seed viability of 30 %. Thus genetic incompatibility mechanisms back up mechanical barriers to within-morph crosses in each species, but are not the same between the two species. The two species share their main pollinators, and pollinators were observed to fly between P. bulleyana and hybrids, suggesting that pollinator behaviour may not be an important isolating factor. CONCLUSIONS Hybridization is strongly asymmetric, with P. bulleyana the only possible mother and all detected hybrids being backcrosses in this direction. Partial ecological isolation and inhibition of heterospecific pollen, and possibly complete barriers to F1 formation on P. beesiana, may be enough to make F1 formation very rare in these species. Therefore, with no F1 detected, this hybrid zone may have a finite life span as successive generations become more similar to P. bulleyana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongpeng Ma
- Kunming Botanical Garden, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Weijia Xie
- Flower research institute, Yunnan Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Xiaoling Tian
- Kunming Botanical Garden, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Weibang Sun
- Kunming Botanical Garden, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Zhikun Wu
- Kunming Botanical Garden, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, PR China
| | - Richard Milne
- Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JH, UK
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Wolowski M, Ashman TL, Freitas L. Meta-analysis of pollen limitation reveals the relevance of pollination generalization in the Atlantic forest of Brazil. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89498. [PMID: 24586827 PMCID: PMC3931788 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the extensive knowledge of pollen limitation in angiosperms, its assessment within tropical forests is still limited. Especially lacking are large scale comparisons of species within this biome – one that is highly diverse but also becoming increasingly threatened. In fact, many tropical plant species depend upon pollinators for reproduction but evaluation of the impact of this dependence via different levels of pollination specialization has yet to be made at the biome scale. We assessed the occurrence and magnitude of pollen limitation for species in the Brazilian Atlantic forest and tested the association of pollination specialization, breeding system, and life habit with pollination efficiency. We compiled data from studies published between 1985 and 2012. We calculated species' effect size (d) from data on fruit set after hand cross-pollination and natural pollination and conducted standard and phylogenetically independent meta-analysis. Overall pollen limitation was moderate, with magnitude of 0.50, and 95% confidence interval [0.37, 0.62] for 126 species. Pollen limitation was observed in 39% of species. Pollination specialization was the factor that best explained the occurrence of pollen limitation. Specifically, phenotypic and ecological specialists (plants with zygomorphic flowers and pollinated by one species of pollinator, respectively) had higher pollen limitation than generalist plants (actinomorphic flowers and pollination by two or more species). Functional generalists (plants pollinated by three or more functional groups) were not pollen limited. On the other hand, breeding system and life habit were not associated to pollen limitation. Pollen limitation was observed in the Atlantic forest and its magnitude was comparable to that for angiosperms as a whole. The finding that pollination specialization was the strongest predictor of pollen limitation suggests that specialist plants in this biome may be most prone to the reproductive failure as a result of pollinator loss.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Wolowski
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Botânica, Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Tia-Lynn Ashman
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Leandro Freitas
- Jardim Botânico do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Is there 'anther-anther interference' within a flower? Evidences from one-by-one stamen movement in an insect-pollinated plant. PLoS One 2014; 9:e86581. [PMID: 24475150 PMCID: PMC3903572 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0086581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The selective pressure imposed by maximizing male fitness (pollen dispersal) in shaping floral structures is increasingly recognized and emphasized in current plant sciences. To maximize male fitness, many flowers bear a group of stamens with temporally separated anther dehiscence that prolongs presentation of pollen grains. Such an advantage, however, may come with a cost resulting from interference of pollen removal by the dehisced anthers. This interference between dehisced and dehiscing anthers has received little attention and few experimental tests to date. Here, using one-by-one stamen movement in the generalist-pollinated Parnassia palustris, we test this hypothesis by manipulation experiments in two years. Under natural conditions, the five fertile stamens in P. palustris flowers elongate their filaments individually, and anthers dehisce successively one-by-one. More importantly, the anther-dehisced stamen bends out of the floral center by filament deflexion before the next stamen's anther dehiscence. Experimental manipulations show that flowers with dehisced anther remaining at the floral center experience shorter (1/3–1/2 less) visit durations by pollen-collecting insects (mainly hoverflies and wasps) because these ‘hungry’ insects are discouraged by the scant and non-fresh pollen in the dehisced anther. Furthermore, the dehisced anther blocks the dehiscing anther's access to floral visitors, resulting in a nearly one third decrease in their contact frequency. As a result, pollen removal of the dehiscing anther decreases dramatically. These results provide the first direct experimental evidence that anther-anther interference is possible in a flower, and that the selection to reduce such interferences can be a strong force in floral evolution. We also propose that some other floral traits, usually interpreted as pollen dispensing mechanisms, may function, at least partially, as mechanisms to promote pollen dispersal by reducing interferences between dehisced and dehiscing anthers.
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Fang Q, Huang SQ. A directed network analysis of heterospecific pollen transfer in a biodiverse community. Ecology 2013; 94:1176-85. [PMID: 23858657 DOI: 10.1890/12-1634.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Community studies have shown that plant species are often pollinated by multiple pollinators; however, networks of heterospecific pollen transfer (HPT) in natural communities remain largely unexplored. We analyzed pollen deposition on stigmas of 57 flowering species to build a picture of plant-plant interactions via HPT in a biodiverse alpine meadow in southwest China. Plant species were categorized as pollen donors or recipients by their link numbers and link qualities. We identified 3609 heterospecific pollen grains, representing 410 links among 69 pollen species. Each plant species received on average 7.2 pollen species and donated its pollen to 5.5 species; only a few species donated or received large amounts of pollen or pollen from a large number of species. Compared to specialized plants, generalized plants tended to receive more heterospecific pollen but exported no more pollen to other species. Plant position in the network was related to both floral traits (stigma position) and pollinator generalization level. When different species share the same pollinator, bidirectional HPT may occur, but this was rarely observed in the species-rich community, indicating that interspecific pollen interference was largely unidirectional. Our study highlights the importance of understanding how sympatric flowering plants reduce deleterious effects of HPT, for example via stigma position. This study is the first to present a pollen transfer network for an entire community and to unravel its properties using directed network analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Hybrid Rice, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072 China
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Abstract
Flowers exhibit amazing morphological diversity in many traits, including their size. In addition to interspecific flower size differences, many species maintain significant variation in flower size within and among populations. Flower size variation can contribute to reproductive isolation of species and thus has clear evolutionary consequences. In this review we integrate information on flower size variation from both evolutionary and developmental biology perspectives. We examine the role of flower size in the context of mating system evolution. In addition, we describe what is currently known about the genetic basis of flower size based on quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping in several different plant species and molecular genetic studies in model plants, primarily Arabidopsis thaliana. Work in Arabidopsis suggests that many independent pathways regulate floral organ growth via effects on cell proliferation and/or cell expansion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Krizek
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, USA.
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Ren MX, Tang JY. Up and down: stamen movements in Ruta graveolens (Rutaceae) enhance both outcrossing and delayed selfing. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2012; 110:1017-25. [PMID: 22875813 PMCID: PMC3448434 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcs181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Stamen movements directly determine pollen fates and mating patterns by altering positions of female and male organs. However, the implications of such movements in terms of pollination are not well understood. Recently, complex patterns of stamen movements have been identified in Loasaceae, Parnassiaceae, Rutaceae and Tropaeolaceae. In this study the stamen movements in Ruta graveolens (Rutaceae) and their impact on pollination are determined. METHODS Pollination effects of stamen movements were studied in Ruta graveolens, in which one-by-one uplifting and falling back is followed by simultaneous movement of all stamens in some flowers. Using 30 flowers, one stamen was manipulated either to be immobilized or to be allowed to move freely towards the centre of the flower but be prevented from falling back. Pollen loads on stigmas and ovule fertilization in flowers with or without simultaneous stamen movement were determined. RESULTS Pollen removal decreased dramatically (P < 0·001) when the stamen was stopped from uplifting because its anther was seldom contacted by pollinators. When a stamen stayed at the flower's centre, pollen removal of the next freely moved anther decreased significantly (P < 0·005) because of fewer touches by pollinators and quick leaving of pollinators that were discouraged by the empty anther. Simultaneous stamen movement occurred only in flowers with low pollen load on the stigma and the remaining pollen in anthers dropped onto stigma surfaces after stamens moved to the flower's centre. CONCLUSIONS In R. graveolens pollen removal is promoted through one-by-one movement of the stamen, which presents pollen in doses to pollinators by successive uplifting of the stamen and avoids interference of two consecutively dehisced anthers by falling back of the former stamen before the next one moves into the flower's centre. Simultaneous stamen movement at the end of anthesis probably reflects an adaptation for late-acting self-pollination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Xun Ren
- Key Laboratory of Aquatic Botany and Watershed Ecology, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.
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Fang Q, Huang SQ. Relative stability of core groups in pollination networks in a biodiversity hotspot over four years. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32663. [PMID: 22412902 PMCID: PMC3297609 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 01/31/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants and their pollinators form pollination networks integral to the evolution and persistence of species in communities. Previous studies suggest that pollination network structure remains nested while network composition is highly dynamic. However, little is known about temporal variation in the structure and function of plant-pollinator networks, especially in species-rich communities where the strength of pollinator competition is predicted to be high. Here we quantify temporal variation of pollination networks over four consecutive years in an alpine meadow in the Hengduan Mountains biodiversity hotspot in China. We found that ranked positions and idiosyncratic temperatures of both plants and pollinators were more conservative between consecutive years than in non-consecutive years. Although network compositions exhibited high turnover, generalized core groups--decomposed by a k-core algorithm--were much more stable than peripheral groups. Given the high rate of turnover observed, we suggest that identical plants and pollinators that persist for at least two successive years sustain pollination services at the community level. Our data do not support theoretical predictions of a high proportion of specialized links within species-rich communities. Plants were relatively specialized, exhibiting less variability in pollinator composition at pollinator functional group level than at the species level. Both specialized and generalized plants experienced narrow variation in functional pollinator groups. The dynamic nature of pollination networks in the alpine meadow demonstrates the potential for networks to mitigate the effects of fluctuations in species composition in a high biodiversity area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiang Fang
- College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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Temporal stability of pollinator preference in an alpine plant community and its implications for the evolution of floral traits. Oecologia 2011; 166:671-80. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-011-1910-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2010] [Accepted: 01/06/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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