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Dubljanin E, Zunic J, Vujcic I, Colovic Calovski I, Sipetic Grujicic S, Mijatovic S, Dzamic A. Host-Pathogen Interaction and Resistance Mechanisms in Dermatophytes. Pathogens 2024; 13:657. [PMID: 39204257 PMCID: PMC11357293 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13080657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2024] [Revised: 08/01/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are widely distributed in the environment, with an estimated prevalence of 20-25% of the the global population yearly. These fungi are keratinophilic and keratinolytic and cause the infection of keratin-rich structures such as skin, hair, and nails. The pattern of this infectious disease covers a wide spectrum from exposed individuals without symptoms to those with acutely inflammatory or non-inflammatory, chronic to invasive, and even life-threatening symptoms. This review summarizes current information on the pathogenicity, virulence factors, and drug resistance mechanisms associated with dermatophytes. A greater number of virulence factors of these fungi are important for the occurrence of infection and the changes that occur, including those regarding adhesins, the sulfite efflux pump, and proteolytic enzymes. Other virulence factors include mechanisms of evading the host defense, while the development of resistance to antifungal drugs is increasing, resulting in treatment failure. The investigation of host-pathogen interactions is essential for developing a more complete understanding of the mechanisms underlying dermatophyte pathogenesis and host response to inform the use of diagnostics methods and antifungal therapeutics to minimize the high fungal burden caused by dermatophytes and to control the spread of resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Dubljanin
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Zunic
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Isidora Vujcic
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Epidemiology, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivana Colovic Calovski
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sandra Sipetic Grujicic
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Epidemiology, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Stefan Mijatovic
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandar Dzamic
- Faculty of Medicine, Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
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2
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Deng R, Wang X, Li R. Dermatophyte infection: from fungal pathogenicity to host immune responses. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1285887. [PMID: 38022599 PMCID: PMC10652793 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1285887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytosis is a common superficial infection caused by dermatophytes, a group of pathogenic keratinophilic fungi. Apart from invasion against skin barrier, host immune responses to dermatophytes could also lead to pathologic inflammation and tissue damage to some extent. Therefore, it is of great help to understand the pathogenesis of dermatophytes, including fungal virulence factors and anti-pathogen immune responses. This review aims to summarize the recent advances in host-fungal interactions, focusing on the mechanisms of anti-fungal immunity and the relationship between immune deficiency and chronic dermatophytosis, in order to facilitate novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches to improve the outcomes of these patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruixin Deng
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaowen Wang
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
| | - Ruoyu Li
- Department of Dermatology and Venerology, Peking University First Hospital, Beijing, China
- Research Center for Medical Mycology, Peking University, Beijing, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Skin and Immune Diseases, Beijing, China
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Molecular Diagnosis on Dermatoses, Beijing, China
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3
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Martins-Santana L, Petrucelli MF, Sanches PR, Martinez-Rossi NM, Rossi A. Peptidase Regulation in Trichophyton rubrum Is Mediated by the Synergism Between Alternative Splicing and StuA-Dependent Transcriptional Mechanisms. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:930398. [PMID: 35783403 PMCID: PMC9247388 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.930398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common causative agent of dermatophytosis worldwide and uses keratinized substrates such as skin and nails as its main source of nutrition during infection. Its pathogenic character relies on colonization and viability maintenance at the target host sites. Since fungal physiology must adapt and respond to host conditions for the successful establishment of infection, biological mechanisms are constantly being triggered by T. rubrum to guarantee its survival in the host environment. The ability of this fungus to sense and modulate the secretion of specific proteases according to environmental pH signaling is considered as a pivotal virulence factor for effective invasion and persistence of infection in the host. Transcriptional regulation of genes encoding specific proteases, such as peptidases, is a key biological process that drives physiological modulation to meet fungal requirements. It accomplishes a robust balance among transcript isoforms that can be directed to perform distinct cellular functions. Thus, alternative splicing mechanisms are suitable for fungal cells to establish a balance toward reprogramming protein translation to impair or boost physiological conditions. In this study, we investigated the role of alternative splicing, especially intron retention events, in generating isoforms of virulence factors in T. rubrum mediated by transcriptional coordination of the protein StuA, a recently described transcription factor in this fungus. By analyzing the previous gene expression data provided by RNA-sequencing and after validation by reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), we observed that two peptidase-coding genes (TERG_00734 and TERG_04614) could be direct targets of alternative splicing in the presence of keratin. Furthermore, protease isoforms generated by alternative splicing in T. rubrum were also detected in a co-culture with human keratinocytes, highlighting the role of these proteins in keratin deconstruction. Our results strongly suggest the influence of StuA on the regulation of virulence factors in T. rubrum and dermatophyte infections by triggering the transcription of the peptidase genes mentioned above in an alternative splicing-independent balance. The results elucidate how fungal cells drive alternate splicing to promote physiological adaptations and show that transcriptional regulation and virulence traits are robust elements required for dermatophyte infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Nilce M. Martinez-Rossi
- Laboratory of Genetics and Molecular Biology of Fungi, Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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Parker CW, Teixeira MDM, Singh NK, Raja HA, Cank KB, Spigolon G, Oberlies NH, Barker BM, Stajich JE, Mason CE, Venkateswaran K. Genomic Characterization of Parengyodontium torokii sp. nov., a Biofilm-Forming Fungus Isolated from Mars 2020 Assembly Facility. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8010066. [PMID: 35050006 PMCID: PMC8778116 DOI: 10.3390/jof8010066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A fungal strain (FJII-L10-SW-P1) was isolated from the Mars 2020 spacecraft assembly facility and exhibited biofilm formation on spacecraft-qualified Teflon surfaces. The reconstruction of a six-loci gene tree (ITS, LSU, SSU, RPB1 and RPB2, and TEF1) using multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) analyses of the strain FJII-L10-SW-P1 supported a close relationship to other known Parengyodontium album subclade 3 isolates while being phylogenetically distinct from subclade 1 strains. The zig-zag rachides morphology of the conidiogenous cells and spindle-shaped conidia were the distinct morphological characteristics of the P. album subclade 3 strains. The MLST data and morphological analysis supported the conclusion that the P. album subclade 3 strains could be classified as a new species of the genus Parengyodontium and placed in the family Cordycipitaceae. The name Parengyodontium torokii sp. nov. is proposed to accommodate the strain, with FJII-L10-SW-P1 as the holotype. The genome of the FJII-L10-SW-P1 strain was sequenced, annotated, and the secondary metabolite clusters were identified. Genes predicted to be responsible for biofilm formation and adhesion to surfaces were identified. Homology-based assignment of gene ontologies to the predicted proteome of P. torokii revealed the presence of gene clusters responsible for synthesizing several metabolic compounds, including a cytochalasin that was also verified using traditional metabolomic analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ceth W. Parker
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA; (C.W.P.); (N.K.S.)
| | - Marcus de Melo Teixeira
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (M.d.M.T.); (B.M.B.)
- School of Medicine, University of Brasilia, Brasilia 70910-900, Brazil
| | - Nitin K. Singh
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA; (C.W.P.); (N.K.S.)
| | - Huzefa A. Raja
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27412, USA; (H.A.R.); (K.B.C.); (N.H.O.)
| | - Kristof B. Cank
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27412, USA; (H.A.R.); (K.B.C.); (N.H.O.)
| | - Giada Spigolon
- Biological Imaging Facility, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA;
| | - Nicholas H. Oberlies
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC 27412, USA; (H.A.R.); (K.B.C.); (N.H.O.)
| | - Bridget M. Barker
- Pathogen and Microbiome Institute, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86011, USA; (M.d.M.T.); (B.M.B.)
| | - Jason E. Stajich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, University of California—Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA;
| | - Christopher E. Mason
- WorldQuant Initiative for Quantitative Prediction, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10065, USA;
| | - Kasthuri Venkateswaran
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA; (C.W.P.); (N.K.S.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-(818)-393-1481; Fax: +1-(818)-393-4176
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5
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Burchacka E, Pięta P, Łupicka-Słowik A. Recent advances in fungal serine protease inhibitors. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 146:112523. [PMID: 34902742 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Four types of antifungal drugs are available that include inhibitors of ergosterol synthesis, of fungal RNA biosynthesis, and of cell wall biosynthesis as well as physiochemical regulators of fungal membrane sterols. Increasing resistance to antifungal drugs can severely limit treatment options of fungal nail infections, vaginal candidiasis, ringworm, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, and Candida infections of the mouth, throat, and esophagus, among other infections. Development of strategies focused on new fungicides can effectively help tackle troublesome fungal diseases. The virulence and optimal growth of fungi depend on various extracellular secreted factors, among which proteases, such as serine proteases, are of particular interest. A specific extracellular proteolytic system enables fungi to survive and penetrate the tissues. Given the role of fungal proteases in infection, any molecule capable of selectively and specifically inhibiting their activity can lead to the development of potential drugs. Owing to their specific mode of action, fungal protease inhibitors can avoid fungal resistance observed with currently available treatments. Although fungal secreted proteases have been extensively studied as potential virulence factors, our understanding of the substrate specificity of such proteases remains poor. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the design and development of specific serine protease inhibitors and provide a brief history of the compounds that inhibit fungal serine protease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E Burchacka
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland.
| | - P Pięta
- Department of Bionic and Medical Experimental Biology, Poznań University of Medical Sciences, Parkowa 2 St, 60-775 Poznań, Poland
| | - A Łupicka-Słowik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Organic and Medicinal Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego St, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
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Abstract
The human skin is our outermost layer and serves as a protective barrier against external insults. Advances in next generation sequencing have enabled the discoveries of a rich and diverse community of microbes - bacteria, fungi and viruses that are residents of this surface. The genomes of these microbes also revealed the presence of many secretory enzymes. In particular, proteases which are hydrolytic enzymes capable of protein cleavage and degradation are of special interest in the skin environment which is enriched in proteins and lipids. In this minireview, we will focus on the roles of these skin-relevant microbial secreted proteases, both in terms of their widely studied roles as pathogenic agents in tissue invasion and host immune inactivation, and their recently discovered roles in inter-microbial interactions and modulation of virulence factors. From these studies, it has become apparent that while microbial proteases are capable of a wide range of functions, their expression is tightly regulated and highly responsive to the environments the microbes are in. With the introduction of new biochemical and bioinformatics tools to study protease functions, it will be important to understand the roles played by skin microbial secretory proteases in cutaneous health, especially the less studied commensal microbes with an emphasis on contextual relevance.
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Li Q. Structure, Application, and Biochemistry of Microbial Keratinases. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:674345. [PMID: 34248885 PMCID: PMC8260994 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.674345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratinases belong to a class of proteases that are able to degrade keratins into amino acids. Microbial keratinases play important roles in turning keratin-containing wastes into value-added products by participating in the degradation of keratin. Keratin is found in human and animal hard tissues, and its complicated structures make it resistant to degradation by common proteases. Although breaking disulfide bonds are involved in keratin degradation, keratinase is responsible for the cleavage of peptides, making it attractive in pharmaceutical and feather industries. Keratinase can serve as an important tool to convert keratin-rich wastes such as feathers from poultry industry into diverse products applicable to many fields. Despite of some progress made in isolating keratinase-producing microorganisms, structural studies of keratinases, and biochemical characterization of these enzymes, effort is still required to expand the biotechnological application of keratinase in diverse fields by identifying more keratinases, understanding the mechanism of action and constructing more active enzymes through molecular biology and protein engineering. Herein, this review covers structures, applications, biochemistry of microbial keratinases, and strategies to improve its efficiency in keratin degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Biomass High Value Utilization, Institute of Bioengineering, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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8
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Lopes AI, Tavaria FK, Pintado ME. Conventional and natural compounds for the treatment of dermatophytosis. Med Mycol 2021; 58:707-720. [PMID: 31773153 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myz116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are a group of pathogenic fungi that exclusively infect the stratum corneum of the skin, nails, and hair, causing dermatophytosis. Superficial skin infections caused by dermatophytes have increased in the last decades. There are conventional antifungals that treat these infections, such as terbinafine, fluconazole, and others. However, the limitations of these treatments (resistance, side effects and toxicity) along with the increasing over-prescription, the misuse of these antifungals and the high treatment costs led to the search for new, alternative, natural-based antifungal drugs. These have multiple mechanisms of action, which works to their advantage, making it difficult for a fungus to create resistance mechanisms against all of them at the same time. The main objective of this work is to provide a state-of-the-art review on dermatophytes, dermatophytosis, and the existing treatments, both conventional and natural, such as chitosan and essential oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana I Lopes
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Rua de Diogo Botelho, 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal
| | - Freni K Tavaria
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Rua de Diogo Botelho, 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal
| | - Manuela E Pintado
- Centro de Biotecnologia e Química Fina - Laboratório Associado, Escola Superior de Biotecnologia, Universidade Católica Portuguesa/Porto, Rua de Diogo Botelho, 1327, 4169-005 Porto, Portugal
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9
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Sardana K, Gupta A, Mathachan SR. Immunopathogenesis of Dermatophytoses and Factors Leading to Recalcitrant Infections. Indian Dermatol Online J 2021; 12:389-399. [PMID: 34211904 PMCID: PMC8202482 DOI: 10.4103/idoj.idoj_503_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of dermatophytic infections involves the interplay of three major factors: the dermatophyte, the inherent host defense, and the adaptive host immune response. The fungal virulence factors determine the adhesion and invasion of the skin while the immune response depends on an interaction of the pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMP) with pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of the host, which lead to a differential Th (T helper) 1, Th2, Th17, and Treg response. While anthropophilic dermatophytes Trichophyton rubrum and now increasingly by T. interdigitale subvert the immune response via mannans, zoophilic species are eliminated due to a brisk immune response. Notably, delayed-type hypersensitivity (Th1) response of T lymphocytes causes the elimination of fungal infection, while chronic disease caused by anthropophilic species corresponds to toll-like receptor 2 mediated IL (interleukin)-10 release and generation of T-regulatory cells with immunosuppressive potential. Major steps that determine the ultimate clinical course and chronicity include genetic susceptibility factors, impaired epidermal and immunological barriers, variations in the composition of sebum and sweat, carbon dioxide tension, skin pH, and topical steroid abuse. It is important to understand these multifarious aspects to surmount the problem of recalcitrant dermatophytosis when the disorder fails conventional therapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kabir Sardana
- Department of Dermatology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Aastha Gupta
- Department of Dermatology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, India
| | - Sinu Rose Mathachan
- Department of Dermatology, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, New Delhi, India
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10
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Ge LY, Liu J, Zheng HL, Mei H, Liang GZ, Liu WD. Comprehensive genome and transcriptome analysis of the dermatophyte Trichophyton schoenleinii reveals the candidate pathogenic genes. Mycoses 2021; 64:624-633. [PMID: 33586267 DOI: 10.1111/myc.13257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trichophyton schoenleinii is an anthropophilic dermatophyte that causes tinea favosa. Nowadays, it remains an important pathogen in some regions of the world, mainly epidemic in Africa and West Asia. Despite the medical importance of T. schoenleinii infections, a high-quality reference genome for T. schoenleinii is still unavailable, neither its transcriptomic profile. OBJECTIVES The aim of the current study was to improve understanding of the underlying pathogenic mechanism of T. schoenleinii, and to define the candidate pathogenic genes of T. schoenleinii. METHODS Comprehensive genomic analysis of T. schoenleinii was carried out by Illumina and PacBio sequencing platforms. Transcriptome profiles of T. schoenleinii cultured in vitro in two media containing either keratin or soy protein were determined using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. RESULTS Here, we present the first draft genome sequence of T. schoenleinii strain T2s, which consists of 11 scaffolds containing 7474 predicted genes. Transcriptome analysis showed that genes involved in keratin hydrolysis have higher expression in T. schoenleinii grown in keratin medium, including genes encoding proteases, cysteine dioxygenase and acetamidase. Other genes with higher expression include genes encoding the components of the pH-responsive signal transduction pathways and transcription factors, many of which may play a role in pathogenicity. CONCLUSION In summary, this study provides new insights into the pathogenic mechanism of T. schoenleinii and highlights candidate genes for further development of novel targets in disease diagnosis and treatment of tinea favosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Yu Ge
- Department of Medical Mycology, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China
| | - Jia Liu
- Department of Medical Mycology, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China.,Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Hai-Lin Zheng
- Department of Medical Mycology, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Nanjing, China
| | - Huan Mei
- Department of Medical Mycology, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Nanjing, China
| | - Guan-Zhao Liang
- Department of Medical Mycology, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Nanjing, China
| | - Wei-Da Liu
- Department of Medical Mycology, Institute of Dermatology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences and Peking Union Medical College, Nanjing, China.,Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology for Skin Diseases and STIs, Nanjing, China.,Center for Global Health, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
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11
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Dong Z, Yang S, Lee BH. Bioinformatic mapping of a more precise Aspergillus niger degradome. Sci Rep 2021; 11:693. [PMID: 33436802 PMCID: PMC7804941 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-80028-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus niger has the ability to produce a large variety of proteases, which are of particular importance for protein digestion, intracellular protein turnover, cell signaling, flavour development, extracellular matrix remodeling and microbial defense. However, the A. niger degradome (the full repertoire of peptidases encoded by the A. niger genome) available is not accurate and comprehensive. Herein, we have utilized annotations of A. niger proteases in AspGD, JGI, and version 12.2 MEROPS database to compile an index of at least 232 putative proteases that are distributed into the 71 families/subfamilies and 26 clans of the 6 known catalytic classes, which represents ~ 1.64% of the 14,165 putative A. niger protein content. The composition of the A. niger degradome comprises ~ 7.3% aspartic, ~ 2.2% glutamic, ~ 6.0% threonine, ~ 17.7% cysteine, ~ 31.0% serine, and ~ 35.8% metallopeptidases. One hundred and two proteases have been reassigned into the above six classes, while the active sites and/or metal-binding residues of 110 proteases were recharacterized. The probable physiological functions and active site architectures of these peptidases were also investigated. This work provides a more precise overview of the complete degradome of A. niger, which will no doubt constitute a valuable resource and starting point for further experimental studies on the biochemical characterization and physiological roles of these proteases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixing Dong
- Henan Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Insect Bio-Reactor and Henan Key Laboratory of Ecological Security for Water Region of Mid-Line of South-To-North, Nanyang Normal University, 1638 Wolong Road, Nanyang, 473061, Henan, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shuangshuang Yang
- College of Physical Education, Nanyang Normal University, Nanyang, 473061, People's Republic of China
| | - Byong H Lee
- Department of Microbiology/Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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12
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Patel PM, Jones VA, Kridin K, Amber KT. The role of Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 in cutaneous disease. Exp Dermatol 2020; 30:304-318. [PMID: 33131073 DOI: 10.1111/exd.14228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP4) is a multifunctional, transmembrane glycoprotein present on the cell surface of various tissues. It is present in multiple molecular forms including cell surface and soluble. The role of DPP4 and its inhibition in cutaneous dermatoses have been a recent point of investigation. DPP4 exerts a notable influence on T-cell biology, the induction of skin-specific lymphocytes, and the homeostasis between regulatory and effector T cells. Moreover, DPP4 interacts with a broad range of molecules, including adenosine deaminase, caveolin-1, CXCR4 receptor, M6P/insulin-like growth factor II-receptor and fibroblast activation protein-α, triggering downstream effects that modulate the immune response, cell adhesion and chemokine activity. DPP4 expression on melanocytes, keratinocytes and fibroblasts further alters cell function and, thus, has crucial implications in cutaneous pathology. As a result, DPP4 plays a significant role in bullous pemphigoid, T helper type 1-like reactions, cutaneous lymphoma, melanoma, wound healing and fibrotic disorders. This review illustrates the multifactorial role of DPP4 expression, regulation, and inhibition in cutaneous diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Payal M Patel
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Virginia A Jones
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Khalaf Kridin
- Department of Dermatology, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Kyle T Amber
- Department of Dermatology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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13
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Microbial enzymes catalyzing keratin degradation: Classification, structure, function. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44:107607. [PMID: 32768519 PMCID: PMC7405893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Keratin is an insoluble and protein-rich epidermal material found in e.g. feather, wool, hair. It is produced in substantial amounts as co-product from poultry processing plants and pig slaughterhouses. Keratin is packed by disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds. Based on the secondary structure, keratin can be classified into α-keratin and β-keratin. Keratinases (EC 3.4.-.- peptide hydrolases) have major potential to degrade keratin for sustainable recycling of the protein and amino acids. Currently, the known keratinolytic enzymes belong to at least 14 different protease families: S1, S8, S9, S10, S16, M3, M4, M14, M16, M28, M32, M36, M38, M55 (MEROPS database). The various keratinolytic enzymes act via endo-attack (proteases in families S1, S8, S16, M4, M16, M36), exo-attack (proteases in families S9, S10, M14, M28, M38, M55) or by action only on oligopeptides (proteases in families M3, M32), respectively. Other enzymes, particularly disulfide reductases, also play a key role in keratin degradation as they catalyze the breakage of disulfide bonds for better keratinase catalysis. This review aims to contribute an overview of keratin biomass as an enzyme substrate and a systematic analysis of currently sequenced keratinolytic enzymes and their classification and reaction mechanisms. We also summarize and discuss keratinase assays, available keratinase structures and finally examine the available data on uses of keratinases in practical biorefinery protein upcycling applications.
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Nasipuri P, Herschend J, Brejnrod AD, Madsen JS, Espersen R, Svensson B, Burmølle M, Jacquiod S, Sørensen SJ. Community-intrinsic properties enhance keratin degradation from bacterial consortia. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0228108. [PMID: 32004342 PMCID: PMC6994199 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0228108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 01/07/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although organic matter may accumulate sometimes (e.g. lignocellulose in peat bog), most natural biodegradation processes are completed until full mineralization. Such transformations are often achieved by the concerted action of communities of interacting microbes, involving different species each performing specific tasks. These interactions can give rise to novel "community-intrinsic" properties, through e.g. activation of so-called "silent genetic pathways" or synergistic interplay between microbial activities and functions. Here we studied the microbial community-based degradation of keratin, a recalcitrant biological material, by four soil isolates, which have previously been shown to display synergistic interactions during biofilm formation; Stenotrophomonas rhizophila, Xanthomonas retroflexus, Microbacterium oxydans and Paenibacillus amylolyticus. We observed enhanced keratin weight loss in cultures with X. retroflexus, both in dual and four-species co-cultures, as compared to expected keratin degradation by X. retroflexus alone. Additional community intrinsic properties included accelerated keratin degradation rates and increased biofilm formation on keratin particles. Comparison of secretome profiles of X. retroflexus mono-cultures to co-cultures revealed that certain proteases (e.g. serine protease S08) were significantly more abundant in mono-cultures, whereas co-cultures had an increased abundance of proteins related to maintaining the redox environment, e.g. glutathione peroxidase. Hence, one of the mechanisms related to the community intrinsic properties, leading to enhanced degradation from co-cultures, might be related to a switch from sulfitolytic to proteolytic functions between mono- and co-cultures, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poonam Nasipuri
- Section for Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jakob Herschend
- Section for Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Asker D. Brejnrod
- Novo Nordic Foundation Center For Basic Metabolic Research, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jonas S. Madsen
- Section for Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Roall Espersen
- DTU Bioengineering, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Birte Svensson
- DTU Bioengineering, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Mette Burmølle
- Section for Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Samuel Jacquiod
- Section for Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Søren J. Sørensen
- Section for Microbiology, Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Trichophyton rubrum Azole Resistance Mediated by a New ABC Transporter, TruMDR3. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2019; 63:AAC.00863-19. [PMID: 31501141 PMCID: PMC6811443 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00863-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms of terbinafine resistance in a set of clinical isolates of Trichophyton rubrum have been studied recently. Of these isolates, TIMM20092 also showed reduced sensitivity to azoles. The azole resistance of TIMM20092 could be inhibited by milbemycin oxime, prompting us to examine the potential of T. rubrum to develop resistance through multidrug efflux transporters. The mechanisms of terbinafine resistance in a set of clinical isolates of Trichophyton rubrum have been studied recently. Of these isolates, TIMM20092 also showed reduced sensitivity to azoles. The azole resistance of TIMM20092 could be inhibited by milbemycin oxime, prompting us to examine the potential of T. rubrum to develop resistance through multidrug efflux transporters. The introduction of a T. rubrum cDNA library into Saccharomyces cerevisiae allowed the isolation of one transporter of the major facilitator superfamily (MFS) conferring resistance to azoles (TruMFS1). To identify more azole efflux pumps among 39 ABC and 170 MFS transporters present within the T. rubrum genome, we performed a BLASTp analysis of Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, and Candida glabrata on transporters that were previously shown to confer azole resistance. The identified candidates were further tested by heterologous gene expression in S. cerevisiae. Four ABC transporters (TruMDR1, TruMDR2, TruMDR3, and TruMDR5) and a second MFS transporter (TruMFS2) proved to be able to operate as azole efflux pumps. Milbemycin oxime inhibited only TruMDR3. Expression analysis showed that both TruMDR3 and TruMDR2 were significantly upregulated in TIMM20092. TruMDR3 transports voriconazole (VRC) and itraconazole (ITC), while TruMDR2 transports only ITC. Disruption of TruMDR3 in TIMM20092 abolished its resistance to VRC and reduced its resistance to ITC. Our study highlights TruMDR3, a newly identified transporter of the ABC family in T. rubrum, which can confer azole resistance if overexpressed. Finally, inhibition of TruMDR3 by milbemycin suggests that milbemycin analogs could be interesting compounds to treat dermatophyte infections in cases of azole resistance.
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Mercer DK, Stewart CS. Keratin hydrolysis by dermatophytes. Med Mycol 2019; 57:13-22. [PMID: 29361043 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are the most common cause of superficial fungal infections (tinea infections) and are a specialized group of filamentous fungi capable of infecting and degrading keratinised tissues, including skin, hair, and nail. Essential to their pathogenicity and virulence is the production of a broad spectrum of proteolytic enzymes and other key proteins involved in keratin biodegradation and utilization of its breakdown products. The initial stage of biodegradation of native keratin is considered to be sulfitolysis, in which the extensive disulfide bridges present in keratin are hydrolyzed, although some secreted subtilisins can degrade dye-impregnated keratin azure without prior reduction (Sub3 and Sub4). Sulfitolysis facilitates the extracellular biodegradation of keratin by the dermatophytes' extensive array of endo- and exoproteases. The importance of dermatophyte proteases in infection is widely recognized, and these enzymes have also been identified as important virulence determinants and allergens. Finally, the short peptide and amino acid breakdown products are taken up by the dermatophytes, using as yet poorly characterised transporters, and utilized for metabolism. In this review, we describe the process of keratin biodegradation by dermatophytes, with an especial focus on recent developments in cutting edge molecular biology and '-omic' studies that are helping to dissect the complex process of keratin breakdown and utilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derry K Mercer
- NovaBiotics Ltd, Cruickshank Building, Craibstone, Aberdeen, AB21 9TR, United Kingdom
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Gräser Y, Monod M, Bouchara JP, Dukik K, Nenoff P, Kargl A, Kupsch C, Zhan P, Packeu A, Chaturvedi V, de Hoog S. New insights in dermatophyte research. Med Mycol 2018. [PMID: 29538740 DOI: 10.1093/mmy/myx141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophyte research has renewed interest because of changing human floras with changing socioeconomic conditions, and because of severe chronic infections in patients with congenital immune disorders. Main taxonomic traits at the generic level have changed considerably, and now fine-tuning at the species level with state-of-the-art technology has become urgent. Research on virulence factors focuses on secreted proteases now has support in genome data. It is speculated that most protease families are used for degrading hard keratin during nitrogen recycling in the environment, while others, such as Sub6 may have emerged as a result of ancestral gene duplication, and are likely to have specific roles during infection. Virulence may differ between mating partners of the same species and concepts of zoo- and anthropophily may require revision in some recently redefined species. Many of these questions benefit from international cooperation and exchange of materials. The aim of the ISHAM Working Group Dermatophytes aims to stimulate and coordinate international networking on these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yvonne Gräser
- Nationales Konsiliarlabor für Dermatophyten, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Karolina Dukik
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Pietro Nenoff
- Labor für Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Mölbis, Germany
| | | | - Christiane Kupsch
- Nationales Konsiliarlabor für Dermatophyten, Institut für Mikrobiologie und Hygiene, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ping Zhan
- Jiangxi Dermatology Hospital and Jiangxi Dermatology Institute, Nanchang, China
| | - Ann Packeu
- Mycologie & Aerobiologie Scientific Institute of Public Health, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Sybren de Hoog
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Tigga RA, Das S, Bhattacharya SN, Saha R, Pandhi D, Datt S, Rai G. Burden of Chronic Dermatophytosis in a Tertiary Care Hospital: Interaction of Fungal Virulence and Host Immunity. Mycopathologia 2018; 183:951-959. [DOI: 10.1007/s11046-018-0303-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Microbial production and industrial applications of keratinases: an overview. Int Microbiol 2018; 21:163-174. [DOI: 10.1007/s10123-018-0022-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Petrucelli MF, Peronni K, Sanches PR, Komoto TT, Matsuda JB, Silva Junior WAD, Beleboni RO, Martinez-Rossi NM, Marins M, Fachin AL. Dual RNA-Seq Analysis of Trichophyton rubrum and HaCat Keratinocyte Co-Culture Highlights Important Genes for Fungal-Host Interaction. Genes (Basel) 2018; 9:genes9070362. [PMID: 30029541 PMCID: PMC6070946 DOI: 10.3390/genes9070362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 07/11/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum is the major fungal pathogen of skin, hair, and nails that uses keratinized substrates as the primary nutrients during infection. Few strategies are available that permit a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in the interaction of T. rubrum with the host because of the limitations of models mimicking this interaction. Dual RNA-seq is a powerful tool to unravel this complex interaction since it enables simultaneous evaluation of the transcriptome of two organisms. Using this technology in an in vitro model of co-culture, this study evaluated the transcriptional profile of genes involved in fungus-host interactions in 24 h. Our data demonstrated the induction of glyoxylate cycle genes, ERG6 and TERG_00916, which encodes a carboxylic acid transporter that may improve the assimilation of nutrients and fungal survival in the host. Furthermore, genes encoding keratinolytic proteases were also induced. In human keratinocytes (HaCat) cells, the SLC11A1, RNASE7, and CSF2 genes were induced and the products of these genes are known to have antimicrobial activity. In addition, the FLG and KRT1 genes involved in the epithelial barrier integrity were inhibited. This analysis showed the modulation of important genes involved in T. rubrum–host interaction, which could represent potential antifungal targets for the treatment of dermatophytoses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kamila Peronni
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Bioinformatics, Regional Hemotherapy Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto 2501, Brazil.
| | - Pablo Rodrigo Sanches
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil.
| | | | - Josie Budag Matsuda
- Biotechnology Unit, University of Ribeirão Preto-UNAERP, São Paulo 2201, Brazil.
| | - Wilson Araújo da Silva Junior
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics and Bioinformatics, Regional Hemotherapy Center of Ribeirão Preto, Ribeirão Preto 2501, Brazil.
| | | | - Nilce Maria Martinez-Rossi
- Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14049-900, Brazil.
| | - Mozart Marins
- Biotechnology Unit, University of Ribeirão Preto-UNAERP, São Paulo 2201, Brazil.
| | - Ana Lúcia Fachin
- Biotechnology Unit, University of Ribeirão Preto-UNAERP, São Paulo 2201, Brazil.
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Eymann C, Wachlin G, Albrecht D, Tiede S, Krummrei U, Jünger M, Hecker M, Daeschlein G. Exoproteome Analysis of Human Pathogenic Dermatophyte Species and Identification of Immunoreactive Proteins. Proteomics Clin Appl 2018; 12:e1800007. [PMID: 29952123 DOI: 10.1002/prca.201800007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Increasing incidence of onychomycosis and tinea pedis in humans of industrialized countries together with deep tissue infections are a therapeutic challenge in clinical mycology. For a better understanding of the pathology and immunology of infection, the authors analyze the exoproteomes of three reference strains of the most common clinical dermatophyte species (Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton interdigitale, Arthroderma benhamiae) and of Trichophyton strains isolated from affected patients. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Extracellular proteins of those in vitro grown strains are separated via 2D High Performance Electrophoresis and identified by mass spectrometry to find proteins with provoked host immune reactivity. RESULTS More than 80 secreted proteins including virulence factors such as peptidases and other hydrolases are identified. By Western blotting with respective patient sera, up to 31 proteins with significant antigen-antibody reactions are detected in comparison with control sera, for example, peptidases as well as several oxidoreductases. One protein, beta-glucosidase F2SZI9 seems to be a commonly processed antigen in all Trichophyton infections. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE These first global exoproteome data of three dermatophyte species can be a stepping stone on the way to further study the molecular mechanisms of Trichophyton pathogenicity-associated traits. Possible candidates for potential new diagnostic methods or vaccination have to be validated in further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Eymann
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, University Medicine Greifswald, 17475, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Gerhild Wachlin
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Dirk Albrecht
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Stephan Tiede
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, EUROIMMUN AG, 17475, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Ulrike Krummrei
- EUROIMMUN Medizinische Labordiagnostika AG, 23560, Lübeck, Germany
| | - Michael Jünger
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Hautkrankheiten, University Medicine Greifswald, 17475, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Michael Hecker
- Institute of Microbiology, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt-University Greifswald, 17489, Greifswald, Germany
| | - Georg Daeschlein
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Hautkrankheiten, University Medicine Greifswald, 17475, Greifswald, Germany
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Assessment of the subtilisin genes in Trichophyton rubrum and Microsporum canis from dermatophytosis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s00580-018-2745-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Abstract
Humans are exceptional among vertebrates in that their living tissue is directly exposed to the outside world. In the absence of protective scales, feathers, or fur, the skin has to be highly effective in defending the organism against the gamut of opportunistic fungi surrounding us. Most (sub)cutaneous infections enter the body by implantation through the skin barrier. On intact skin, two types of fungal expansion are noted: (A) colonization by commensals, i.e., growth enabled by conditions prevailing on the skin surface without degradation of tissue, and (B) infection by superficial pathogens that assimilate epidermal keratin and interact with the cellular immune system. In a response-damage framework, all fungi are potentially able to cause disease, as a balance between their natural predilection and the immune status of the host. For this reason, we will not attribute a fixed ecological term to each species, but rather describe them as growing in a commensal state (A) or in a pathogenic state (B).
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Roppongi S, Suzuki Y, Tateoka C, Fujimoto M, Morisawa S, Iizuka I, Nakamura A, Honma N, Shida Y, Ogasawara W, Tanaka N, Sakamoto Y, Nonaka T. Crystal structures of a bacterial dipeptidyl peptidase IV reveal a novel substrate recognition mechanism distinct from that of mammalian orthologues. Sci Rep 2018; 8:2714. [PMID: 29426867 PMCID: PMC5807507 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-21056-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV, DPP4, or DAP IV) preferentially cleaves substrate peptides with Pro or Ala at the P1 position. The substrate recognition mechanism has been fully elucidated for mammalian DPP IV by crystal structure analyses but not for bacterial orthologues. Here, we report the crystal structures of a bacterial DPP IV (PmDAP IV) in its free form and in complexes with two kinds of dipeptides as well as with a non-peptidyl inhibitor at 1.90 to 2.47 Å resolution. Acyl-enzyme intermediates were observed for the dipeptide complexes of PmDAP IV, whereas tetrahedral intermediates were reported for the oligopeptide complexes of mammalian DPP IVs. This variation reflects the different structural environments of the active site Arg residues, which are involved in the recognition of a substrate carbonyl group, of mammalian and bacterial enzymes. A phylogenetic analysis revealed that PmDAP IV is a closer relative of dipeptidyl peptidases 8 and 9 (DPP8 and DPP9, DPP IV-family enzymes) than DPP IV. These results provide new insights into the substrate recognition mechanism of bacterial DAP IVs and may assist in the development of selective inhibitors for DAP IVs from pathogenic asaccharolytic bacteria, which utilise proteins or peptides as an energy source.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saori Roppongi
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Suzuki
- Department of Bioengineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1 Kamitomioka, Nagaoka, Niigata, 940-2188, Japan
| | - Chika Tateoka
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
| | - Mayu Fujimoto
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
| | - Saori Morisawa
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
| | - Ippei Iizuka
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
| | - Akihiro Nakamura
- Department of Bioengineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1 Kamitomioka, Nagaoka, Niigata, 940-2188, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Honma
- Department of Bioengineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1 Kamitomioka, Nagaoka, Niigata, 940-2188, Japan
| | - Yosuke Shida
- Department of Bioengineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1 Kamitomioka, Nagaoka, Niigata, 940-2188, Japan
| | - Wataru Ogasawara
- Department of Bioengineering, Nagaoka University of Technology, 1603-1 Kamitomioka, Nagaoka, Niigata, 940-2188, Japan.
| | - Nobutada Tanaka
- School of Pharmacy, Showa University, 1-5-8 Hatanodai, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo, 142-8555, Japan.
| | - Yasumitsu Sakamoto
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
| | - Takamasa Nonaka
- School of Pharmacy, Iwate Medical University, 2-1-1 Nishitokuta, Yahaba, Iwate, 028-3694, Japan
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Boral H, Metin B, Döğen A, Seyedmousavi S, Ilkit M. Overview of selected virulence attributes in Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Trichophyton rubrum, and Exophiala dermatitidis. Fungal Genet Biol 2017; 111:92-107. [PMID: 29102684 DOI: 10.1016/j.fgb.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 10/24/2017] [Accepted: 10/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of fungal diseases has been increasing since 1980, and is associated with excessive morbidity and mortality, particularly among immunosuppressed patients. Of the known 625 pathogenic fungal species, infections caused by the genera Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptococcus, and Trichophyton are responsible for more than 300 million estimated episodes of acute or chronic infections worldwide. In addition, a rather neglected group of opportunistic fungi known as black yeasts and their filamentous relatives cause a wide variety of recalcitrant infections in both immunocompetent and immunosuppressed hosts. This article provides an overview of selected virulence factors that are known to suppress host immunity and enhance the infectivity of these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazal Boral
- Division of Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey
| | - Banu Metin
- Department of Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Aylin Döğen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Mersin, Mersin, Turkey
| | - Seyedmojtaba Seyedmousavi
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Invasive Fungi Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran; Center of Excellence for Infection Biology and Antimicrobial Pharmacology, Tehran, Iran
| | - Macit Ilkit
- Division of Mycology, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Çukurova, Adana, Turkey.
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Toh YF, Yew SM, Chan CL, Na SL, Lee KW, Hoh CC, Yee WY, Ng KP, Kuan CS. Genome Anatomy of Pyrenochaeta unguis-hominis UM 256, a Multidrug Resistant Strain Isolated from Skin Scraping. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0162095. [PMID: 27626635 PMCID: PMC5023194 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Pyrenochaeta unguis-hominis is a rare human pathogen that causes infection in human skin and nail. P. unguis-hominis has received little attention, and thus, the basic biology and pathogenicity of this fungus is not fully understood. In this study, we performed in-depth analysis of the P. unguis-hominis UM 256 genome that was isolated from the skin scraping of a dermatitis patient. The isolate was identified to species level using a comprehensive multilocus phylogenetic analysis of the genus Pyrenochaeta. The assembled UM 256 genome has a size of 35.5 Mb and encodes 12,545 putative genes, and 0.34% of the assembled genome is predicted transposable elements. Its genomic features propose that the fungus is a heterothallic fungus that encodes a wide array of plant cell wall degrading enzymes, peptidases, and secondary metabolite biosynthetic enzymes. Antifungal drug resistance genes including MDR, CDR, and ERG11/CYP51 were identified in P. unguis-hominis UM 256, which may confer resistance to this fungus. The genome analysis of P. unguis-hominis provides an insight into molecular and genetic basis of the fungal lifestyles, understanding the unrevealed biology of antifungal resistance in this fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Fen Toh
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Su Mei Yew
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Chai Ling Chan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Shiang Ling Na
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kok Wei Lee
- Codon Genomics SB, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Chee-Choong Hoh
- Codon Genomics SB, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Wai-Yan Yee
- Codon Genomics SB, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Kee Peng Ng
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Chee Sian Kuan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- * E-mail:
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RNA Sequencing-Based Genome Reannotation of the Dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae and Characterization of Its Secretome and Whole Gene Expression Profile during Infection. mSystems 2016; 1:mSystems00036-16. [PMID: 27822542 PMCID: PMC5069957 DOI: 10.1128/msystems.00036-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytoses (ringworm, jock itch, athlete’s foot, and nail infections) are the most common fungal infections, but their virulence mechanisms are poorly understood. Combining transcriptomic data obtained from growth under various culture conditions with data obtained during infection led to a significantly improved genome annotation. About 65% of the protein-encoding genes predicted with our protocol did not match the existing annotation for A. benhamiae. Comparing gene expression during infection on guinea pigs with keratin degradation in vitro, which is supposed to mimic the host environment, revealed the critical importance of using real in vivo conditions for investigating virulence mechanisms. The analysis of genes expressed in vivo, encoding cell surface and secreted proteins, particularly proteases, led to the identification of new allergen and virulence factor candidates. Dermatophytes are the most common agents of superficial mycoses in humans and animals. The aim of the present investigation was to systematically identify the extracellular, possibly secreted, proteins that are putative virulence factors and antigenic molecules of dermatophytes. A complete gene expression profile of Arthroderma benhamiae was obtained during infection of its natural host (guinea pig) using RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) technology. This profile was completed with those of the fungus cultivated in vitro in two media containing either keratin or soy meal protein as the sole source of nitrogen and in Sabouraud medium. More than 60% of transcripts deduced from RNA-seq data differ from those previously deposited for A. benhamiae. Using these RNA-seq data along with an automatic gene annotation procedure, followed by manual curation, we produced a new annotation of the A. benhamiae genome. This annotation comprised 7,405 coding sequences (CDSs), among which only 2,662 were identical to the currently available annotation, 383 were newly identified, and 15 secreted proteins were manually corrected. The expression profile of genes encoding proteins with a signal peptide in infected guinea pigs was found to be very different from that during in vitro growth when using keratin as the substrate. Especially, the sets of the 12 most highly expressed genes encoding proteases with a signal sequence had only the putative vacuolar aspartic protease gene PEP2 in common, during infection and in keratin medium. The most upregulated gene encoding a secreted protease during infection was that encoding subtilisin SUB6, which is a known major allergen in the related dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum. IMPORTANCE Dermatophytoses (ringworm, jock itch, athlete’s foot, and nail infections) are the most common fungal infections, but their virulence mechanisms are poorly understood. Combining transcriptomic data obtained from growth under various culture conditions with data obtained during infection led to a significantly improved genome annotation. About 65% of the protein-encoding genes predicted with our protocol did not match the existing annotation for A. benhamiae. Comparing gene expression during infection on guinea pigs with keratin degradation in vitro, which is supposed to mimic the host environment, revealed the critical importance of using real in vivo conditions for investigating virulence mechanisms. The analysis of genes expressed in vivo, encoding cell surface and secreted proteins, particularly proteases, led to the identification of new allergen and virulence factor candidates.
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Lange L, Huang Y, Busk PK. Microbial decomposition of keratin in nature-a new hypothesis of industrial relevance. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2016; 100:2083-96. [PMID: 26754820 PMCID: PMC4756042 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-7262-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2015] [Revised: 12/16/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Discovery of keratin-degrading enzymes from fungi and bacteria has primarily focused on finding one protease with efficient keratinase activity. Recently, an investigation was conducted of all keratinases secreted from a fungus known to grow on keratinaceous materials, such as feather, horn, and hooves. The study demonstrated that a minimum of three keratinases is needed to break down keratin, an endo-acting, an exo-acting, and an oligopeptide-acting keratinase. Further, several studies have documented that disruption of sulfur bridges of the keratin structure acts synergistically with the keratinases to loosen the molecular structure, thus giving the enzymes access to their substrate, the protein structure. With such complexity, it is relevant to compare microbial keratin decomposition with the microbial decomposition of well-studied polymers such as cellulose and chitin. Interestingly, it was recently shown that the specialized enzymes, lytic polysaccharide monoxygenases (LPMOs), shown to be important for breaking the recalcitrance of cellulose and chitin, are also found in keratin-degrading fungi. A holistic view of the complex molecular self-assembling structure of keratin and knowledge about enzymatic and boosting factors needed for keratin breakdown have been used to formulate a hypothesis for mode of action of the LPMOs in keratin decomposition and for a model for degradation of keratin in nature. Testing such hypotheses and models still needs to be done. Even now, the hypothesis can serve as an inspiration for designing industrial processes for keratin decomposition for conversion of unexploited waste streams, chicken feather, and pig bristles into bioaccessible animal feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lene Lange
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Yuhong Huang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Peter Kamp Busk
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Lyngby, Denmark
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Yew SM, Chan CL, Kuan CS, Toh YF, Ngeow YF, Na SL, Lee KW, Hoh CC, Yee WY, Ng KP. The genome of newly classified Ochroconis mirabilis: Insights into fungal adaptation to different living conditions. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:91. [PMID: 26842951 PMCID: PMC4738786 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2409-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ochroconis mirabilis, a recently introduced water-borne dematiaceous fungus, is occasionally isolated from human skin lesions and nails. We identified an isolate of O. mirabilis from a skin scraping with morphological and molecular studies. Its genome was then sequenced and analysed for genetic features related to classification and biological characteristics. RESULTS UM 578 was identified as O. mirabilis based on morphology and internal transcribed spacer (ITS)-based phylogeny. The 34.61 Mb assembled genome with 13,435 predicted genes showed less efficiency of this isolate in plant cell wall degradation. Results from the peptidase comparison analysis with reported keratin-degrading peptidases from dermatophytes suggest that UM 578 is very unlikely to be utilising these peptidases to survive in the host. Nevertheless, we have identified peptidases from M10A, M12A and S33 families that may allow UM 578 to invade its host via extracellular matrix and collagen degradation. Furthermore, the lipases in UM 578 may have a role in supporting the fungus in host invasion. This fungus has the potential ability to synthesise melanin via the 1,8-dihydroxynaphthalene (DHN)-melanin pathway and to produce mycotoxins. The mating ability of this fungus was also inspected in this study and a mating type gene containing alpha domain was identified. This fungus is likely to produce taurine that is required in osmoregulation. The expanded gene family encoding the taurine catabolism dioxygenase TauD/TdfA domain suggests the utilisation of taurine under sulfate starvation. The expanded glutathione-S-transferase domains and RTA1-like protein families indicate the selection of genes in UM 578 towards adaptation in hostile environments. CONCLUSIONS The genomic analysis of O. mirabilis UM 578 provides a better understanding of fungal survival tactics in different habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Mei Yew
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Chai Ling Chan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Chee Sian Kuan
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Yue Fen Toh
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Yun Fong Ngeow
- Department of Pre-Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Bandar Sungai Long, 43000, Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Shiang Ling Na
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Kok Wei Lee
- Codon Genomics SB, No. 26, Jalan Dutamas 7, Taman Dutamas, Balakong, 43200, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Chee-Choong Hoh
- Codon Genomics SB, No. 26, Jalan Dutamas 7, Taman Dutamas, Balakong, 43200, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Wai-Yan Yee
- Codon Genomics SB, No. 26, Jalan Dutamas 7, Taman Dutamas, Balakong, 43200, Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
| | - Kee Peng Ng
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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Spohner SC, Müller H, Quitmann H, Czermak P. Expression of enzymes for the usage in food and feed industry with Pichia pastoris. J Biotechnol 2015; 202:118-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 12/28/2014] [Accepted: 01/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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Yamada Y, Maeda M, Alshahni MM, Monod M, Staib P, Yamada T. Flippase (FLP) recombinase-mediated marker recycling in the dermatophyte Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2014; 160:2122-2135. [PMID: 24996827 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.076562-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biological processes can be elucidated by investigating complex networks of relevant factors and genes. However, this is not possible in species for which dominant selectable markers for genetic studies are unavailable. To overcome the limitation in selectable markers for the dermatophyte Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii (anamorph: Trichophyton mentagrophytes), we adapted the flippase (FLP) recombinase-recombination target (FRT) site-specific recombination system from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a selectable marker recycling system for this fungus. Taking into account practical applicability, we designed FLP/FRT modules carrying two FRT sequences as well as the flp gene adapted to the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans (caflp) or a synthetic codon-optimized flp (avflp) gene with neomycin resistance (nptII) cassette for one-step marker excision. Both flp genes were under control of the Trichophyton rubrum copper-repressible promoter (PCTR4). Molecular analyses of resultant transformants showed that only the avflp-harbouring module was functional in A. vanbreuseghemii. Applying this system, we successfully produced the Ku80 recessive mutant strain devoid of any selectable markers. This strain was subsequently used as the recipient for sequential multiple disruptions of secreted metalloprotease (fungalysin) (MEP) or serine protease (SUB) genes, producing mutant strains with double MEP or triple SUB gene deletions. These results confirmed the feasibility of this system for broad-scale genetic manipulation of dermatophytes, advancing our understanding of functions and networks of individual genes in these fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yohko Yamada
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Japan Women's University, 2-8-1, Mejirodai, Bunkyo, Tokyo 112-8681, Japan
| | - Mari Maeda
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, 359 Otsuka, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0395, Japan
| | - Mohamed Mahdi Alshahni
- Laboratory of Space and Environmental Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Teikyo University, 2-11-1, Kaga, Itabashi, Tokyo 173-8605, Japan
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Av. de Beaumont 29, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Peter Staib
- Research and Development, Kneipp GmbH, Winterhäuser Str. 85, 97084 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Tsuyoshi Yamada
- Teikyo University Institute of Medical Mycology, 359 Otsuka, Hachioji, Tokyo 192-0395, Japan
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Juárez-Montiel M, Ibarra JA, Chávez-Camarillo G, Hernández-Rodríguez C, Villa-Tanaca L. Molecular cloning and heterologous expression in Pichia pastoris of X-prolyl-dipeptidyl aminopeptidase from basidiomycete Ustilago maydis. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2014; 172:2530-9. [PMID: 24402567 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-013-0682-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dipeptidyl aminopeptidases are enzymes involved in the posttranslational control of bioactive peptides. Here we identified the gene dapUm in Ustilago maydis by homology with other fungal dipeptidyl aminopeptidases. Analysis of the dapUm-deduced amino acid sequence indicated that it encodes for membrane-type serine protease with a characteristic prolyl oligopeptidase catalytic motif triad: Ser, Asp, His. In order to overexpress the DapUm, the gene encoding for it was cloned and transformed into Pichia. Using this system, we observed a ∼ 125-kDa recombinant protein with an optimal enzymatic activity at pH 6.0 and at 40 °C for the Ala-Pro-p-nitroanilide substrate and an experimental pH of 6.9. U. maydis DapUm was specifically inhibited by phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride and Pefabloc, confirming the presence of a serine residue in the active site. To our knowledge, this study is the first report on the cloning and expression of a DPP IV dipeptidyl aminopeptidase from a basidiomycete organism. Moreover, the use of recombinant DapUm will allow us to further study and characterize this enzyme, in addition to testing chemical compounds for pharmaceutical purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarita Juárez-Montiel
- Departamento de Microbiología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Plan de Ayala y Prol. Carpio, Col. Casco de Santo Tomás, Agencia de Correos 220, México D. F., 11340, Mexico
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Development of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for serodiagnosis of ringworm infection in cattle. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2013; 20:1150-4. [PMID: 23740921 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00243-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop an in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the serological diagnosis of ringworm infection in cattle. We used available recombinant forms of Trichophyton rubrum dipeptidyl peptidase V (TruDppV) and T. rubrum leucin aminopeptidase 2 (TruLap2), which are 98% identical to Trichophyton verrucosum orthologues. Field serum samples from 135 cattle with ringworm infection, as confirmed by direct microscopy, fluorescence microscopy, and PCR, and from 55 cattle without any apparent skin lesions or history of ringworm infection that served as negative controls were used. Sensitivities, specificities, and positive and negative predictive values were determined to evaluate the diagnostic value of our ELISA. Overall, the ELISAs based on recombinant TruDppV and TruLap2 discriminated well between infected animals and healthy controls. Highly significant differences (P < 0.0001, Mann-Whitney U test) were noted between optical density values obtained when sera from infected versus control cattle were tested. The ELISA developed for the detection of specific antibodies against DppV gave 89.6% sensitivity, 92.7% specificity, a 96.8% positive predictive value, and a 78.4% negative predictive value. The recombinant TruLap2-based ELISA displayed 88.1% sensitivity, 90.9% specificity, a 95.9% positive predictive value, and a 75.7% negative predictive value. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first ELISA based on recombinant antigens for assessing immune responses to ringworm infection in cattle; it is particularly suitable for epidemiological studies and also for the evaluation of vaccines and/or vaccination procedures.
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Sriranganadane D, Waridel P, Salamin K, Feuermann M, Mignon B, Staib P, Neuhaus JM, Quadroni M, Monod M. Identification of novel secreted proteases during extracellular proteolysis by dermatophytes at acidic pH. Proteomics 2011; 11:4422-33. [PMID: 21919205 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201100234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2011] [Revised: 08/18/2011] [Accepted: 08/29/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The dermatophytes are a group of closely related fungi which are responsible for the great majority of superficial mycoses in humans and animals. Among various potential virulence factors, their secreted proteolytic activity attracts a lot of attention. Most dermatophyte-secreted proteases which have so far been isolated in vitro are neutral or alkaline enzymes. However, inspection of the recently decoded dermatophyte genomes revealed many other hypothetical secreted proteases, in particular acidic proteases similar to those characterized in Aspergillus spp. The validation of such genome predictions instigated the present study on two dermatophyte species, Microsporum canis and Arthroderma benhamiae. Both fungi were found to grow well in a protein medium at acidic pH, accompanied by extracellular proteolysis. Shotgun MS analysis of secreted protein revealed fundamentally different protease profiles during fungal growth in acidic versus neutral pH conditions. Most notably, novel dermatophyte-secreted proteases were identified at acidic pH such as pepsins, sedolisins and acidic carboxypeptidases. Therefore, our results not only support genome predictions, but demonstrate for the first time the secretion of acidic proteases by dermatophytes. Our findings also suggest the existence of different pathways of protein degradation into amino acids and short peptides in these highly specialized pathogenic fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dev Sriranganadane
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Switzerland
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35
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Zhang FR, Zhang Y, Zhang ZY, Yang GL, Jing LJ, Bai YG. Analysis of the differentially expressed genes in Microsporum canis in inducing smooth skin and scalp tissue conditions. Clin Exp Dermatol 2011; 36:896-902. [PMID: 21883399 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2230.2011.04157.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Microsporum canis is a common zoophilic dermatophyte, which causes a range of infections. To explore the pathogenic mechanism of tinea capitis, we used the suppression subtractive hybridization (SSH) technique to investigate the differences in gene expression between different cultures of Microsporum canis incubated on three different types of mineral media containing child glabrous skin, child scalp tissue and adult scalp tissue. Using dot-blot hybridization and real-time PCR technique, we successfully screened and identified a pair of genes that had expression levels 44.6 and 117 times higher in culture 1 (M. canis cultured in mineral medium with child scalp tissue) than in culture 2 (M. canis cultured in mineral medium with glabrous skin tissue), and another pair of genes with expression levels 78.2 and 9.8 times higher in culture 1 than in culture 3 (M. canis cultured in mineral medium with adult scalp tissue). These four genes were found to have 41%, 53%, 40% and 94% homology to those encoding a hypothetical protein [family of serine hydrolases 1; (FSH1)], PQ loop repeat protein (PQ-LRP), a predicted protein [porphyrin galactose 4; (P-GAL4)] and NADH dehydrogenase subunit (NADH)1, respectively. The upregulation of the FSH1, PQ-LRP, P-GAL4 and NADH1 genes in cultures of child scalp tissue indicates that they are essential in the pathogenesis of tinea capitis caused by M. canis.
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Affiliation(s)
- F R Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China
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Baldo A, Monod M, Mathy A, Cambier L, Bagut ET, Defaweux V, Symoens F, Antoine N, Mignon B. Mechanisms of skin adherence and invasion by dermatophytes. Mycoses 2011; 55:218-23. [PMID: 21831104 DOI: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2011.02081.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are keratinophilic fungi that can be pathogenic for humans and animals by infecting the stratum corneum, nails, claws or hair. The first infection step consists of adherence of arthroconidia to the stratum corneum. The mechanisms and the kinetics of adherence have been investigated using different in vitro and ex vivo experimental models, most notably showing the role of a secreted serine protease from Microsporum canis in fungal adherence to feline corneocytes. After germination of the arthroconidia, dermatophytes invade keratinised structures that have to be digested into short peptides and amino acids to be assimilated. Although many proteases, including keratinolytic ones, have been characterised, the understanding of dermatophyte invasion mechanisms remains speculative. To date, research on mechanisms of dermatophyte infection focused mainly on both secreted endoproteases and exoproteases, but their precise role in both fungal adherence and skin invasion should be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Baldo
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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El-Sayed ASA. Purification and characterization of a new L-methioninase from solid cultures of Aspergillus flavipes. J Microbiol 2011; 49:130-40. [PMID: 21369990 DOI: 10.1007/s12275-011-0259-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
L-Methioninase was purified to electrophoretic homogeneity from cultures of Aspergillus flavipes using anion-exchange and gel filtration chromatography by 12.1 fold compared to the crude enzyme preparation. The purified enzyme had a molecular mass of 47 kDa under denaturing conditions and an isoelectric point of 5.8 with no structural glycosyl residues. The enzyme had optimum activity at pH 7.8 and pH stability from 6.8-8.0 at 35°C. The enzyme appeared to be catalytically stable below 40°C. The enzyme activity was strongly inhibited by DL-propargylglycine, hydroxylamine, PMSF, 2-mercaptoethanol, Hg(+), Cu(2+), and Fe(2+), with slight inhibition by Triton X-(100). A flavipes L-methioninase has a higher catalytic affinity towards L-methionine (Km, 6.5 mM and Kcat, 14.1 S(-1)) followed by a relative demethiolating activity to L-homo-cysteine (Km, 12 mM and Kcat, 9.3 S(-1)). The enzyme has two absorption maxima at 280 and 420 nm, typical of other PLP-enzymes. Apo-L-methioninase has the ability to reconstitute its structural catalytic state completely upon addition of 0.15 mM PLP. L-Methioninase has neither an appreciable effect on liver function, platelet aggregation, nor hemolysis of human blood. The purified L-methioninase from solid cultures of A. flavipes displayed unique biochemical and catalytic properties over the currently applied Pseudomonad enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraf S A El-Sayed
- Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Zagazig University, Zagazig, 44519, Egypt.
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Sriranganadane D, Reichard U, Salamin K, Fratti M, Jousson O, Waridel P, Quadroni M, Neuhaus JM, Monod M. Secreted glutamic protease rescues aspartic protease Pep deficiency in Aspergillus fumigatus during growth in acidic protein medium. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2011; 157:1541-1550. [PMID: 21349972 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.048603-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In an acidic protein medium Aspergillus fumigatus secretes an aspartic endoprotease (Pep) as well as tripeptidyl-peptidases, a prolyl-peptidase and carboxypeptidases. In addition, LC-MS/MS revealed a novel glutamic protease, AfuGprA, homologous to Aspergillus niger aspergillopepsin II. The importance of AfuGprA in protein digestion was evaluated by deletion of its encoding gene in A. fumigatus wild-type D141 and in a pepΔ mutant. Either A. fumigatus Pep or AfuGprA was shown to be necessary for fungal growth in protein medium at low pH. Exoproteolytic activity is therefore not sufficient for complete protein hydrolysis and fungal growth in a medium containing proteins as the sole nitrogen source. Pep and AfuGprA constitute a pair of endoproteases active at low pH, in analogy to A. fumigatus alkaline protease (Alp) and metalloprotease I (Mep), where at least one of these enzymes is necessary for fungal growth in protein medium at neutral pH. Heterologous expression of AfuGprA in Pichia pastoris showed that the enzyme is synthesized as a preproprotein and that the propeptide is removed through an autoproteolytic reaction at low pH to generate the mature protease. In contrast to A. niger aspergillopepsin II, AfuGprA is a single-chain protein and is structurally more similar to G1 proteases characterized in other non-Aspergillus fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dev Sriranganadane
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Utz Reichard
- Department of Medical Microbiology and National Reference Centre for Systemic Mycoses, University Hospital of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Karine Salamin
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Marina Fratti
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Jousson
- Centre for Integrative Biology (CIBIO), University of Trento, Italy
| | - Patrice Waridel
- Protein Analysis Facility, Centre for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Manfredo Quadroni
- Protein Analysis Facility, Centre for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Marc Neuhaus
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Neuchâtel, rue E-Argand 11, 2009 Neuchâtel, Switzerland
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Burmester A, Shelest E, Glöckner G, Heddergott C, Schindler S, Staib P, Heidel A, Felder M, Petzold A, Szafranski K, Feuermann M, Pedruzzi I, Priebe S, Groth M, Winkler R, Li W, Kniemeyer O, Schroeckh V, Hertweck C, Hube B, White TC, Platzer M, Guthke R, Heitman J, Wöstemeyer J, Zipfel PF, Monod M, Brakhage AA. Comparative and functional genomics provide insights into the pathogenicity of dermatophytic fungi. Genome Biol 2011; 12:R7. [PMID: 21247460 PMCID: PMC3091305 DOI: 10.1186/gb-2011-12-1-r7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Revised: 11/09/2010] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Millions of humans and animals suffer from superficial infections caused by a group of highly specialized filamentous fungi, the dermatophytes, which exclusively infect keratinized host structures. To provide broad insights into the molecular basis of the pathogenicity-associated traits, we report the first genome sequences of two closely phylogenetically related dermatophytes, Arthroderma benhamiae and Trichophyton verrucosum, both of which induce highly inflammatory infections in humans. RESULTS 97% of the 22.5 megabase genome sequences of A. benhamiae and T. verrucosum are unambiguously alignable and collinear. To unravel dermatophyte-specific virulence-associated traits, we compared sets of potentially pathogenicity-associated proteins, such as secreted proteases and enzymes involved in secondary metabolite production, with those of closely related onygenales (Coccidioides species) and the mould Aspergillus fumigatus. The comparisons revealed expansion of several gene families in dermatophytes and disclosed the peculiarities of the dermatophyte secondary metabolite gene sets. Secretion of proteases and other hydrolytic enzymes by A. benhamiae was proven experimentally by a global secretome analysis during keratin degradation. Molecular insights into the interaction of A. benhamiae with human keratinocytes were obtained for the first time by global transcriptome profiling. Given that A. benhamiae is able to undergo mating, a detailed comparison of the genomes further unraveled the genetic basis of sexual reproduction in this species. CONCLUSIONS Our results enlighten the genetic basis of fundamental and putatively virulence-related traits of dermatophytes, advancing future research on these medically important pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anke Burmester
- Department of Molecular and Applied Microbiology, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, Jena, 07745, Germany
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Sriranganadane D, Waridel P, Salamin K, Reichard U, Grouzmann E, Neuhaus JM, Quadroni M, Monod M. Aspergillus protein degradation pathways with different secreted protease sets at neutral and acidic pH. J Proteome Res 2010; 9:3511-9. [PMID: 20486678 DOI: 10.1021/pr901202z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus grows well at neutral and acidic pH in a medium containing protein as the sole nitrogen source by secreting two different sets of proteases. Neutral pH favors the secretion of neutral and alkaline endoproteases, leucine aminopeptidases (Laps) which are nonspecific monoaminopeptidases, and an X-prolyl dipeptidase (DppIV). Acidic pH environment promotes the secretion of an aspartic endoprotease of pepsin family (Pep1) and tripeptidyl-peptidases of the sedolisin family (SedB and SedD). A novel prolyl peptidase, AfuS28, was found to be secreted in both alkaline and acidic conditions. In previous studies, Laps were shown to degrade peptides from their N-terminus until an X-Pro sequence acts as a stop signal. X-Pro sequences can be then removed by DppIV, which allows Laps access to the following residues. We have shown that at acidic pH Seds degrade large peptides from their N-terminus into tripeptides until Pro in P1 or P'1 position acts as a stop for these exopeptidases. However, X-X-Pro and X-X-X-Pro sequences can be removed by AfuS28 thus allowing Seds further sequential proteolysis. In conclusion, both alkaline and acidic sets of proteases contain exoprotease activity capable of cleaving after proline residues that cannot be removed during sequential digestion by nonspecific exopeptidases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dev Sriranganadane
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Matsushita-Morita M, Tada S, Suzuki S, Hattori R, Marui J, Furukawa I, Yamagata Y, Amano H, Ishida H, Takeuchi M, Kashiwagi Y, Kusumoto KI. Overexpression and Characterization of an Extracellular Leucine Aminopeptidase from Aspergillus oryzae. Curr Microbiol 2010; 62:557-64. [DOI: 10.1007/s00284-010-9744-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Secretion of an endogenous subtilisin by Pichia pastoris strains GS115 and KM71. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 76:4269-76. [PMID: 20472730 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00412-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris is widely used for the expression of heterologous enzymes. While the purity of the desired expression product is of major importance for many applications, we found that recombinant enzymes produced in methanol medium were contaminated by a 37-kDa endogenous yeast protease. This enzyme was completely inhibited by phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) but not by 1,10-phenanthroline, EDTA, and pepstatin A, suggesting the nature of a serine protease. Its secretion was abolished in P. pastoris strains GS115 and KM71 by specific mutagenesis of a subtilisin gene (SUB2) but not by inactivation of the gene encoding vacuolar proteinase B (PRB). Bioinformatic comparisons of Sub2 protein with subtilisins from other fungal genomes and phylogenetic analyses indicated that this enzyme is not an orthologue of the vacuolar protease cerevisin generally present in yeasts but is more closely related to another putative subtilisin found in a small number of yeast genomes. During growth of P. pastoris, Sub2 was produced as a secreted enzyme at a concentration of 10 microg/ml of culture supernatant after overexpression of the full-length SUB2 gene. During fermentative production of recombinant enzymes in methanol medium, 1 ml of P. pastoris culture supernatant was found to contain approximately 3 ng of Sub2, while the enzyme was not detected during growth in a medium containing glycerol as a carbon source. The mutant strain GS115-sub2 was subsequently used as a host for the production of recombinant proteases without endogenous subtilisin contamination.
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Preuett BL, Schuenemann E, Brown JT, Kovac ME, Krishnan SK, Abdel-Rahman SM. Comparative analysis of secreted enzymes between the anthropophilic-zoophilic sister species Trichophyton tonsurans and Trichophyton equinum. Fungal Biol 2010; 114:429-37. [PMID: 20943153 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2010.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 02/26/2010] [Accepted: 03/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton tonsurans (TT) and Trichophyton equinum (TE) are two closely related dermatophytes with very different host preferences. This study was designed to examine the genetic and transcript level variations of secreted enzymes between TT and TE. Thirty-one genes representing 10 gene families were selected for comparison and complete genomic and cDNA sequences were elucidated. Sequence analyses of the selected genes identified 104 polymorphisms between the two dermatophytes, 37 of which are expected to encode changes in their polypeptide sequence. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to examine the differences in levels of transcript between TT and TE grown over 14d in aqueous keratin medium. Differences in transcript expression between TT and TE were gene specific and ranged from 1.1-fold to 33-fold. Intra-specific variability across all genes ranged from 41% to 250%. Despite their overall genetic similarity, TT and TE exhibit a moderate degree of variability in the genomic make-up of their secreted enzymes and the extent to which they are transcribed when grown in an aqueous keratin medium. Such differences may contribute to how these genetically similar organisms have adapted to infect divergent host organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry L Preuett
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Medical Toxicology, The Children's Mercy Hospitals and Clinics, Kansas City, MO 64108, USA
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Chen J, Yi J, Liu L, Yin S, Chen R, Li M, Ye C, Zhang YQ, Lai W. Substrate adaptation of Trichophyton rubrum secreted endoproteases. Microb Pathog 2009; 48:57-61. [PMID: 20005286 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2009.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2009] [Revised: 11/26/2009] [Accepted: 12/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Trichophyton rubrum is the most common pathogen caused the dermatophytosis of nail and skin in human. The secreted proteases were considered to be the most important virulence factors. However, the substrates adaptation of T. rubrum secreted proteases is largely unknown. For the first time, we use the keratins from human nail and skin stratum corneum as the growth medium to investigate the different expression patterns of T. rubrum secreted endoproteases genes. During grow in both keratin-containing media SUB7 and MEP2 were the highest expressed gene in each family. These results indicated that SUB7 and MEP2 may be the dominant endoproteases secreted by T. rubrum during host infection and the other proteases may play a supplementary role. The direct comparison of T. rubrum grown on skin and nail medium showed different substrate favorite of secreted endoproteases. The genes MEP2, SUB5, SUB2 and SUB3 were more active during growth in skin medium, possibly these proteases have a higher affinity for skin original keratins. While the structures of SUB1, SUB4, and MEP4 maybe more suitable for the degradation of nail original keratins. This work presents useful molecular details for further understanding the pathogenesis of secreted proteases and the wide adaptation of T. rubrum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Chen
- Department of Dermatology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, No. 600 TianHe Road, TianHe District, Guangzhou 510630, P.R. China.
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Staib P, Zaugg C, Mignon B, Weber J, Grumbt M, Pradervand S, Harshman K, Monod M. Differential gene expression in the pathogenic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae in vitro versus during infection. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 156:884-895. [PMID: 19942661 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.033464-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Although dermatophytes are the most common agents of superficial mycoses in humans and animals, the molecular basis of the pathogenicity of these fungi is largely unknown. In vitro digestion of keratin by dermatophytes is associated with the secretion of multiple proteases, which are assumed to be responsible for their particular specialization to colonize and degrade keratinized host structures during infection. To investigate the role of individual secreted proteases in dermatophytosis, a guinea pig infection model was established for the zoophilic dermatophyte Arthroderma benhamiae, which causes highly inflammatory cutaneous infections in humans and rodents. By use of a cDNA microarray covering approximately 20-25 % of the A. benhamiae genome and containing sequences of at least 23 protease genes, we revealed a distinct in vivo protease gene expression profile in the fungal cells, which was surprisingly different from the pattern elicited during in vitro growth on keratin. Instead of the major in vitro -expressed proteases, others were activated specifically during infection. These enzymes are therefore suggested to fulfil important functions that are not exclusively associated with the degradation of keratin. Most notably, the gene encoding the serine protease subtilisin 6, which is a known major allergen in the related dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum and putatively linked to host inflammation, was found to be the most strongly upregulated gene during infection. In addition, our approach identified other candidate pathogenicity-related factors in A. benhamiae, such as genes encoding key enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle and an opsin-related protein. Our work provides what we believe to be the first broad-scale gene expression profile in human pathogenic dermatophytes during infection, and points to putative virulence-associated mechanisms that make these micro-organisms the most successful aetiological agents of superficial mycoses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Staib
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Junior Research Group Fundamental Molecular Biology of Pathogenic Fungi, Beutenbergstr. 11a, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christophe Zaugg
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Av. de Beaumont 29, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard Mignon
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, B-43 Sart-Tilman, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Johann Weber
- DNA Array Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Genopode Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Maria Grumbt
- Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology - Hans Knoell Institute, Junior Research Group Fundamental Molecular Biology of Pathogenic Fungi, Beutenbergstr. 11a, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sylvain Pradervand
- DNA Array Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Genopode Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Keith Harshman
- DNA Array Facility, Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Genopode Building, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michel Monod
- Department of Dermatology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Av. de Beaumont 29, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Vermout S, Baldo A, Tabart J, Losson B, Mignon B. Secreted dipeptidyl peptidases as potential virulence factors for Microsporum canis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 54:299-308. [PMID: 19049642 DOI: 10.1111/j.1574-695x.2008.00479.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytoses caused by Microsporum canis are frequently encountered in cats and dogs; they are highly contagious and readily transmissible to humans. In this study, two single genes, respectively coding for dipeptidyl peptidases IV and V (DppIV and DppV), were isolated and characterized. Both proteins share homology with serine proteases of the S9 family, some of which display properties compatible with implication in pathogenic processes. Both genes are expressed in vivo in experimentally infected guinea-pigs and in naturally infected cats, and when the fungus is grown on extracellular matrix proteins as the sole nitrogen and carbon source. DppIV and V were produced as active recombinant proteases in the yeast Pichia pastoris; the apparent molecular weight of rDppV is 83 kDa, whereas rDppIV appears as a doublet of 95 and 98 kDa. Like other members of its enzymatic subfamily, rDppIV has an unusual ability to cleave Pro-X bonds. This activity does not enhance the solubilization of keratin by fungal secreted endoproteases, and the protease probably acts solely on small soluble peptides. RDppV showed no ability to induce delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) skin reactions in guinea-pigs, despite the known immunogenic properties of homologous proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandy Vermout
- Department of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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Gene expression profiling in the human pathogenic dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum during growth on proteins. EUKARYOTIC CELL 2008; 8:241-50. [PMID: 19098130 DOI: 10.1128/ec.00208-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are highly specialized filamentous fungi which cause the majority of superficial mycoses in humans and animals. The high secreted proteolytic activity of these microorganisms during growth on proteins is assumed to be linked to their particular ability to exclusively infect keratinized host structures such as the skin stratum corneum, hair, and nails. Individual secreted dermatophyte proteases were recently described and linked with the in vitro digestion of keratin. However, the overall adaptation and transcriptional response of dermatophytes during protein degradation are largely unknown. To address this question, we constructed a cDNA microarray for the human pathogenic dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum that was based on transcripts of the fungus grown on proteins. Profiles of gene expression during the growth of T. rubrum on soy and keratin protein displayed the activation of a large set of genes that encode secreted endo- and exoproteases. In addition, other specifically induced factors potentially implicated in protein utilization were identified, including heat shock proteins, transporters, metabolic enzymes, transcription factors, and hypothetical proteins with unknown functions. Of particular interest is the strong upregulation of key enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle in T. rubrum during growth on soy and keratin, namely, isocitrate lyase and malate synthase. This broad-scale transcriptional analysis of dermatophytes during growth on proteins reveals new putative pathogenicity-related host adaptation mechanisms of these human pathogenic fungi.
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Dipeptidyl aminopeptidase IV from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia exhibits activity against a substrate containing a 4-hydroxyproline residue. J Bacteriol 2008; 190:7819-29. [PMID: 18820015 DOI: 10.1128/jb.02010-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The crystal structure of dipeptidyl aminopeptidase IV from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia was determined at 2.8-A resolution by the multiple isomorphous replacement method, using platinum and selenomethionine derivatives. The crystals belong to space group P4(3)2(1)2, with unit cell parameters a = b = 105.9 A and c = 161.9 A. Dipeptidyl aminopeptidase IV is a homodimer, and the subunit structure is composed of two domains, namely, N-terminal beta-propeller and C-terminal catalytic domains. At the active site, a hydrophobic pocket to accommodate a proline residue of the substrate is conserved as well as those of mammalian enzymes. Stenotrophomonas dipeptidyl aminopeptidase IV exhibited activity toward a substrate containing a 4-hydroxyproline residue at the second position from the N terminus. In the Stenotrophomonas enzyme, one of the residues composing the hydrophobic pocket at the active site is changed to Asn611 from the corresponding residue of Tyr631 in the porcine enzyme, which showed very low activity against the substrate containing 4-hydroxyproline. The N611Y mutant enzyme was generated by site-directed mutagenesis. The activity of this mutant enzyme toward a substrate containing 4-hydroxyproline decreased to 30.6% of that of the wild-type enzyme. Accordingly, it was considered that Asn611 would be one of the major factors involved in the recognition of substrates containing 4-hydroxyproline.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Despite the availability of effective vaccines for certain animal species, vaccination against dermatophytosis requires improvement and further development in both animals and humans. This review provides an update on the current situation and focuses on recent advances in host-dermatophyte relationships that could have implications for future vaccination against the most prevalent of the fungal diseases. RECENT FINDINGS Numerous dermatophytic virulence factors have recently been isolated and characterized at the molecular level, notably secreted proteases involved in the invasion of the keratin network. Their precise roles in the different steps of the infectious process and in immunopathogenesis are being studied, while all aspects of the host immune response against dermatophytes, including the innate response, are becoming increasingly documented. In addition, new molecular tools are now available for studying dermatophytes, which will accelerate research on this topic. SUMMARY The growth of knowledge concerning all aspects of the host-dermatophyte relationship should contribute towards sound strategies for the development of effective and safe vaccines against dermatophytosis.
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