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Horn KJ, Schopper MA, Drigot ZG, Clark SE. Airway Prevotella promote TLR2-dependent neutrophil activation and rapid clearance of Streptococcus pneumoniae from the lung. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3321. [PMID: 35680890 PMCID: PMC9184549 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31074-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates how specific members of the lung microbiome influence the early immune response to infection. Prevotella species are a major component of the endogenous airway microbiota. Increased abundance of Prevotella melaninogenica correlates with reduced infection with the bacterial pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae, indicating a potentially beneficial role. Here, we show that P. melaninogenica enhances protection against S. pneumoniae, resulting in rapid pathogen clearance from the lung and improved survival in a mouse lung co-infection model. This response requires recognition of P. melaninogenica lipoproteins by toll-like receptor (TLR)2, the induction of TNFα, and neutrophils, as the loss of any of these factors abrogates Prevotella-induced protection. Improved clearance of S. pneumoniae is associated with increased serine protease-mediated killing by lung neutrophils and restraint of P. melaninogenica-induced inflammation by IL-10 in co-infected mice. Together, these findings highlight innate immune priming by airway Prevotella as an important protective feature in the respiratory tract. How the airway microbiome protects against bacterial pneumonia remains unclear. Here, the authors identify airway bacterial species that activate the immune system to facilitate rapid clearance of the pathogen Streptococcus pneumoniae from the lung.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kadi J Horn
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Otolaryngology, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Melissa A Schopper
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Otolaryngology, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Zoe G Drigot
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Otolaryngology, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.,University of Colorado Boulder, College of Arts and Sciences, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Sarah E Clark
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Department of Otolaryngology, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
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Interactions with Commensal and Pathogenic Bacteria Induce HIV-1 Latency in Macrophages through Altered Transcription Factor Recruitment to the LTR. J Virol 2021; 95:JVI.02141-20. [PMID: 33472928 PMCID: PMC8092691 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02141-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are infected by HIV-1 in vivo and contribute to both viral spread and pathogenesis. Recent human and animal studies suggest that HIV-1-infected macrophages serve as a reservoir that contributes to HIV-1 persistence during anti-retroviral therapy. The ability of macrophages to serve as persistent viral reservoirs is likely influenced by the local tissue microenvironment, including interactions with pathogenic and commensal microbes. Here we show that the sexually transmitted pathogen Neisseria gonorrhoeae (GC) and the gut-associated microbe Escherichia coli (E. coli), which encode ligands for both Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) and TLR4, repressed HIV-1 replication in macrophages and thereby induced a state reminiscent of viral latency. This repression was mediated by signaling through TLR4 and the adaptor protein TRIF and was associated with increased production of type I interferons. Inhibiting TLR4 signaling, blocking type 1 interferon, or knocking-down TRIF reversed LPS- and GC-mediated repression of HIV-1. Finally, the repression of HIV-1 in macrophages was associated with the recruitment of interferon regulatory factor 8 (IRF8) to the interferon stimulated response element (ISRE) downstream of the 5' HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR). Our data indicate that IRF8 is responsible for repression of HIV-1 replication in macrophages in response to TRIF-dependent signaling during GC and E. coli co-infection. These findings highlight the potential role of macrophages as HIV-1 reservoirs as well as the role of the tissue microenvironment and co-infections as modulators of HIV-1 persistence.IMPORTANCE The major barrier toward the eradication of HIV-1 infection is the presence of a small reservoir of latently infected cells, which include CD4+ T cells and macrophages that escape immune-mediated clearance and the effects of anti-retroviral therapy. There remain crucial gaps in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that lead to transcriptionally silent or latent HIV-1 infection of macrophages. The significance of our research is in identifying microenvironmental factors, such as commensal and pathogenic microbes, that can contribute to the establishment and maintenance of latent HIV-1 infection in macrophages. It is hoped that identifying key processes contributing to HIV-1 persistence in macrophages may ultimately lead to novel therapeutics to eliminate latent HIV-1 reservoirs in vivo.
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3
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Kondo Y. Construction of a Mutant in Prevotella melaninogenica Using the Conjugation Transfer Method with Escherichia coli. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2210:33-41. [PMID: 32815125 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-0939-2_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Prevotella melaninogenica is a bacterium that is resident in the oral cavity and upper respiratory tract and is associated with periodontal disease and aspiration pneumonia. Prevotella mutants are difficult to produce and only few reports have been reported. We examined several methods and many strains and succeeded in producing mutants in Prevotella melaninogenica GAI 07411. In this chapter, we will describe how to create a mutation of a target gene by carrying out conjugation transfer using Escherichia coli S17-1 as a donor and introducing a plasmid into P. melaninogenica.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Kondo
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Nagasaki University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki, Japan.
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4
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Leite Pereira A, Tchitchek N, Lambotte O, Le Grand R, Cosma A. Characterization of Leukocytes From HIV-ART Patients Using Combined Cytometric Profiles of 72 Cell Markers. Front Immunol 2019; 10:1777. [PMID: 31447833 PMCID: PMC6691046 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Motivation: Mass cytometry is a technique used to measure the intensity levels of proteins expressed by cells, at a single cell resolution. This technique is essential to characterize the phenotypes and functions of immune cell populations, but is currently limited to the measurement of 40 cell markers that restricts the characterization of complex diseases. However, algorithms and multi-tube cytometry techniques have been designed for combining phenotypic information obtained from different cytometric panels. The characterization of chronic HIV infection represents a good study case for multi-tube mass cytometry as this disease triggers a complex interactions network of more than 70 cell markers. Method: We collected whole blood from non-viremic HIV-infected patients on combined antiretroviral therapies and healthy donors. Leukocytes from each individual were stained using three different mass cytometry panels, which consisted of 35, 32, and 33 cell markers. For each patient and using the CytoBackBone algorithm, we combined phenotypic information from three different antibody panels into a single cytometric profile, reaching a phenotypic resolution of 72 markers. These high-resolution cytometric profiles were analyzed using SPADE and viSNE algorithms to decipher the immune response to HIV. Results: We detected an upregulation of several proteins in HIV-infected patients relative to healthy donors using our profiling of 72 cell markers. Among them, CD11a and CD11b were upregulated in PMNs, monocytes, mDCs, NK cells, and T cells. CD11b was also upregulated on pDCs. Other upregulated proteins included: CD38 on PMNs, monocytes, NK cells, basophils, B cells, and T cells; CD83 on monocytes, mDCs, B cells, and T cells; and TLR2, CD32, and CD64 on PMNs and monocytes. These results were validated using a mass cytometry panel of 25 cells markers. Impacts: We demonstrate here that multi-tube cytometry can be applied to mass cytometry for exploring, at an unprecedented level of details, cell populations impacted by complex diseases. We showed that the monocyte and PMN populations were strongly affected by the HIV infection, as CD11a, CD11b, CD32, CD38, CD64, CD83, CD86, and TLR2 were upregulated in these populations. Overall, these results demonstrate that HIV induced a specific environment that similarly affected multiple immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Leite Pereira
- CEA-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Infrastructure, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Nicolas Tchitchek
- CEA-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Infrastructure, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Olivier Lambotte
- CEA-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Infrastructure, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.,APHP, Service de Médecine Interne-Immunologie Clinique, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France.,Université Paris Sud, Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Roger Le Grand
- CEA-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Infrastructure, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Antonio Cosma
- CEA-Université Paris Sud 11-INSERM U1184, Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Infrastructure, Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
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Kondo Y, Sato K, Nagano K, Nishiguchi M, Hoshino T, Fujiwara T, Nakayama K. Involvement of PorK, a component of the type IX secretion system, in Prevotella melaninogenica pathogenicity. Microbiol Immunol 2018; 62:554-566. [PMID: 30028034 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.12638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Prevotella melaninogenica is a gram-negative anaerobic commensal bacterium that resides in the human oral cavity and is isolated as a pathogen of suppurative diseases both inside and outside the mouth. However, little is known about the pathogenic factors of P. melaninogenica. The periodontal pathogens Porphyromonas gingivalis and Tanerella forsythia secrete virulence factors such as protease and bacterial cell surface proteins via a type IX secretion system (T9SS) that are involved in pathogenicity. P. melaninogenica also possesses all known orthologs of T9SS. In this study, a P. melaninogenica GAI 07411 mutant deficient in the orthologue of the T9SS-encoding gene, porK, was constructed. Hemagglutination and biofilm formation were decreased in the porK mutant. Furthermore, following growth on skim milk-containing medium, the diameters of the halos surrounding the porK mutant were smaller than those of the wild-type strain, suggesting a decrease in secretion of proteases outside the bacterium. To investigate this in detail, culture supernatants of wild-type and porK mutant strains were purified and compared by two-dimensional electrophoresis. In the mutant strain, fewer spots were detected, indicating fewer secreted proteins. In infection experiments, the mortality rate of mice inoculated with the porK mutant strain was significantly lower than in the wild-type strain. These results suggest that P. melaninogenica secretes potent virulence factors via the T9SS that contribute to its pathogenic ability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshio Kondo
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan
| | - Keiko Sato
- Department of Microbiology and Oral Infection, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan
| | - Keiji Nagano
- Department of Microbiology, School of Dentistry, Aichi Gakuin University 1-100 Kusumoto-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, Aichi 464-8650, Japan
| | - Miyuki Nishiguchi
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan
| | - Tomonori Hoshino
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan
| | - Taku Fujiwara
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan
| | - Koji Nakayama
- Department of Microbiology and Oral Infection, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Nagasaki University, 1-7-1 Sakamoto, Nagasaki 852-8588, Japan
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Leite Pereira A, Tchitchek N, Marcos Lopez E, Lambotte O, Le Grand R, Cosma A. A high-resolution mass cytometry analysis reveals a delay of cytokines production after TLR4 or TLR7/8 engagements in HIV-1 infected humans. Cytokine 2018; 111:97-105. [PMID: 30138900 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2018.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 08/14/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
HIV infection is associated with chronic inflammation in both non-treated and treated patients. TLR-dependent mechanisms are strongly involved in the maintenance of this inflammation. Indeed, the residual replication of HIV, the potential viral co-infections, or the products issued from microbial translocation provide TLR ligands, which contribute to trigger innate immune responses. Maintaining this chronic inflammation leads to an exhaustion of the immune system. Therefore, the TLR-dependent responses could be altered in HIV-infected patients. To investigate this hypothesis, we performed high-resolution phenotyping using a mass cytometry panel of 34 cell markers. Whole blood cells from healthy, non-treated HIV-infected and ART-treated HIV-infected subjects were stimulated with LPS, R848 or Poly(I:C). We observed the immune responses induced in T-cells, B-cells, polymorphonuclear cells, NK cells, basophils, monocytes and dendritic cells. We observed that, for either LPS or R848 stimulations, the production of cytokines in monocytes and conventional dendritic cells was delayed in treated or non-treated HIV-infected patients, compared to healthy individuals. These results suggest that leukocytes from chronic HIV-infected patients are slower to respond following the sensing of pathogens and danger signals, which may be an important feature of HIV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrien Leite Pereira
- CEA - Université Paris Sud 11 - Inserm U1184, Center for Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.
| | - Nicolas Tchitchek
- CEA - Université Paris Sud 11 - Inserm U1184, Center for Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Ernesto Marcos Lopez
- CEA - Université Paris Sud 11 - Inserm U1184, Center for Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Olivier Lambotte
- CEA - Université Paris Sud 11 - Inserm U1184, Center for Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France; APHP, Hôpitaux Universitaires Paris Sud, Service de Médecine Interne-Immunologie Clinique, 94276 Le Kremin-Bicêtre, France
| | - Roger Le Grand
- CEA - Université Paris Sud 11 - Inserm U1184, Center for Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France
| | - Antonio Cosma
- CEA - Université Paris Sud 11 - Inserm U1184, Center for Immunology of Viral Infections and Autoimmune Diseases, IDMIT Department, IBFJ, 92265 Fontenay-aux-Roses, France.
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7
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Control of Heterologous Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIV smE660 Infection by DNA and Protein Coimmunization Regimens Combined with Different Toll-Like-Receptor-4-Based Adjuvants in Macaques. J Virol 2018; 92:JVI.00281-18. [PMID: 29793957 PMCID: PMC6052320 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00281-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
An effective AIDS vaccine continues to be of paramount importance for the control of the pandemic, and it has been proven to be an elusive target. Vaccine efficacy trials and macaque challenge studies indicate that protection may be the result of combinations of many parameters. We show that a combination of DNA and protein vaccinations applied at the same time provides rapid and robust cellular and humoral immune responses and evidence for a reduced risk of infection. Vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies and Env V2-specific antibodies at mucosal sites contribute to the delay of SIVsmE660 acquisition, and genetic makeup (TRIM-5α) affects the effectiveness of the vaccine. These data are important for the design of better vaccines and may also affect other vaccine platforms. We developed a method of simultaneous vaccination with DNA and protein resulting in robust and durable cellular and humoral immune responses with efficient dissemination to mucosal sites and protection against simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection. To further optimize the DNA-protein coimmunization regimen, we tested a SIVmac251-based vaccine formulated with either of two Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) ligand-based liposomal adjuvant formulations (TLR4 plus TLR7 [TLR4+7] or TLR4 plus QS21 [TLR4+QS21]) in macaques. Although both vaccines induced humoral responses of similar magnitudes, they differed in their functional quality, including broader neutralizing activity and effector functions in the TLR4+7 group. Upon repeated heterologous SIVsmE660 challenge, a trend of delayed viral acquisition was found in vaccinees compared to controls, which reached statistical significance in animals with the TRIM-5α-resistant (TRIM-5α R) allele. Vaccinees were preferentially infected by an SIVsmE660 transmitted/founder virus carrying neutralization-resistant A/K mutations at residues 45 and 47 in Env, demonstrating a strong vaccine-induced sieve effect. In addition, the delay in virus acquisition directly correlated with SIVsmE660-specific neutralizing antibodies. The presence of mucosal V1V2 IgG binding antibodies correlated with a significantly decreased risk of virus acquisition in both TRIM-5α R and TRIM-5α-moderate/sensitive (TRIM-5α M/S) animals, although this vaccine effect was more prominent in animals with the TRIM-5α R allele. These data support the combined contribution of immune responses and genetic background to vaccine efficacy. Humoral responses targeting V2 and SIV-specific T cell responses correlated with viremia control. In conclusion, the combination of DNA and gp120 Env protein vaccine regimens using two different adjuvants induced durable and potent cellular and humoral responses contributing to a lower risk of infection by heterologous SIV challenge. IMPORTANCE An effective AIDS vaccine continues to be of paramount importance for the control of the pandemic, and it has been proven to be an elusive target. Vaccine efficacy trials and macaque challenge studies indicate that protection may be the result of combinations of many parameters. We show that a combination of DNA and protein vaccinations applied at the same time provides rapid and robust cellular and humoral immune responses and evidence for a reduced risk of infection. Vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies and Env V2-specific antibodies at mucosal sites contribute to the delay of SIVsmE660 acquisition, and genetic makeup (TRIM-5α) affects the effectiveness of the vaccine. These data are important for the design of better vaccines and may also affect other vaccine platforms.
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8
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Agosto LM, Hirnet JB, Michaels DH, Shaik-Dasthagirisaheb YB, Gibson FC, Viglianti G, Henderson AJ. Porphyromonas gingivalis-mediated signaling through TLR4 mediates persistent HIV infection of primary macrophages. Virology 2016; 499:72-81. [PMID: 27639573 PMCID: PMC5126732 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 09/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Periodontal infections contribute to HIV-associated co-morbidities in the oral cavity and provide a model to interrogate the dysregulation of macrophage function, inflammatory disease progression, and HIV replication during co-infections. We investigated the effect of Porphyromonas gingivalis on the establishment of HIV infection in monocyte-derived macrophages. HIV replication in macrophages was significantly repressed in the presence of P. gingivalis. This diminished viral replication was due partly to a decrease in the expression of integrated HIV provirus. HIV repression depended upon signaling through TLR4 as knock-down of TLR4 with siRNA rescued HIV expression. Importantly, HIV expression was reactivated upon removal of P. gingivalis. Our observations suggest that exposure of macrophages to Gram-negative bacteria influence the establishment and maintenance of HIV persistence in macrophages through a TLR4-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Agosto
- Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Juliane B Hirnet
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Daniel H Michaels
- Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Frank C Gibson
- Department of Oral Biology, College of Dentistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0424, USA
| | - Gregory Viglianti
- Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Andrew J Henderson
- Department of Medicine, Section of Infectious Diseases, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Microbiology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
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9
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Yang FC, Kuang WD, Li C, Sun WW, Qu D, Wang JH. Toll-Interacting Protein Suppresses HIV-1 Long-Terminal-Repeat-Driven Gene Expression and Silences the Post-Integrational Transcription of Viral Proviral DNA. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0125563. [PMID: 25915421 PMCID: PMC4411168 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 03/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-interacting protein (Tollip) is a host adaptor protein for negatively regulating Toll-like receptor 2-, 4-, and IL-1R (interleukin-1 receptor)-mediated signaling. We found that Tollip expression could be induced in MDDCs (monocyte-derived dendritic cells) by HIV-1 particles and recombinant gp120 glycoprotein. Hence, we investigated the role of Tollip in modulating HIV-1 infection. We found that Tollip expression suppressed NF-κB-dependent HIV-1 long terminal repeat (LTR)-driven transcription and thus inhibited HIV-1 infection. Our protein truncation experiments proved that the intact C-terminus of Tollip was required for inhibition of both NF-κB activity and HIV-1 LTR-driven gene expression. Intriguingly, Tollip silenced the post-integrational transcription of HIV-1 proviral DNA, indicating the potential role of Tollip in maintaining viral persistence. Our results reveal the novel role of host factor Tollip in modulating HIV-1 infection, and may suggest the hijacking of Tollip as the negative regulator of the TLR pathway and even the downstream signaling, by HIV-1 for maintaining persistent infection. Further elucidation of the mechanisms by which HIV-1 induces Tollip expression and identification of the role of Tollip in modulating HIV-1 latency will facilitate the understanding of host regulation in viral replication and benefit the exploration of novel strategies for combating HIV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Chun Yang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wen-Dong Kuang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Chuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei-Wei Sun
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Di Qu
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian-Hua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institute Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) primary infection occurs at mucosa tissues, suggesting an intricate interplay between the microbiome and HIV infection. Recent advanced technologies of high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics allow researchers to explore nonculturable microbes, including bacteria, virus, and fungi, and their association with diseases. HIV/simian immunodeficiency virus infection is associated with microbiome shifts and immune activation that may affect the outcome of disease progression. In this review, the authors focus on microbiome in HIV infection at various mucosal compartments. Understanding the relationship between microbiome and HIV may offer insights into development of better strategies for HIV prevention and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- January T Salas
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, 225 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 07103, USA
| | - Theresa L Chang
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Public Health Research Institute, Rutgers-New Jersey Medical School, 225 Warren Street, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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11
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Nunes R, Sarmento B, das Neves J. Formulation and delivery of anti-HIV rectal microbicides: advances and challenges. J Control Release 2014; 194:278-94. [PMID: 25229988 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Men and women engaged in unprotected receptive anal intercourse (RAI) are at higher risk of acquiring HIV from infected partners. The implementation of preventive strategies is urgent and rectal microbicides may be a useful tool in reducing the sexual transmission of HIV. However, pre-clinical and first clinical trials have been able to identify limitations of candidate products, mostly related with safety issues, which can in turn enhance viral infection. Indeed, the development of suitable formulations for the rectal delivery of promising antiretroviral drugs is not an easy task, and has been mostly based on products specifically intended for vaginal delivery, but these have been shown to provide sub-optimal outcomes when administered rectally. Research and development in the rectal microbicide field are now charting their own path and important information is now available. In particular, specific formulation requirements of rectal microbicide products that need to be met have just recently been acknowledged despite additional work being still required. Desirable rectal microbicide product features regarding characteristics such as pH, osmolality, excipients, dosage forms, volume to be administered and the need for applicator use have been studied and defined in recent years, and specific guidance is now possible. This review provides a synopsis of the field of rectal microbicides, namely past and ongoing clinical studies, and details on formulation and drug delivery issues regarding the specific development of rectal microbicide products. Also, future work, as required for the advancement of the field, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rute Nunes
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Gandra PRD, Portugal
| | - José das Neves
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal; CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Gandra PRD, Portugal.
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12
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Borgdorff H, Tsivtsivadze E, Verhelst R, Marzorati M, Jurriaans S, Ndayisaba GF, Schuren FH, van de Wijgert JHHM. Lactobacillus-dominated cervicovaginal microbiota associated with reduced HIV/STI prevalence and genital HIV viral load in African women. ISME JOURNAL 2014; 8:1781-93. [PMID: 24599071 DOI: 10.1038/ismej.2014.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Cervicovaginal microbiota not dominated by lactobacilli may facilitate transmission of HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), as well as miscarriages, preterm births and sepsis in pregnant women. However, little is known about the exact nature of the microbiological changes that cause these adverse outcomes. In this study, cervical samples of 174 Rwandan female sex workers were analyzed cross-sectionally using a phylogenetic microarray. Furthermore, HIV-1 RNA concentrations were measured in cervicovaginal lavages of 58 HIV-positive women among them. We identified six microbiome clusters, representing a gradient from low semi-quantitative abundance and diversity dominated by Lactobacillus crispatus (cluster R-I, with R denoting 'Rwanda') and L. iners (R-II) to intermediate (R-V) and high abundance and diversity (R-III, R-IV and R-VI) dominated by a mixture of anaerobes, including Gardnerella, Atopobium and Prevotella species. Women in cluster R-I were less likely to have HIV (P=0.03), herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2; P<0.01), and high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV; P<0.01) and had no bacterial STIs (P=0.15). Statistically significant trends in prevalence of viral STIs were found from low prevalence in cluster R-I, to higher prevalence in clusters R-II and R-V, and highest prevalence in clusters R-III/R-IV/R-VI. Furthermore, only 10% of HIV-positive women in clusters R-I/R-II, compared with 40% in cluster R-V, and 42% in clusters R-III/R-IV/R-VI had detectable cervicovaginal HIV-1 RNA (Ptrend=0.03). We conclude that L. crispatus-dominated, and to a lesser extent L. iners-dominated, cervicovaginal microbiota are associated with a lower prevalence of HIV/STIs and a lower likelihood of genital HIV-1 RNA shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanneke Borgdorff
- Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Development (AIGHD) and Department of Global Health, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Rita Verhelst
- International Center for Reproductive Health (ICRH), Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Massimo Marzorati
- Laboratory of Microbial Ecology and Technology (LabMET), Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Suzanne Jurriaans
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Department of Medical Microbiology, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Frank H Schuren
- TNO Microbiology and Systems Biology, Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Janneke H H M van de Wijgert
- 1] Amsterdam Institute for Global Health and Development (AIGHD) and Department of Global Health, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands [2] Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
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13
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Victoria S, Temerozo JR, Gobbo L, Pimenta-Inada HK, Bou-Habib DC. Activation of Toll-like receptor 2 increases macrophage resistance to HIV-1 infection. Immunobiology 2013; 218:1529-36. [PMID: 23891328 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 05/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Patients infected with HIV-1, the etiological agent of AIDS, have increased intestinal permeability, which allows for the passage of microbial products, including Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands, into circulation. The exposure of HIV-1-infected cells to certain TLR agonists affects viral replication, but studies associating viral production with the activation of TLR2 in HIV-1-infected cells are rare and controversial. Here, we report that the TLR2 ligands Zymosan and Pam3CSK4 potently inhibit HIV-1 replication in acutely infected monocyte-derived macrophages and the exposure to TLR2 ligands prior to infection renders macrophages refractory to HIV-1 production. Macrophage treatment with Pam3CSK4 did not change the cellular expression of the HIV-1 entry receptors CD4 and CCR5. Both TLR2 ligands increased the macrophage production of β-chemokines and IL-10, and the blockage of these soluble factors prevented the inhibitory effect of TLR2 activation on HIV-1 replication. Our findings show that the direct engagement of TLR2 in HIV-1-infected macrophages increase cellular resistance to HIV-1 infection, and that controlling HIV-1 replication with agonists for TLR2 might have implications for the development of antiretroviral therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Victoria
- Laboratory on Thymus Research, Oswaldo Cruz Institute/Fiocruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Manguinhos - 21040-360, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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14
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Interaction between endogenous bacterial flora and latent HIV infection. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2013; 20:773-9. [PMID: 23616411 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00766-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Human commensal bacteria do not normally cause any diseases. However, in certain pathological conditions, they exhibit a number of curious behaviors. In HIV infection, these bacteria exhibit bidirectional relationships: whereas they cause opportunistic infections based on immunological deterioration, they also augment HIV replication, in particular, viral replication from latently infected cells, which is attributable to the effect of butyric acid produced by certain anaerobic bacteria by modifying the state of chromatin. Here, we review recent evidence supporting the contributory role of such endogenous microbes in disrupting HIV latency and its potential link to the clinical progression of AIDS.
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15
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Characterization of HIV-1 infection and innate sensing in different types of primary human monocyte-derived macrophages. Mediators Inflamm 2013; 2013:208412. [PMID: 23431237 PMCID: PMC3569920 DOI: 10.1155/2013/208412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2012] [Revised: 12/18/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Macrophages play an important role in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) pathogenesis and contribute to establishment of a viral reservoir responsible for continuous virus production and virus transmission to T cells. In this study, we investigated the differences between various monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) generated through different differentiation protocols and evaluated different cellular, immunological, and virological properties. We found that elevated and persistent HIV-1 pWT/BaL replication could be obtained only in MDMs grown in RPMI containing macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF). Interestingly, this MDM type was also most responsive to toll-like receptor stimulation. By contrast, all MDM types were activated to a comparable extent by intracellular DNA, and the macrophage serum-free medium-(Mac-SFM-)differentiated MDMs responded strongly to membrane fusion through expression of CXCL10. Finally, we found that HIV infection of RPMI/M-CSF-differentiated MDMs induced low-grade expression of two interferon-stimulated genes in some donors. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the differentiation protocol used greatly influences the ability of MDMs to activate innate immune reactions and support HIV-1 replication. Paradoxically, the data show that the MDMs with the strongest innate immune response were also the most permissive for HIV-1 replication.
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16
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17
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Natural Immunity to HIV: a delicate balance between strength and control. Clin Dev Immunol 2012; 2012:875821. [PMID: 23304192 PMCID: PMC3529906 DOI: 10.1155/2012/875821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2012] [Revised: 11/10/2012] [Accepted: 11/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how the mucosal immune system in the human female reproductive tract might prevent or facilitate HIV infection has important implications for the design of effective interventions. We and others have established cohorts of highly-exposed, HIV-seronegative individuals, such as HIV-uninfected commercial sex workers, who have remained HIV-negative after more than 5 years of active prostitution. Observations obtained in studies of such individuals, who represent a model of natural immunity to HIV, indicate that HIV resistance may be associated with the host's capacity to preserve systemic integrity by constraining immune activity and controlling inflammatory conditions at the mucosal point of entry. This likely necessitates the orchestration of balanced, first-line and adaptive immune responses.
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18
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Hernández JC, Stevenson M, Latz E, Urcuqui-Inchima S. HIV type 1 infection up-regulates TLR2 and TLR4 expression and function in vivo and in vitro. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2012; 28:1313-28. [PMID: 22280204 DOI: 10.1089/aid.2011.0297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a critical role in innate immunity against pathogens. Their stimulation induces the activation of NF-κB, an important inducer of HIV-1 replication. In recent years, an increasing number of studies using several cells types from HIV-infected patients indicate that TLRs play a key role in regulating the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and viral pathogenesis. In the present study, the effect of HIV-1 stimulation of monocyte-derived macrophage (MDM) and peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC) subpopulations from healthy donors on the expression and functions of TLR2 and TLR4 was examined. In addition, and to complete the in vitro study, the expression pattern of TLR2 and TLR4 in 49 HIV-1-infected patients, classified according to viral load and the use of HAART, was determined and compared with 25 healthy subjects. An increase of TLR expression and production of proinflammatory cytokines were observed in MDMs and PBMCs infected with HIV-1 in vitro and in response to TLR stimulation, compared to the mock. In addition, an association between TLR expression and up-regulation of CD80 in plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) was observed. The ex vivo analysis indicated increased expression of TLR2 and TLR4 in myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs), but only of TLR2 in monocytes obtained from HIV-1-infected patients, compared to healthy subjects. Remarkably, the expression was higher in cells from patients who do not use HAART. In monocytes, there was a positive correlation between both TLRs and viral load, but not CD4(+) T cell numbers. Together, our in vitro and ex vivo results suggest that TLR expression and function can be up-regulated in response to HIV-1 infection and could affect the inflammatory response. We propose that modulation of TLRs represents a mechanism to promote HIV-1 replication or AIDS progression in HIV-1-infected patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan C. Hernández
- Grupo Inmunovirología, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
- INFETARE, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Medellin, Colombia
| | - Mario Stevenson
- Developmental Center for AIDS Research, University of Miami, Miami, Florida
| | - Eicke Latz
- Institute of Innate Immunity, University Hospital, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Silvio Urcuqui-Inchima
- Grupo Inmunovirología, Sede de Investigación Universitaria, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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19
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Dunbar B, Patel M, Fahey J, Wira C. Endocrine control of mucosal immunity in the female reproductive tract: impact of environmental disruptors. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2012; 354:85-93. [PMID: 22289638 PMCID: PMC4332593 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 12/28/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The complexity of the human female reproductive tract (FRT) with its multiple levels of hormonally controlled immune protection has only begun to be understood. Dissecting the functions and roles of the immune system in the FRT is complicated by the differential hormonal regulation of its distinct anatomical structures that vary throughout the menstrual cycle. Although many fundamental mechanisms of steroid regulation of reproductive tract immune function have been determined, the effects of exogenous synthetic steroids or endocrine disruptors on immune function and disease susceptibility in the FRT have yet to be evaluated in detail. There is increasing evidence that environmental or synthetic molecules can alter normal immune function. This review provides an overview of the innate and adaptive immune systems, the current status of immune function in the FRT and the potential risks of environmental or pharmacological molecules that may perturb this system.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Dunbar
- Center for Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.
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20
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Mesman AW, Geijtenbeek TB. Pattern Recognition Receptors in HIV Transmission. Front Immunol 2012; 3:59. [PMID: 22566940 PMCID: PMC3341947 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2012.00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 03/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs), Langerhans cells (LCs), and macrophages are innate immune cells that reside in genital and intestinal mucosal tissues susceptible to HIV-1 infection. These innate cells play distinct roles in initiation of HIV-1 infection and induction of anti-viral immunity. DCs are potent migratory cells that capture HIV-1 and transfer virus to CD4+ T cells in the lymph nodes, whereas LCs have a protective anti-viral function, and macrophages function as viral reservoirs since they produce viruses over prolonged times. These differences are due to the different immune functions of these cells partly dependent on the expression of specific pattern recognition receptors. Expression of Toll-like receptors, C-type lectin receptors, and cell-specific machinery for antigen uptake and processing strongly influence the outcome of virus interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annelies W Mesman
- Department for Experimental Immunology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam Amsterdam, Netherlands
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21
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Nakayama EE, Shioda T. Role of Human TRIM5α in Intrinsic Immunity. Front Microbiol 2012; 3:97. [PMID: 22435067 PMCID: PMC3304089 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has a very narrow host range. HIV type 1 (HIV-1) does not infect Old World monkeys, such as the rhesus monkey (Rh). Rh TRIM5α was identified as a factor that confers resistance, intrinsic immunity, to HIV-1 infection. Unfortunately, human TRIM5α is almost powerless to restrict HIV-1. However, human TRIM5α potently restricts N-tropic murine leukemia viruses (MLV) but not B-tropic MLV, indicating that human TRIM5α represents the restriction factor previously designated as Ref1. African green monkey TRIM5α represents another restriction factor previously designated as Lv1, which restricts both HIV-1 and simian immunodeficiency virus isolated from macaque (SIVmac) infection. TRIM5 is a member of the tripartite motif family containing RING, B-box2, and coiled-coil domains. The RING domain is frequently found in E3 ubiquitin ligase, and TRIM5α is thought to degrade viral core via ubiquitin–proteasome-dependent and -independent pathways. The alpha isoform of TRIM5 has an additional C-terminal PRYSPRY domain, which is a determinant of species-specific retrovirus restriction by TRIM5α. On the other hand, the target regions of viral capsid protein (CA) are scattered on the surface of core. A single amino acid difference in the surface-exposed loop between α-helices 6 and 7 (L6/7) of HIV type 2 (HIV-2) CA affects viral sensitivity to human TRIM5α and was also shown to be associated with viral load in West African HIV-2 patients, indicating that human TRIM5α is a critical modulator of HIV-2 replication in vivo. Interestingly, L6/7 of CA corresponds to the MLV determinant of sensitivity to mouse factor Fv1, which potently restricts N-tropic MLV. In addition, human genetic polymorphisms also affect antiviral activity of human TRIM5α. Recently, human TRIM5α was shown to activate signaling pathways that lead to activation of NF-κB and AP-1 by interacting with TAK1 complex. TRIM5α is thus involved in control of viral infection in multiple ways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emi E Nakayama
- Department of Viral Infections, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University Suita, Osaka, Japan
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22
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The early stage of HIV-1 infection is when the virus is most vulnerable, and should therefore offer the best opportunity for therapeutic interventions. This review addresses the recent progress in the understanding of innate immune responses against HIV-1 with focus on the potential targets for prevention of viral acquisition, replication and dissemination. RECENT FINDINGS Research indicates that the host-derived factor trappin-2/elafin is protective against HIV, whereas semen-derived enhancer of viral infection and defensins 5 and 6 enhance viral transmission. Further, studies suggest that stimulation of TLR4 and inhibition of TLR7-9 pathways may be HIV suppressive. The regulation and function of viral restriction factors tetherin and APOBEC3G have been investigated and a molecule mimicking the premature uncoating achieved by TRIM5α, PF74, has been identified. Chloroquine has been shown to inhibit plasmacytoid dendritic cell activation and suppress negative modulators of T-cell responses. Blockade of HMBG1 has been found to restore natural-killer-cell-mediated killing of infected dendritic cells, normally suppressed by HIV-1. Interestingly, when used as adjuvants, EAT-2 and heat shock protein gp96 reportedly enhance innate immune responses. SUMMARY Several targets for innate immunity-mediated therapeutics have been identified. Nonetheless, more research is required to unveil their underlying mechanisms and interactions before testing these molecules in clinical trials.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Macrophages play an important role in HIV-1 pathogenesis and contribute to the establishment of the viral reservoir responsible for continuous virus production. This review will discuss new insights into HIV-1 infection in macrophages and the effect of infection on immune function and pathology. RECENT FINDINGS New cellular factors interacting with various steps of the HIV-1 replication cycle, such as entry, integration, transcription, and assembly of new viral progeny, have been identified. Cellular and viral microRNAs have been shown to regulate virus replication, promote viral latency, and prolong cell survival. Interference with innate immune functions, like phagocytosis, autophagy, cytokine production, and T-cell activation by HIV-1 has been found to contribute to virus replication and latency. Growing evidence indicates an important role of infected macrophages in a variety of HIV-1-associated diseases, including neurocognitive disorders. SUMMARY Under combined antiretroviral therapy (cART), HIV-1 continues to persist in macrophages. Better understanding of HIV-1 infection in macrophages may lead to new adjunctive therapies to improve cART, specifically targeting the viral reservoir and ameliorating tissue-specific diseases.
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Wira CR, Patel MV, Ghosh M, Mukura L, Fahey JV. Innate immunity in the human female reproductive tract: endocrine regulation of endogenous antimicrobial protection against HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 65:196-211. [PMID: 21294805 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.00970.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucosal surfaces of the female reproductive tract (FRT) contain a spectrum of antimicrobials that provide the first line of defense against viruses, bacteria, and fungi that enter the lower FRT. Once thought to be a sterile compartment, the upper FRT is periodically exposed to pathogens throughout the menstrual cycle. More recently, secretions from the upper FRT have been shown to contribute to downstream protection in the lower FRT. In this review, we examine the antimicrobials in FRT secretions made by immune cells and epithelial cells in the upper and lower FRT that contribute to innate protection. Because each site is hormonally regulated to maintain fertility, this review focuses on the contributions of hormone balance during the menstrual cycle to innate immune protection. As presented in this review, studies from our laboratory and others demonstrate that sex hormones regulate antimicrobials produced by innate immune cells throughout the FRT. The goal of this review is to examine the spectrum of antimicrobials in the FRT and the ways in which they are regulated to provide protection against pathogens that compromise reproductive health and threaten the lives of women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Wira
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Dartmouth Medical School, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA.
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25
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Nuclear receptor signaling inhibits HIV-1 replication in macrophages through multiple trans-repression mechanisms. J Virol 2011; 85:10834-50. [PMID: 21849441 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00789-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexually transmitted pathogens activate HIV-1 replication and inflammatory gene expression in macrophages through engagement of Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Ligand-activated nuclear receptor (NR) transcription factors, including glucocorticoid receptor (GR), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), and liver X receptor (LXR), are potent inhibitors of TLR-induced inflammatory gene expression. We therefore hypothesized that ligand-activated NRs repress both basal and pathogen-enhanced HIV-1 replication in macrophages by directly repressing HIV-1 transcription and by ameliorating the local proinflammatory response to pathogens. We show that the TLR2 ligand PAM3CSK4 activated virus transcription in macrophages and that NR signaling repressed both basal and TLR-induced HIV-1 transcription. NR ligand treatment repressed HIV-1 expression when added concurrently with TLR ligands and in the presence of cycloheximide, demonstrating that they act independently of new cellular gene expression. We found that treatment with NR ligands inhibited the association of AP-1 and NF-κB subunits, as well as the coactivator CBP, with the long terminal repeat (LTR). We show for the first time that the nuclear corepressor NCoR is bound to HIV-1 LTR in unstimulated macrophages and is released from the LTR after TLR engagement. Treatment with PPARγ and LXR ligands, but not GR ligands, prevented this TLR-induced clearance of NCoR from the LTR. Our data demonstrate that both classical and nonclassical trans-repression mechanisms account for NR-mediated HIV-1 repression. Finally, NR ligand treatment inhibited the potent proinflammatory response induced by PAM3CSK4 that would otherwise activate HIV-1 expression in infected cells. Our findings provide a rationale for studying ligand-activated NRs as modulators of basal and inflammation-induced HIV-1 replication.
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26
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Faure M, Rabourdin-Combe C. Innate immunity modulation in virus entry. Curr Opin Virol 2011; 1:6-12. [PMID: 22440562 PMCID: PMC7102793 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2011.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Revised: 05/23/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Entry into a cell submits viruses to detection by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) leading to an early innate anti-viral response. Several viruses evolved strategies to avoid or subvert PRR recognition at the step of virus entry to promote infection. Whereas viruses mostly escape from soluble PRR detection, endocytic/phagocytic PRRs, such as the mannose receptor or DC-SIGN, are commonly used for virus entry. Moreover, virion-incorporated proteins may also offer viruses a way to dampen anti-viral innate immunity upon virus entry, and entering viruses might usurp autophagy to improve their own infectivity.
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27
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Molecular definition of vaginal microbiota in East African commercial sex workers. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011; 77:4066-74. [PMID: 21531840 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02943-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Resistance to HIV infection in a cohort of commercial sex workers living in Nairobi, Kenya, is linked to mucosal and antiinflammatory factors that may be influenced by the vaginal microbiota. Since bacterial vaginosis (BV), a polymicrobial dysbiosis characterized by low levels of protective Lactobacillus organisms, is an established risk factor for HIV infection, we investigated whether vaginal microbiology was associated with HIV-exposed seronegative (HESN) or HIV-seropositive (HIV(+)) status in this cohort. A subset of 44 individuals was selected for deep-sequencing analysis based on the chaperonin 60 (cpn60) universal target (UT), including HESN individuals (n = 16), other HIV-seronegative controls (HIV-N, n = 16), and HIV(+) individuals (n = 12). Our findings indicate exceptionally high phylogenetic resolution of the cpn60 UT using reads as short as 200 bp, with 54 species in 29 genera detected in this group. Contrary to our initial hypothesis, few differences between HESN and HIV-N women were observed. Several HIV(+) women had distinct profiles dominated by Escherichia coli. The deep-sequencing phylogenetic profile of the vaginal microbiota corresponds closely to BV(+) and BV(-) diagnoses by microscopy, elucidating BV at the molecular level. A cluster of samples with intermediate abundance of Lactobacillus and dominant Gardnerella was identified, defining a distinct BV phenotype that may represent a transitional stage between BV(+) and BV(-). Several alpha- and betaproteobacteria, including the recently described species Variovorax paradoxus, were found to correlate positively with increased Lactobacillus levels that define the BV(-) ("normal") phenotype. We conclude that cpn60 UT is ideally suited to next-generation sequencing technologies for further investigation of microbial community dynamics and mucosal immunity underlying HIV resistance in this cohort.
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28
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Hickey DK, Patel MV, Fahey JV, Wira CR. Innate and adaptive immunity at mucosal surfaces of the female reproductive tract: stratification and integration of immune protection against the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. J Reprod Immunol 2011; 88:185-94. [PMID: 21353708 PMCID: PMC3094911 DOI: 10.1016/j.jri.2011.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2010] [Revised: 01/13/2011] [Accepted: 01/16/2011] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
This review examines the multiple levels of pre-existing immunity in the upper and lower female reproductive tract. In addition, we highlight the need for further research of innate and adaptive immune protection of mucosal surfaces in the female reproductive tract. Innate mechanisms include the mucus lining, a tight epithelial barrier and the secretion of antimicrobial peptides and cytokines by epithelial and innate immune cells. Stimulation of the innate immune system also serves to bridge the adaptive arm resulting in the generation of pathogen-specific humoral and cell-mediated immunity. Less understood are the multiple components that act in a coordinated way to provide a network of ongoing protection. Innate and adaptive immunity in the human female reproductive tract are influenced by the stage of menstrual cycle and are directly regulated by the sex steroid hormones, progesterone and estradiol. Furthermore, the effect of hormones on immunity is mediated both directly on immune and epithelial cells and indirectly by stimulating growth factor secretion from stromal cells. The goal of this review is to focus on the diverse aspects of the innate and adaptive immune systems that contribute to a unique network of protection throughout the female reproductive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- D K Hickey
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, Dartmouth Medical School, One Medical Center Drive, Lebanon, NH 03756, USA
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29
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Wu MH, Zhang P, Huang X. Toll-like receptors in innate immunity and infectious diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 4:385-93. [PMID: 21136206 DOI: 10.1007/s11684-010-0600-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 11/03/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The protective ability of host defense system is largely dependent on germ-line encoded pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs). These PRRs respond to a variety of exogenous pathogens or endogenous danger signals, by recognizing some highly conserved structures such as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and danger/damage associated molecular patterns (DAMPs). The most studied PRRs are Toll-like receptors (TLRs). Activation of TLRs triggers production of inflammatory cytokines and type I interferons (IFNs) via myeloid differentiation primary response gene 88 (MyD88)-dependent or -independent signaling respectively, thereby modulating innate and adaptive immunity, as well as inflammatory responses. This review introduces the classification, structure, and specific ligands of TLRs, and focuses on their signal pathways and biological activities, as well as clinical relevance. These studies of TLRs in the innate immune system have implications for the prevention and treatment of a variety of infectious diseases, including tuberculosis (TB), microbial keratitis, and hepatitis B and C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Hao Wu
- Key Laboratory of Tropical Diseases Control (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, 510080, China
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