In the line of fire: the peatlands of Southeast Asia

Tropical peat composition may provide a negative feedback on fire occurrence and severity

Loss of peat through increased burning will have major impacts on the global carbon cycle. In a normal hydrological state, the risk of fire propagation is largely controlled by peat bulk density and moisture content. However, where humans have interfered with the moisture status of peat either via drainage, or indirectly via climate change, we hypothesise that its botanical composition will become important to flammability, such that peats from different latitudes might have different compositionally-driven susceptibility to ignition. We use pyrolysis combustion flow calorimetry to determine the temperature of maximum thermal decomposition (Tmax) of peats from different latitudes, and couple this to a botanical composition analysis. We find that tropical peat has higher Tmax than other regions, likely on account of its higher wood content which appears to convey a greater resistance to ignition. This resistance also increases with depth, which means that loss of surface peat in tropical regions may lead to a reduction in the subsequent ignitability of deeper peat layers as they are exposed, potentially resulting in a negative feedback on increased fire occurrence and severity.

Anthropogenic warming is a key climate indicator of rising urban fire activity in China

China, one of the most populous countries in the world, has suffered the highest number of natural disaster-related deaths from fire. On local scales, the main causes of urban fires are anthropogenic in nature. Yet, on regional to national scales, little is known about the indicators of large-scale co-varying urban fire activity in China. Here, we present the China Fire History Atlas (CFHA), which is based on 19 947 documentary records and represents fires in urban areas of China over the twentieth century (1901-1994). We found that temperature variability is a key indicator of urban fire activity in China, with warmer temperatures being correlated with more urban fires, and that this fire-temperature relationship is seasonally and regionally explicit. In the early twentieth century, however, the fire-temperature relationship was overruled by war-related fires in large urban areas. We further used the fire-temperature relationship and multiple emissions scenarios to project fire activity across China into the twenty-first century. Our projections show a distinct increase in future urban fire activity and fire-related economic loss. Our findings provide insights into fire-climate relationships in China for densely-populated areas and on policy-relevant time scales and they contribute spatial coverage to efforts to improve global fire models.

Elevated methane flux in a tropical peatland post-fire is linked to depth-dependent changes in peat microbiome assembly

Fires in tropical peatlands extend to depth, transforming them from carbon sinks into methane sources and severely limit forest recovery. Peat microbiomes influence carbon transformations and forest recovery, yet our understanding of microbiome shifts post-fire is currently limited. Our previous study highlighted altered relationships between the peat surface, water table, aboveground vegetation, and methane flux after fire in a tropical peatland. Here, we link these changes to post-fire shifts in peat microbiome composition and assembly processes across depth. We report kingdom-specific and depth-dependent shifts in alpha diversity post-fire, with large differences at deeper depths. Conversely, we found shifts in microbiome composition across all depths. Compositional shifts extended to functional groups involved in methane turnover, with methanogens enriched and methanotrophs depleted at mid and deeper depths. Finally, we show that community shifts at deeper depths result from homogeneous selection associated with post-fire changes in hydrology and aboveground vegetation. Collectively, our findings provide a biological basis for previously reported methane fluxes after fire and offer new insights into depth-dependent shifts in microbiome assembly processes, which ultimately underlie ecosystem function predictability and ecosystem recovery.

Forest mosaics, not savanna corridors, dominated in Southeast Asia during the Last Glacial Maximum

The dominant paradigm is that large tracts of Southeast Asia's lowland rainforests were replaced with a "savanna corridor" during the cooler, more seasonal climates of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) (23,000 to 19,000 y ago). This interpretation has implications for understanding the resilience of Asia's tropical forests to projected climate change, implying a vulnerability to "savannization". A savanna corridor is also an important foundation for archaeological interpretations of how humans moved through and settled insular Southeast Asia and Australia. Yet an up-to-date, multiproxy, and empirical examination of the palaeoecological evidence for this corridor is lacking. We conducted qualitative and statistical analyses of 59 palaeoecological records across Southeast Asia to test the evidence for LGM savannization and clarify the relationships between methods, biogeography, and ecological change in the region from the start of Late Glacial Period (119,000 y ago) to the present. The pollen records typically show montane forest persistence during the LGM, while δ13C biomarker proxies indicate the expansion of C4-rich grasslands. We reconcile this discrepancy by hypothesizing the expansion of montane forest in the uplands and replacement of rainforest with seasonally dry tropical forest in the lowlands. We also find that smooth forest transitions between 34,000 and 2,000 y ago point to the capacity of Southeast Asia's ecosystems both to resist and recover from climate stressors, suggesting resilience to savannization. Finally, the timing of ecological change observed in our combined datasets indicates an 'early' onset of the LGM in Southeast Asia from ~30,000 y ago.

Wetscapes: Restoring and maintaining peatland landscapes for sustainable futures

Peatlands are among the world's most carbon-dense ecosystems and hotspots of carbon storage. Although peatland drainage causes strong carbon emissions, land subsidence, fires and biodiversity loss, drainage-based agriculture and forestry on peatland is still expanding on a global scale. To maintain and restore their vital carbon sequestration and storage function and to reach the goals of the Paris Agreement, rewetting and restoration of all drained and degraded peatlands is urgently required. However, socio-economic conditions and hydrological constraints hitherto prevent rewetting and restoration on large scale, which calls for rethinking landscape use. We here argue that creating integrated wetscapes (wet peatland landscapes), including nature preserve cores, buffer zones and paludiculture areas (for wet productive land use), will enable sustainable and complementary land-use functions on the landscape level. As such, transforming landscapes into wetscapes presents an inevitable, novel, ecologically and socio-economically sound alternative for drainage-based peatland use.

Wildfire smoke linked to vocal changes in wild Bornean orangutans

Tropical peatlands are the sites of Earth's largest fire events, with outsized contributions to greenhouse gases, toxic smoke, and haze rich with particulate matter. The human health risks from wildfire smoke are well known, but its effects on wildlife inhabiting these ecosystems are poorly understood. In 2015, peatland fires on Borneo created a thick haze of smoke that blanketed the region. We studied its effects on the long call vocalizations of four adult male Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus wurmbii) in a peat swamp forest. During the period of heavy smoke, orangutans called less often and showed reduced vocal quality-lower pitch, increased harshness and perturbations, and more nonlinear phenomena-similar to changes in human smokers. Most of these changes persisted for two months after the smoke had cleared and likely signal changes in health. Our work contributes valuable information to support non-invasive acoustic monitoring of this Critically Endangered primate.

Leaf decomposition and flammability are largely decoupled across species in a tropical swamp forest despite sharing some predictive leaf functional traits

Decomposition and fire are major carbon pathways in many ecosystems, yet potential linkages between these processes are poorly understood. We test whether variability in decomposability and flammability across species are related to each other and to key plant functional traits in tropical swamp forests, where habitat degradation is elevating decomposition and fire regimes. Using senesced and fresh leaves of 22 swamp tree species in Singapore, we conducted an in situ decomposition experiment and a laboratory flammability experiment. We analysed 16 leaf physical and biochemical traits as predictors of decomposability and components of flammability: combustibility, ignitability and sustainability. Decomposability and flammability were largely decoupled across species, despite some shared predictive traits such as specific leaf area (SLA). Physical traits predicted that thicker leaves with a smaller SLA and volume decomposed faster, while various cation concentrations predicted flammability components, particularly ignitability. We show that flammability and decomposability of swamp forest leaves are decoupled because flammability is mostly driven by biochemical traits, while decomposition is driven by physical traits. Our approach identifies species that are slow to decompose and burn (e.g. Calophyllum tetrapterum and Xanthophyllum flavescens), which could be planted to mitigate carbon losses in tropical swamp reforestation.

Extensive global wetland loss over the past three centuries

Wetlands have long been drained for human use, thereby strongly affecting greenhouse gas fluxes, flood control, nutrient cycling and biodiversity^1,2. Nevertheless, the global extent of natural wetland loss remains remarkably uncertain³. Here, we reconstruct the spatial distribution and timing of wetland loss through conversion to seven human land uses between 1700 and 2020, by combining national and subnational records of drainage and conversion with land-use maps and simulated wetland extents. We estimate that 3.4 million km² (confidence interval 2.9-3.8) of inland wetlands have been lost since 1700, primarily for conversion to croplands. This net loss of 21% (confidence interval 16-23%) of global wetland area is lower than that suggested previously by extrapolations of data disproportionately from high-loss regions. Wetland loss has been concentrated in Europe, the United States and China, and rapidly expanded during the mid-twentieth century. Our reconstruction elucidates the timing and land-use drivers of global wetland losses, providing an improved historical baseline to guide assessment of wetland loss impact on Earth system processes, conservation planning to protect remaining wetlands and prioritization of sites for wetland restoration⁴.

Accuracy of tropical peat and non-peat fire forecasts enhanced by simulating hydrology

Soil moisture deficits and water table dynamics are major biophysical controls on peat and non-peat fires in Indonesia. Development of modern fire forecasting models in Indonesia is hampered by the lack of scalable hydrologic datasets or scalable hydrology models that can inform the fire forecasting models on soil hydrologic behaviour. Existing fire forecasting models in Indonesia use weather data-derived fire probability indices, which often do not adequately proxy the sub-surface hydrologic dynamics. Here we demonstrate that soil moisture and water table dynamics can be simulated successfully across tropical peatlands and non-peatland areas by using a process-based eco-hydrology model (ecosys) and publicly available data for weather, soil, and management. Inclusion of these modelled water table depth and soil moisture contents significantly improves the accuracy of a neural network model in predicting active fires at two-weekly time scale. This constitutes an important step towards devising an operational fire early warning system for Indonesia.

Fire regime of peatlands in the Angolan Highlands

The Angolan Highlands region includes the Angolan miombo woodland ecoregion which supports miombo woodland, grasslands, subsistence agricultural land, and peatland deposits. Extensive fires, slash and burn agriculture, peat fuel extraction, and peatland drainage are among the anthropogenic practices that threaten these peatland deposits. Peat fires cause peatland degradation, release significant amounts of greenhouse gases, deteriorate air quality, and contribute towards climate change and biodiversity loss. This study presents an analysis of the fire regimes over the period 2001 to 2020 in an under-studied area of the Angolan Highlands. Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) fire and vegetation data were used in combination with a land use/land cover (LULC) classification map to calculate fire frequency, burn area, and fire regimes. The fire patterns within the study site are comparable to those found in African woodland savannas. Across the study site, 6976 km² (11.31%) of the land surface area burned at least nine times from 2001 to 2020, occurring largely within in the river valley environment. Considering the different LULC classes, peatlands were calculated to (a) burn more frequently (average fire frequency from 2001 to 2020 = 9.12), (b) have the smallest proportion (4.11%) of area which remained unburnt over the fire archive, and (c) have the largest average proportion (45.65% or 746 km²) of burnt area per year. Peatland burning occurred predominantly during drier months from May to September. The results of this study highlight the strong influence of LULC on the fire frequency and distribution in the study area, requiring unique fire management strategies. As has been documented for boreal and tropical peatlands across the globe, we stress the importance of peatland conservation and protection; continued unsustainable management practices may lead to the loss of these important peatland deposits.

A scoping review on the health effects of smoke haze from vegetation and peatland fires in Southeast Asia: Issues with study approaches and interpretation

Smoke haze due to vegetation and peatland fires in Southeast Asia is a serious public health concern. Several approaches have been applied in previous studies; however, the concepts and interpretations of these approaches are poorly understood. In this scoping review, we addressed issues related to the application of epidemiology (EPI), health burden estimation (HBE), and health risk assessment (HRA) approaches, and discussed the interpretation of findings, and current research gaps. Most studies reported an air quality index exceeding the ‘unhealthy’ level, especially during smoke haze periods. Although smoke haze is a regional issue in Southeast Asia, studies on its related health effects have only been reported from several countries in the region. Each approach revealed increased health effects in a distinct manner: EPI studies reported excess mortality and morbidity during smoke haze compared to non-smoke haze periods; HBE studies estimated approximately 100,000 deaths attributable to smoke haze in the entire Southeast Asia considering all-cause mortality and all age groups, which ranged from 1,064–260,000 for specified mortality cause, age group, study area, and study period; HRA studies quantified potential lifetime cancer and non-cancer risks due to exposure to smoke-related chemicals. Currently, there is a lack of interconnection between these three approaches. The EPI approach requires extensive effort to investigate lifetime health effects, whereas the HRA approach needs to clarify the assumptions in exposure assessments to estimate lifetime health risks. The HBE approach allows the presentation of health impact in different scenarios, however, the risk functions used are derived from EPI studies from other regions. Two recent studies applied a combination of the EPI and HBE approaches to address uncertainty issues due to the selection of risk functions. In conclusion, all approaches revealed potential health risks due to smoke haze. Nonetheless, future studies should consider comparable exposure assessments to allow the integration of the three approaches.

Joint Pattern Analysis of Forest Fire and Drought Indicators in Southeast Asia Associated with ENSO and IOD

Land and forest fires in Southeast Asia often coincide with severe dry seasons in the specific region caused by the warm phase of an El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD). This research aims to identify and quantify the ENSO–IOD effect on a joint pattern between the dry season and land and forest fires in Southeast Asia. This research provides a quantitative result which represents the ENSO–IOD’s impact in Southeast Asia for hotspots, dry spells, and precipitation anomalies. The methods used in this research are singular value decomposition, probability density skill score, and coherence analysis. Cambodia, Myanmar, and Thailand gave a similar result with less than a 25% increasing severity in the hotspots from normal to either El Niño, positive IOD, or El Niño–positive IOD years. The maximum increase in hotspot severity in North Sumatra was 13.06% and happened during a weak El Niño and positive IOD. Meanwhile, South Sumatra had a maximum accumulation of more than 89% and Kalimantan had more than a 72% increase during the strong El Niño in 2015. Even though the relationship between the ENSO and IOD was inconsistent, the occurrence of both phenomena in the same year can lead to fires and need to be considered.

Knowledge systems approaches for enhancing project impacts in complex settings: community fire management and peatland restoration in Indonesia

Knowledge systems approaches for enhancing the impact of research are well established and tend to focus on the ways in which researchers can adapt their engagement with stakeholders to achieve a better "fit" between research and action agendas. Yet, these approaches are often based on explicit or implicit assumptions of a skilled and willing research team, and stable and well-defined stakeholders, who have consistent and reasonably well-defined needs. This paper discusses how knowledge systems approaches were developed and deployed in the first phase of the Gambut Kita (Our Peatland) project on community fire management and peatland restoration in Indonesia (2017-2021). This was a complex project with a large multi-disciplinary team situated across dynamic institutions in Indonesia and Australia, and addressing a politically controversial topic. To capture the diverse experience of the researchers, and to focus on the needs of stakeholders, we developed a sequence of whole-of-project approaches comprising the following: (i) stakeholder mapping exercises at three nested scales combining stakeholder analysis, knowledge systems mapping and impact pathways analysis; (ii) a project coordinating committee of high-level Indonesian policy-makers and policy-influencers; (iii) a stakeholder engagement forum and (iv) online policy dialogues. We demonstrate its effects through the case of developing an Indonesian Peat Fire Danger Rating System (Peat FDRS), as a core project deliverable. Over 4 years, these structured stakeholder engagement processes gave rise to a Peat FDRS Stakeholder Engagement Network (a multi-institutional working group), which is making significant progress in navigating the complexity inherent in realising an accurate Indonesian Peat FDRS.

The Determination of Priority Areas for the Restoration of Degraded Tropical Peatland Using Hydrological, Topographical, and Remote Sensing Approaches

Degraded peatland is caused by forest clearing and the construction of artificial water networks. When water management is not implemented across land uses in the entire peatland landscape, then it will be a big issue that causes a water deficit and leads to increasing droughts and fires. Effective restoration must first identify the part of Peatland Hydrological system Units (PHUs) with insufficient water storage and resources. This study used intercorrelated factors of water balance, deficit months, NDMI-NDVI indices, dry periods, recurrent fires, peat depth, and water loss conditions, as the evaluation parameters, within individual sub-PHUs to determine the most degraded areas that require intervention and restoration. Sub-PHU was determined based on the peat hydrological unity concept by identifying streamline, outlet channels, peat-depth, slopes, and network connectivity. Global hydrological data using TerraClimate and CHIRPS, combined with field observations, were used to validate and calculate each sub-PHU’s water balance and dry periods. Soil moisture (NDMI), vegetation density (NDVI), and fire frequency were extracted from multispectral satellite images (e.g., Landsat 8, MODIS-Terra, and MODIS-Aqua). Each parameter was ranked by the score for each sub-PHU. The parameters that can be ranked are only the ordinal type of number. The lowest ranks indicated the most degraded sub-PHUs requiring peat rewetting interventions.

The Social License to Restore—Perspectives on Community Involvement in Indonesian Peatland Restoration

The tropical peatlands of Indonesia are widely recognized as a globally significant carbon stock and an important provider of crucial ecosystem services. However, in recent years they have been increasingly degraded. The Indonesian government has attempted to involve communities in peatland restoration efforts. These attempts were made in recognition of (1) the important role livelihood activities play in land degradation processes and (2) the ‘gatekeeping’ and stewardship role local communities play in ensuring the durability and longer-term effectiveness of restoration activities. Engaging communities has proven challenging for many reasons, but particularly because of the historical distrust local communities have towards land management interventions. In this article, we borrow the concept of a social license to operate (SLO) from the business management literature to understand why and how community involvement impacts peatland restoration in Indonesia. We introduce the concept and conceptual models of a social license to restore (SLR). As a result of engaging with our perspective, readers will be able to identify how issues of government distrust, low levels of community participation, and poverty—and the counterfactual—may impact the longer-term success of restoration initiatives and how a social license to restore may expedite progress in restoration. Secondly, discussing and linking the multi-faceted issues of peatland restoration will highlight its relevance within the land, biodiversity and human well-being nexus.

Reimagine fire science for the anthropocene

Fire is an integral component of ecosystems globally and a tool that humans have harnessed for millennia. Altered fire regimes are a fundamental cause and consequence of global change, impacting people and the biophysical systems on which they depend. As part of the newly emerging Anthropocene, marked by human-caused climate change and radical changes to ecosystems, fire danger is increasing, and fires are having increasingly devastating impacts on human health, infrastructure, and ecosystem services. Increasing fire danger is a vexing problem that requires deep transdisciplinary, trans-sector, and inclusive partnerships to address. Here, we outline barriers and opportunities in the next generation of fire science and provide guidance for investment in future research. We synthesize insights needed to better address the long-standing challenges of innovation across disciplines to (i) promote coordinated research efforts; (ii) embrace different ways of knowing and knowledge generation; (iii) promote exploration of fundamental science; (iv) capitalize on the "firehose" of data for societal benefit; and (v) integrate human and natural systems into models across multiple scales. Fire science is thus at a critical transitional moment. We need to shift from observation and modeled representations of varying components of climate, people, vegetation, and fire to more integrative and predictive approaches that support pathways toward mitigating and adapting to our increasingly flammable world, including the utilization of fire for human safety and benefit. Only through overcoming institutional silos and accessing knowledge across diverse communities can we effectively undertake research that improves outcomes in our more fiery future.

Assessing Sumatran Peat Vulnerability to Fire under Various Condition of ENSO Phases Using Machine Learning Approaches

In recent decades, catastrophic wildfire episodes within the Sumatran peatland have contributed to a large amount of greenhouse gas emissions. The El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) modulates the occurrence of fires in Indonesia through prolonged hydrological drought. Thus, assessing peatland vulnerability to fires and understanding the underlying drivers are essential to developing adaptation and mitigation strategies for peatland. Here, we quantify the vulnerability of Sumatran peat to fires under various ENSO conditions (i.e., El-Nino, La-Nina, and Normal phases) using correlative modelling approaches. This study used climatic (i.e., annual precipitation, SPI, and KBDI), biophysical (i.e., below-ground biomass, elevation, slope, and NBR), and proxies to anthropogenic disturbance variables (i.e., access to road, access to forests, access to cities, human modification, and human population) to assess fire vulnerability within Sumatran peatlands. We created an ensemble model based on various machine learning approaches (i.e., random forest, support vector machine, maximum entropy, and boosted regression tree). We found that the ensemble model performed better compared to a single algorithm for depicting fire vulnerability within Sumatran peatlands. The NBR highly contributed to the vulnerability of peatland to fire in Sumatra in all ENSO phases, followed by the anthropogenic variables. We found that the high to very-high peat vulnerability to fire increases during El-Nino conditions with variations in its spatial patterns occurring under different ENSO phases. This study provides spatially explicit information to support the management of peat fires, which will be particularly useful for identifying peatland restoration priorities based on peatland vulnerability to fire maps. Our findings highlight Riau’s peatland as being the area most prone to fires area on Sumatra Island. Therefore, the groundwater level within this area should be intensively monitored to prevent peatland fires. In addition, conserving intact forests within peatland through the moratorium strategy and restoring the degraded peatland ecosystem through canal blocking is also crucial to coping with global climate change.

Examining the Socio-Economic and Natural Resource Risks of Food Estate Development on Peatlands: A Strategy for Economic Recovery and Natural Resource Sustainability

Given the huge impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the food and agriculture sectors, rapid measures are needed to reduce the risk of food crises, especially among the poor and the most vulnerable communities. The government of Indonesia planned to establish the Food Estate National Program to ensure food security. Most of the area will be on peatlands, and as such, the program still faces pros and cons as it might open up opportunities for deforestation, threats to biodiversity, and loss of community livelihoods. We conducted the present research in Central Kalimantan to formulate a food estate (FE) development strategy by taking into account the potential benefits and risks to ensure increases in the local community’s welfare and the sustainability of biodiversity. Data were collected through field surveys, interviews, focus group discussion (FGD), and literature studies. The results show that the operation of a food estate on degraded peatlands has a moderate to high level of risk of negative impacts. Community activities and changes in farming methods through using more inputs and mechanical equipment are the most risky activities in FE development. The low substitutability of peatlands requires mitigation efforts as part of risk management. The operation of food systems on peatlands must be based on a strong sustainability perspective with a main principle of complementary resources. The main strategy is to protect natural resources and replace cultivated exotic plants with potential native peat plants with minimal risk. In addition, the policy and capacity building of farmers towards a business-oriented direction will maximize socioeconomic benefits. Utilization of biodiversity and low-impact cultivation techniques can ensure sustainability.

Litter Decomposition in Wet Rubber and Fruit Agroforests: Below the Threshold for Tropical Peat Formation

Peatlands are shaped by slow litter decomposition, but threshold decomposition rates that allow peat formation remain unclear. Can agroforestry in the tropics be compatible with paludiculture that allows peat formation? We explored the determinants of litter decomposition in wet agroforests adjacent to tropical peatlands in Central Kalimantan (Indonesia) by litterbag studies (up to 16 weeks) with standing litter sources to estimate rate constants, characterize litter quality (especially lignin (L), polyphenolics (Pp) and nitrogen (N)), and monitor temperature and groundwater levels. In litter transfer experiments we tested for home-field advantage (HFA) effects between land cover types. Mean residence times around 85 weeks at 27 °C were associated with a high (L + Pp)/N ratio. However, in the crossover treatments, mean residence times varied from 30 to 180 weeks and strong HFA effects (up to 80% faster decomposition at “home”) were found when litter from other sources was tested in old fruit-based agroforests. HFA indicates a local decomposer community well-adapted to its normal litter diet. Litter residence times of around two years are below the apparent peat formation threshold. Maintaining wet agroforest conditions adjacent to peat domes supports peatland rewetting and restoration but does not contribute to on-site peat formation processes.

Impact of Malaysian palm oil on sustainable development goals: co-benefits and trade-offs across mitigation strategies

Palm oil (PO) is an important source of livelihood, but unsustainable practices and widespread consumption may threaten human and planetary health. We reviewed 234 articles and summarized evidence on the impact of PO on health, social and economic aspects, environment, and biodiversity in the Malaysian context, and discuss mitigation strategies based on the sustainable development goals (SDGs). The evidence on health impact of PO is equivocal, with knowledge gaps on whether moderate consumption elevates risk for chronic diseases, but the benefits of phytonutrients (SDG2) and sensory characteristics of PO seem offset by its high proportion of saturated fat (SDG3). While PO contributes to economic growth (SDG9, 12), poverty alleviation (SDG1, 8, 10), enhanced food security (SDG2), alternative energy (SDG9), and long-term employment opportunities (SDG1), human rights issues and inequities attributed to PO production persist (SDG8). Environmental impacts arise through large-scale expansion of monoculture plantations associated with increased greenhouse gas emissions (SDG13), especially from converted carbon-rich peat lands, which can cause forest fires and annual trans-boundary haze; changes in microclimate properties and soil nutrient content (SDG6, 13); increased sedimentation and change of hydrological properties of streams near slopes (SDG6); and increased human wildlife conflicts, increase of invasive species occurrence, and reduced biodiversity (SDG14, 15). Practices such as biological pest control, circular waste management, multi-cropping and certification may mitigate negative impacts on environmental SDGs, without hampering progress of socioeconomic SDGs. While strategies focusing on improving practices within and surrounding plantations offer co-benefits for socioeconomic, environment and biodiversity-related SDGs, several challenges in achieving scalable solutions must be addressed to ensure holistic sustainability of PO in Malaysia for various stakeholders.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11625-021-01052-4.

Assessing costs of Indonesian fires and the benefits of restoring peatland

Deforestation and drainage has made Indonesian peatlands susceptible to burning. Large fires occur regularly, destroying agricultural crops and forest, emitting large amounts of CO₂ and air pollutants, resulting in adverse health effects. In order to reduce fire, the Indonesian government has committed to restore 2.49 Mha of degraded peatland, with an estimated cost of US$3.2-7 billion. Here we combine fire emissions and land cover data to estimate the 2015 fires, the largest in recent years, resulted in economic losses totalling US$28 billion, whilst the six largest fire events between 2004 and 2015 caused a total of US$93.9 billion in economic losses. We estimate that if restoration had already been completed, the area burned in 2015 would have been reduced by 6%, reducing CO₂ emissions by 18%, and PM_2.5 emissions by 24%, preventing 12,000 premature mortalities. Peatland restoration could have resulted in economic savings of US$8.4 billion for 2004-2015, making it a cost-effective strategy for reducing the impacts of peatland fires to the environment, climate and human health.

Epidemiology of the zoonotic malaria Plasmodium knowlesi in changing landscapes

Within the past two decades, incidence of human cases of the zoonotic malaria Plasmodium knowlesi has increased markedly. P. knowlesi is now the most common cause of human malaria in Malaysia and threatens to undermine malaria control programmes across Southeast Asia. The emergence of zoonotic malaria corresponds to a period of rapid deforestation within this region. These environmental changes impact the distribution and behaviour of the simian hosts, mosquito vector species and human populations, creating new opportunities for P. knowlesi transmission. Here, we review how landscape changes can drive zoonotic disease emergence, examine the extent and causes of these changes across Southeast and identify how these mechanisms may be impacting P. knowlesi dynamics. We review the current spatial epidemiology of reported P. knowlesi infections in people and assess how these demographic and environmental changes may lead to changes in transmission patterns. Finally, we identify opportunities to improve P. knowlesi surveillance and develop targeted ecological interventions within these landscapes.

The role of fire in global forest loss dynamics

Fires, among other forms of natural and anthropogenic disturbance, play a central role in regulating the location, composition and biomass of forests. Understanding the role of fire in global forest loss is crucial in constraining land-use change emissions and the global carbon cycle. We analysed the relationship between forest loss and fire at 500 m resolution based on satellite-derived data for the 2003-2018 period. Satellite fire data included burned area and active fire detections, to best account for large and small fires, respectively. We found that, on average, 38 ± 9% (± range) of global forest loss was associated with fire, and this fraction remained relatively stable throughout the study period. However, the fraction of fire-related forest loss varied substantially on a regional basis, and showed statistically significant trends in key tropical forest areas. Decreases in the fraction of fire-related forest loss were found where deforestation peaked early in our study period, including the Amazon and Indonesia while increases were found for tropical forests in Africa. The inclusion of active fire detections accounted for 41%, on average, of the total fire-related forest loss, with larger contributions in small clearings in interior tropical forests and human-dominated landscapes. Comparison to higher-resolution fire data with resolutions of 375 and 20 m indicated that commission errors due to coarse resolution fire data largely balanced out omission errors due to missed small fire detections for regional to continental-scale estimates of fire-related forest loss. Besides an improved understanding of forest dynamics, these findings may help to refine and separate fire-related and non-fire-related land-use change emissions in forested ecosystems.

Magnetite-Functionalized Horse Dung Humic Acid (HDHA) for the Uptake of Toxic Lead(II) from Artificial Wastewater

Magnetite-functionalized horse dung humic acid (HDHA) has been successfully prepared by the coprecipitation method, and the as-prepared adsorbent (MHDHA) has been applied as an easy-handling adsorbent for toxic Pb(II) in artificial wastewater. The MHDHA was characterized by Fourier transform-infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), and vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The FT-IR study showed that the MHDHA had the characteristics peaks of HA and Fe-O stretching. The XRD analysis revealed that the MHDHA had the $2\theta$ characteristic for magnetite. The TEM image and EDX analysis exhibited that the MHDHA with an average size of ∼14 nm was partially aggregated and contained ( $w/w$ ) 9.89% carbon, 2.89% nitrogen, and 32.74% oxygen based on functional groups of HDHA. The stability improvement of MHDHA was showed by decreasing HDHA dissolved from 95% to less than 30% at pH 12 after magnetite functionalization. The post-adsorption handling improvement was evidenced by easy and quick retraction by an external magnet with a 62.95 emu/g magnetic strength value. The adsorption capacities were influenced by the pH and ionic strength, whilst the adsorption rates were well simulated by the Ho pseudo-second-order model. The removal uptake of Pb(II) ions increased when the initial concentration was increased and fitted well with the Langmuir isotherm model when the monolayer adsorption capacity was $2.78\times {10}^{-4}\text{mol}/\text{g}$ (equal to 57.64 mg/g). The value of Dubinin-Radushkevich adsorption energy ( $E_{D-R}$ ) found in this study was 14.78 kJ/mol, which implied that ion exchange is the main mechanism involved in the adsorption process. The regeneration studies of MHDHA show that there was no significant change in composition, morphology, crystallinity, and functional group after five consecutive cycles of the adsorption-desorption process.

Biomass burning-derived airborne particulate matter in Southeast Asia: A critical review

Smoke haze episodes, resulting from uncontrolled biomass burning (BB) including forest and peat fires, continue to occur in Southeast Asia (SEA), affecting air quality, atmospheric visibility, climate, ecosystems, hydrologic cycle and human health. The pollutant of major concern in smoke haze is airborne particulate matter (PM). A number of fundamental laboratory, field and modeling studies have been conducted in SEA from 2010 to 2020 to investigate potential environmental and health impacts of BB-induced PM. The goal of this review is to bring together the most recent developments in our understanding of various aspects of BB-derived PM based on 127 research articles published from 2010 to 2020, which have not been conveyed in previous reviews. Specifically, this paper discusses the physical, chemical, toxicological and radiative properties of BB-derived PM. It also provides insights into the environmental and health impacts of BB-derived PM, summarizes the approaches taken to do the source apportionment of PM during BB events and discusses the mitigation of exposure to BB-derived PM. Suggestions for future research priorities are outlined. Policies needed to prevent future BB events in the SEA region are highlighted.

Carbon emissions from the peat fire problem-a review

Peat fires in tropical peatland release a substantial amount of carbon into the environment and cause significant harm to peatlands and the ecology, resulting in climate change, biodiversity loss, and the alteration of the ecosystem. It is essential to understand peat fires and to develop more effective methods for controlling them. To estimate carbon emissions and monitor fires, the depth of burning can measure the overall burnt down the volume, which is proportional to the carbon emissions that are emitted to the environment. The first step is to understand the technique of measuring the depth of the burn. However, there is a lack of integrated information regarding the burning depth for peat fires. This review paper discusses the techniques used to measure the burning depth, with particular attention given to quantifying carbon emissions. The article also provides information on the types of methods used to determine the burning depths. This research contributes to the field of peat fire by providing a readily available reference for practitioners and researchers on the current state of knowledge on peat fire monitoring systems.

The Utilisation of Palm Oil and Oil Palm Residues and the Related Challenges as a Sustainable Alternative in Biofuel, Bioenergy, and Transportation Sector: A Review

The importance of energy demands that have increased exponentially over the past century has led to the sourcing of other ideal power solutions as the potential replacement alternative to the conventional fossil fuel. However, the utilisation of fossil fuel has created severe environmental issues. The identification of other renewable sources is beneficial to replace the energy utilisation globally. Biomass is a highly favourable sustainable alternative to renewable resources that can produce cleaner, cheaper, and readily available energy sources in the future. The palm oil industry is essentially ideal for the availability of abundant biomass resources, where the multifaceted residues are vital for energy production through the conversion of biomass waste into value-added products simultaneously. This article discusses the utilisation of palm oil and its residues in the energy and transportation sector. Assessment and evaluation on the feasibility of palm oil and its residues were made on the current valorisation methods such as thermochemical and biochemical techniques. Their potential as transportation fuels were concurrently reviewed. This is followed by a discussion on future challenges of palm oil industries that will take place globally, including the prospects from government and nongovernment organisations for the development of palm oil as a sustainable alternative replacement to fossil fuel. Hence, this review aims to provide further insight into the possibilities of palm oil and its residues towards sustainable development with reduced environmental-related issues.

The Potential of ICESat-2 to Identify Carbon-Rich Peatlands in Indonesia

Peatlands in Indonesia are one of the primary global storages for terrestrial organic carbon. Poor land management, drainage, and recurrent fires lead to the release of huge amounts of carbon dioxide. Accurate information about the extent of the peatlands and its 3D surface topography is crucial for assessing and quantifying this globally relevant carbon store. To identify the most carbon-rich peatlands—dome-shaped ombrogenous peat—by collecting GPS-based terrain data is almost impossible, as these peatlands are often located in remote areas, frequently flooded, and usually covered by dense tropical forest vegetation. The detection by airborne LiDAR or spaceborne remote sensing in Indonesia is costly and laborious. This study investigated the potential of the ICESat-2/ATLAS LiDAR satellite data to identify and map carbon-rich peatlands. The spaceborne ICESat-2 LiDAR data were compared and correlated with highly accurate field validated digital terrain models (DTM) generated from airborne LiDAR as well as the commercial global WorldDEM DTM dataset. Compared to the airborne DTM, the ICESat-2 LiDAR data produced an R2 of 0.89 and an RMSE of 0.83 m. For the comparison with the WorldDEM DTM, the resulting R2 lay at 0.94 and the RMSE at 0.86 m. We model the peat dome surface from individual peat hydrological units by performing ordinary kriging on ICESat-2 DTM-footprint data. These ICESat-2 based peatland models, compared to a WorldDEM DTM and airborne DTM, produced an R2 of 0.78, 0.84, and 0.94 in Kalimantan and an R2 of 0.69, 0.72, and 0.85 in Sumatra. The RMSE ranged from 0.68 m to 2.68 m. These results demonstrate the potential of ICESat-2 in assessing peat surface topography. Since ICESat-2 will collect more data worldwide in the years to come, it can be used to survey and map carbon-rich tropical peatlands globally and free of charge.

Top-Down Estimation of Particulate Matter Emissions from Extreme Tropical Peatland Fires Using Geostationary Satellite Fire Radiative Power Observations

Extreme fires in the peatlands of South East (SE) Asia are arguably the world’s greatest biomass burning events, resulting in some of the worst ambient air pollution ever recorded (PM₁₀ > 3000 µg·m⁻³). The worst of these fires coincide with El Niño related droughts, and include huge areas of smouldering combustion that can persist for months. However, areas of flaming surface vegetation combustion atop peat are also seen, and we show that the largest of these latter fires appear to be the most radiant and intensely smoke-emitting areas of combustion present in such extreme fire episodes. Fire emissions inventories and early warning of the air quality impacts of landscape fire are increasingly based on the fire radiative power (FRP) approach to fire emissions estimation, including for these SE Asia peatland fires. “Top-down” methods estimate total particulate matter emissions directly from FRP observations using so-called “smoke emission coefficients” [C_e; g·MJ⁻¹], but currently no discrimination is made between fire types during such calculations. We show that for a subset of some of the most thermally radiant peatland fires seen during the 2015 El Niño, the most appropriate C_e is around a factor of three lower than currently assumed (~16.8 ± 1.6 g·MJ⁻¹ vs. 52.4 g·MJ⁻¹). Analysis indicates that this difference stems from these highly radiant fires containing areas of substantial flaming combustion, which changes the amount of particulate matter emitted per unit of observable fire radiative heat release in comparison to more smouldering dominated events. We also show that even a single one of these most radiant fires is responsible for almost 10% of the overall particulate matter released during the 2015 fire event, highlighting the importance of this fire type to overall emission totals. Discriminating these different fires types in ways demonstrated herein should thus ultimately improve the accuracy of SE Asian fire emissions estimates derived using the FRP approach, and the air quality modelling which they support.

Tropical peatlands and their conservation are important in the context of COVID-19 and potential future (zoonotic) disease pandemics

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused global disruption, with the emergence of this and other pandemics having been linked to habitat encroachment and/or wildlife exploitation. High impacts of COVID-19 are apparent in some countries with large tropical peatland areas, some of which are relatively poorly resourced to tackle disease pandemics. Despite this, no previous investigation has considered tropical peatlands in the context of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). Here, we review: (i) the potential for future EIDs arising from tropical peatlands; (ii) potential threats to tropical peatland conservation and local communities from COVID-19; and (iii) potential steps to help mitigate these risks. We find that high biodiversity in tropical peat-swamp forests, including presence of many potential vertebrate and invertebrate vectors, combined, in places, with high levels of habitat disruption and wildlife harvesting represent suitable conditions for potential zoonotic EID (re-)emergence. Although impossible to predict precisely, we identify numerous potential threats to tropical peatland conservation and local communities from the COVID-19 pandemic. This includes impacts on public health, with the potential for haze pollution from peatland fires to increase COVID-19 susceptibility a noted concern; and on local economies, livelihoods and food security, where impacts will likely be greater in remote communities with limited/no medical facilities that depend heavily on external trade. Research, training, education, conservation and restoration activities are also being affected, particularly those involving physical groupings and international travel, some of which may result in increased habitat encroachment, wildlife harvesting or fire, and may therefore precipitate longer-term negative impacts, including those relating to disease pandemics. We conclude that sustainable management of tropical peatlands and their wildlife is important for mitigating impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, and reducing the potential for future zoonotic EID emergence and severity, thus strengthening arguments for their conservation and restoration. To support this, we list seven specific recommendations relating to sustainable management of tropical peatlands in the context of COVID-19/disease pandemics, plus mitigating the current impacts of COVID-19 and reducing potential future zoonotic EID risk in these localities. Our discussion and many of the issues raised should also be relevant for non-tropical peatland areas and in relation to other (pandemic-related) sudden socio-economic shocks that may occur in future.

The potential impact of bushfire smoke on brain health

Smoke from bushfires (also known as wildfires or forest fires) has blanketed large regions of Australia during the southern hemisphere summer of 2019/2020, potentially endangering residents who breathe the polluted air. While such air pollution is known to cause respiratory irritation and damage, its effect on the brain is not well described. In this review, we aim to outline the potentially damaging effects of bushfire smoke on brain health. We also describe the composition of air pollution, including ambient particulate matter (PM) and bushfire PM, before covering the general health effects of each. The investigated entry routes for ambient PM and postulated entry routes for bushfire PM are discussed, along with epidemiological and experimental evidence of the effect of both PMs in the brain. It appears that bushfire PM may be more toxic than ambient PM, and that it may enter the brain through extrapulmonary or olfactory routes to cause inflammation and oxidative stress. Ultimately, this review highlights the desperate requirement of greater research into the effects of bushfire PM on brain health.

Low-severity fire as a mechanism of organic matter protection in global peatlands: Thermal alteration slows decomposition

Worldwide, regularly recurring wildfires shape many peatland ecosystems to the extent that fire-adapted species often dominate plant communities, suggesting that wildfire is an integral part of peatland ecology rather than an anomaly. The most destructive blazes are smoldering fires that are usually initiated in periods of drought and can combust entire peatland carbon stores. However, peatland wildfires more typically occur as low-severity surface burns that arise in the dormant season when vegetation is desiccated, and soil moisture is high. In such low-severity fires, surface layers experience flash heating, but there is little loss of underlying peat to combustion. This study examines the potential importance of such processes in several peatlands that span a gradient from hemiboreal to tropical ecozones and experience a wide range of fire return intervals. We show that low-severity fires can increase the pool of stable soil carbon by thermally altering the chemistry of soil organic matter (SOM), thereby reducing rates of microbial respiration. Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared, we demonstrate that low-severity fires significantly increase the degree of carbon condensation and aromatization of SOM functional groups, particularly on the surface of peat aggregates. Laboratory incubations show lower CO₂ emissions from peat subjected to low-severity fire and predict lower cumulative CO₂ emissions from burned peat after 1-3 years. Also, low-severity fires reduce the temperature sensitivity (Q₁₀ ) of peat, indicating that these fires can inhibit microbial access to SOM. The increased stability of thermally altered SOM may allow a greater proportion of organic matter to survive vertical migration into saturated and anaerobic zones of peatlands where environmental conditions physiochemically protect carbon stores from decomposition for thousands of years. Thus, across latitudes, low-severity fire is an overlooked factor influencing carbon cycling in peatlands, which is relevant to global carbon budgets as climate change alters fire regimes worldwide.

Dynamics of a human-modified tropical peat swamp forest revealed by repeat lidar surveys

Tropical peat swamp forests (PSFs) are globally important carbon stores under threat. In Southeast Asia, 35% of peatlands had been drained and converted to plantations by 2010, and much of the remaining forest had been logged, contributing significantly to global carbon emissions. Yet, tropical forests have the capacity to regain biomass quickly and forests on drained peatlands may grow faster in response to soil aeration, so the net effect of humans on forest biomass remains poorly understood. In this study, two lidar surveys (made in 2011 and 2014) are compared to map forest biomass dynamics across 96 km² of PSF in Kalimantan, Indonesia. The peatland is now legally protected for conservation, but large expanses were logged under concessions until 1998 and illegal logging continues in accessible portions. It was hypothesized that historically logged areas would be recovering biomass while recently logged areas would be losing biomass. We found that historically logged forests were recovering biomass near old canals and railways used by the concessions. Lidar detected substantial illegal logging activity-579 km of logging canals were located beneath the canopy. Some patches close to these canals have been logged in the 2011-2104 period (i.e. substantial biomass loss) but, on aggregate, these illegally logged regions were also recovering. Unexpectedly, rapid growth was also observed in intact forest that had not been logged and was over a kilometre from the nearest known canal, perhaps in response to greater aeration of surface peat. Comparing these results with flux measurements taken at other nearby sites, we find that carbon sequestration in above-ground biomass may have offset roughly half the carbon efflux from peat oxidation. This study demonstrates the power of repeat lidar survey to map fine-scale forest dynamics in remote areas, revealing previously unrecognized impacts of anthropogenic global change.

The Least Square Adjustment for Estimating the Tropical Peat Depth Using LiDAR Data

High-accuracy peat maps are essential for peatland restoration management, but costly, labor-intensive, and require an extensive amount of peat drilling data. This study offers a new method to create an accurate peat depth map while reducing field drilling data up to 75%. Ordinary least square (OLS) adjustments were used to estimate the elevation of the mineral soil surface based on the surrounding soil parameters. Orthophoto and Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) from LiDAR data of Tebing Tinggi Island, Riau, were used to determine morphology, topography, and spatial position parameters to define the DTM and its coefficients. Peat depth prediction models involving 100%, 50%, and 25% of the field points were developed using the OLS computations, and compared against the field survey data. Raster operations in a GIS were used in processing the DTM, to produce peat depth estimations. The results show that the soil map produced from OLS provided peat depth estimations with no significant difference from the field depth data at a mean absolute error of ±1 meter. The use of LiDAR data and the OLS method provides a cost-effective methodology for estimating peat depth and mapping for the purpose of supporting peat restoration.

Where old meets new: An ecosystem study of methanogenesis in a reflooded agricultural peatland

Reflooding formerly drained peatlands has been proposed as a means to reduce losses of organic matter and sequester soil carbon for climate change mitigation, but a renewal of high methane emissions has been reported for these ecosystems, offsetting mitigation potential. Our ability to interpret observed methane fluxes in reflooded peatlands and make predictions about future flux trends is limited due to a lack of detailed studies of methanogenic processes. In this study we investigate methanogenesis in a reflooded agricultural peatland in the Sacramento Delta, California. We use the stable-and radio-carbon isotopic signatures of wetland sediment methane, ecosystem-scale eddy covariance flux observations, and laboratory incubation experiments, to identify which carbon sources and methanogenic production pathways fuel methanogenesis and how these processes are affected by vegetation and seasonality. We found that the old peat contribution to annual methane emissions was large (~30%) compared to intact wetlands, indicating a biogeochemical legacy of drainage. However, fresh carbon and the acetoclastic pathway still accounted for the majority of methanogenesis throughout the year. Although temperature sensitivities for bulk peat methanogenesis were similar between open-water (Q₁₀  = 2.1) and vegetated (Q₁₀  = 2.3) soils, methane production from both fresh and old carbon sources showed pronounced seasonality in vegetated zones. We conclude that high methane emissions in restored wetlands constitute a biogeochemical trade-off with contemporary carbon uptake, given that methane efflux is fueled primarily by fresh carbon inputs.

Land Use Change in the Major Bays Along the Coast of the South China Sea in Southeast Asia from 1988 to 2018

Bays are some of the core areas for marine economic development. The South China Sea coast is one of the most developed and dynamic places in the Asia-Pacific. In this study, we focused on the large bays surrounding the South China Sea. The techniques of image segmentation and supervised classification as well as image interpretation were used to acquire land-use data of 41 bays from 1988 to 2018. Then, we quantified the intensity and pattern of land-use and land-cover change during the two periods. Plantation land was the dominant agriculture land type as well as the second land use type after natural forest. Agriculture land cover increased from 29.8% to 40.9% and the growth was driven by plantation expansion. Deforestation was serious, including both natural forests and mangroves. Natural forest cover decreased by 31.6% and mangrove cover decreased by 16.2%. The vast majority of forest loss occurred in Sumatra and western Kalimantan. Commodity-driven deforestation for plantations was the major reason for forest loss.

Effects of distance from canal and degradation history on peat bulk density in a degraded tropical peatland

Over recent decades, the combination of deforestation, peat drainage and fires have resulted in widespread degradation of Southeast Asia's tropical peatlands. These disturbances are generally thought to increase peat soil bulk density through peat drying and shrinkage, compaction, and consolidation. Biological oxidation and fires burning across these landscapes also consume surface peat, exposing older peat strata. The prevalence and severity of deforestation, peat drainage and fire are typically greater closer to canals, built to drain peatlands and provide access routes for people. We compared bulk densities of 240cm peat profiles from intact forests and degraded peatlands broadly, and also assessed differences between degraded peatlands near-to-canals (50-200m from the nearest canal) and far-from-canals (300+ m from the nearest canal). The effects of vegetation type and fire frequency on bulk density, irrespective of the distance from canal, were also investigated. Mean bulk density values ranged between 0.08 and 0.16gcm^-3 throughout the 240cm peat profiles. Drainage of peat near-to-canals increased bulk density of peat above the minimum water table depth. Degradation by deforestation and fire also increased bulk densities of upper peat strata, albeit with greater variability. Peat sampled further from canals experienced less intense water table drawdowns, buffering them from drainage effects. These areas were also more commonly forested and burnt less frequently. Differences in bulk densities below minimum water table levels are less clear, but may reflect lowering of the current peat surface in degraded peatlands broadly. These results clearly show that important differences in bulk density exist across degraded peatlands that are spatially dependent on distance from canals and disturbance history. These landscape features should be taken into account when designing future bulk density sampling efforts and peatland restoration programs, or when extrapolating from existing sources in order to make accurate inferences from them.

Relationship Between Fire and Forest Cover Loss in Riau Province, Indonesia Between 2001 and 2012

Forest and peatland fires occur regularly across Indonesia, resulting in large greenhouse gas emissions and causing major air quality issues. Over the last few decades, Indonesia has also experienced extensive forest loss and conversion of natural forest to oil palm and timber plantations. Here we used data on fire hotspots and tree-cover loss, as well as information on the extent of peat land, protected areas, and concessions to explore spatial and temporal relationships among forest, forest loss, and fire frequency. We focus on the Riau Province in Central Sumatra, one of the most active regions of fire in Indonesia. We find strong relationships between forest loss and fire at the local scale. Regions with forest loss experienced six times as many fire hotspots compared to regions with no forest loss. Forest loss and maximum fire frequency occurred within the same year, or one year apart, in 70% of the 1 km2 cells experiencing both forest loss and fire. Frequency of fire was lower both before and after forest loss, suggesting that most fire is associated with the forest loss process. On peat soils, fire frequency was a factor 10 to 100 lower in protected areas and natural forest logging concessions compared to oil palm and wood fiber (timber) concessions. Efforts to reduce fire need to address the underlying role of land-use and land-cover change in the occurrence of fire. Increased support for protected areas and natural forest logging concessions and restoration of degraded peatlands may reduce future fire risk. During times of high fire risk, fire suppression resources should be targeted to regions that are experiencing recent forest loss, as these regions are most likely to experience fire.

The future of Southeast Asia's forests

While Southeast Asia's forests play important roles in biodiversity conservation and global carbon (C) balance, the region is also a deforestation hotspot. Here, we consider the five shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) to portray a range of plausible futures for the region's forests, employing a state-of-the-art land change modelling procedure and remotely sensed data. We find that by 2050 under the worst-case scenario, SSP 3 (regional rivalry/a rocky road), the region's forests would shrink by 5.2 million ha. The region's aboveground forest carbon stock (AFCS) would decrease by 790 Tg C, 21% of which would be due to old-growth forest loss. Conversely, under the best-case scenario, SSP 1 (sustainability/taking the green road), the region is projected to gain 19.6 million ha of forests and 1651 Tg C of AFCS. The choice of the pathway is thus critical for the future of the region's forests and their ecosystem functions and services.

Thermal-Drones as a Safe and Reliable Method for Detecting Subterranean Peat Fires

Underground peat fires are a major hazard to health and livelihoods in Indonesia, and are a major contributor to carbon emissions globally. Being subterranean, these fires can be difficult to detect and track, especially during periods of thick haze and in areas with limited accessibility. Thermal infrared detectors mounted on drones present a potential solution to detecting and managing underground fires, as they allow large areas to be surveyed quickly from above and can detect the heat transferred to the surface above a fire. We present a pilot study in which we show that underground peat fires can indeed be detected in this way. We also show that a simple temperature thresholding algorithm can be used to automatically detect them. We investigate how different thermal cameras and drone flying strategies may be used to reliably detect underground fires and survey fire-prone areas. We conclude that thermal equipped drones are potentially a very powerful tool for surveying for fires and firefighting. However, more investigation is still needed into their use in real-life fire detection and firefighting scenarios.

Pulmonary exposure to peat smoke extracts in rats decreases expiratory time and increases left heart end systolic volume

Exposure to wildland fire-related particulate matter (PM) causes adverse health outcomes. However, the impacts of specific biomass sources remain unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate cardiopulmonary responses in rats following exposure to PM extracts collected from peat fire smoke. We hypothesized that peat smoke PM would dose-dependently alter cardiopulmonary function. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 8/group) were exposed to 35 µg (Lo PM) or 350 µg (Hi PM) of peat smoke PM extracts suspended in saline, or saline alone (Vehicle) via oropharyngeal aspiration (OA). Ventilatory expiration times, measured in whole-body plethysmographs immediately after OA, were the lowest in Hi PM exposed subjects at 6 min into recovery (p = .01 vs. Lo PM, p = .08 vs. Vehicle) and resolved shortly afterwards. The next day, we evaluated cardiovascular function in the same subjects via cardiac ultrasound under isoflurane anesthesia. Compared to Vehicle, Hi PM had 45% higher end systolic volume (p = .03) and 17% higher pulmonary artery blood flow acceleration/ejection time ratios, and both endpoints expressed significant increasing linear trends by dose (p = .01 and .02, respectively). In addition, linear trend analyses across doses detected an increase for end diastolic volume and decreases for ejection fraction and fractional shortening. These data suggest that exposure to peat smoke constituents modulates regulation of ventricular ejection and filling volumes, which could be related to altered blood flow in the pulmonary circulation. Moreover, early pulmonary responses to peat smoke PM point to irritant/autonomic mechanisms as potential drivers of later cardiovascular responses.

Smoke radiocarbon measurements from Indonesian fires provide evidence for burning of millennia-aged peat

In response to a strong El Niño, fires in Indonesia during September and October 2015 released a large amount of carbon dioxide and created a massive regional smoke cloud that severely degraded air quality in many urban centers across Southeast Asia. Although several lines of evidence indicate that peat burning was a dominant contributor to emissions in the region, El Niño-induced drought is also known to increase deforestation fires and agricultural waste burning in plantations. As a result, uncertainties remain with respect to partitioning emissions among different ecosystem and fire types. Here we measured the radiocarbon content (¹⁴C) of carbonaceous aerosol samples collected in Singapore from September 2014 through October 2015, with the aim of identifying the age and origin of fire-emitted fine particulate matter (particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 2.5 μm). The Δ¹⁴C of fire-emitted aerosol was -76 ± 51‰, corresponding to a carbon pool of combusted organic matter with a mean turnover time of 800 ± 420 y. Our observations indicated that smoke plumes reaching Singapore originated primarily from peat burning (∼85%), and not from deforestation fires or waste burning. Atmospheric transport modeling confirmed that fires in Sumatra and Borneo were dominant contributors to elevated PM_2.5 in Singapore during the fire season. The mean age of the carbonaceous aerosol, which predates the Industrial Revolution, highlights the importance of improving peatland fire management during future El Niño events for meeting climate mitigation and air quality commitments.