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Bougon J, Kadijk E, Gallot-Lavallee L, Curtis BA, Landers M, Archibald JM, Khaperskyy DA. Influenza A virus NS1 effector domain is required for PA-X-mediated host shutoff in infected cells. J Virol 2024; 98:e0190123. [PMID: 38629840 PMCID: PMC11092343 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01901-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2023] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Many viruses inhibit general host gene expression to limit innate immune responses and gain preferential access to the cellular translational apparatus for their protein synthesis. This process is known as host shutoff. Influenza A viruses (IAVs) encode two host shutoff proteins: nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) and polymerase acidic X (PA-X). NS1 inhibits host nuclear pre-messenger RNA maturation and export, and PA-X is an endoribonuclease that preferentially cleaves host spliced nuclear and cytoplasmic messenger RNAs. Emerging evidence suggests that in circulating human IAVs NS1 and PA-X co-evolve to ensure optimal magnitude of general host shutoff without compromising viral replication that relies on host cell metabolism. However, the functional interplay between PA-X and NS1 remains unexplored. In this study, we sought to determine whether NS1 function has a direct effect on PA-X activity by analyzing host shutoff in A549 cells infected with wild-type or mutant IAVs with NS1 effector domain deletion. This was done using conventional quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction techniques and direct RNA sequencing using nanopore technology. Our previous research on the molecular mechanisms of PA-X function identified two prominent features of IAV-infected cells: nuclear accumulation of cytoplasmic poly(A) binding protein (PABPC1) and increase in nuclear poly(A) RNA abundance relative to the cytoplasm. Here we demonstrate that NS1 effector domain function augments PA-X host shutoff and is necessary for nuclear PABPC1 accumulation. By contrast, nuclear poly(A) RNA accumulation is not dependent on either NS1 or PA-X-mediated host shutoff and is accompanied by nuclear retention of viral transcripts. Our study demonstrates for the first time that NS1 and PA-X may functionally interact in mediating host shutoff.IMPORTANCERespiratory viruses including the influenza A virus continue to cause annual epidemics with high morbidity and mortality due to the limited effectiveness of vaccines and antiviral drugs. Among the strategies evolved by viruses to evade immune responses is host shutoff-a general blockade of host messenger RNA and protein synthesis. Disabling influenza A virus host shutoff is being explored in live attenuated vaccine development as an attractive strategy for increasing their effectiveness by boosting antiviral responses. Influenza A virus encodes two proteins that function in host shutoff: the nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) and the polymerase acidic X (PA-X). We and others have characterized some of the NS1 and PA-X mechanisms of action and the additive effects that these viral proteins may have in ensuring the blockade of host gene expression. In this work, we examined whether NS1 and PA-X functionally interact and discovered that NS1 is required for PA-X to function effectively. This work significantly advances our understanding of influenza A virus host shutoff and identifies new potential targets for therapeutic interventions against influenza and further informs the development of improved live attenuated vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliette Bougon
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Eileigh Kadijk
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Lucie Gallot-Lavallee
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Institute for Comparative Genomics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Bruce A. Curtis
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Institute for Comparative Genomics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Matthew Landers
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - John M. Archibald
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Institute for Comparative Genomics, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Denys A. Khaperskyy
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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Kuchinski KS, Coombe M, Mansour SC, Cortez GAP, Kalhor M, Himsworth CG, Prystajecky NA. Targeted genomic sequencing of avian influenza viruses in wetland sediment from wild bird habitats. Appl Environ Microbiol 2024; 90:e0084223. [PMID: 38259077 PMCID: PMC10880596 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00842-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Diverse influenza A viruses (IAVs) circulate in wild birds, including highly pathogenic strains that infect poultry and humans. Consequently, surveillance of IAVs in wild birds is a cornerstone of agricultural biosecurity and pandemic preparedness. Surveillance is traditionally done by testing wild birds directly, but obtaining these specimens is labor intensive, detection rates can be low, and sampling is often biased toward certain avian species. As a result, local incursions of dangerous IAVs are rarely detected before outbreaks begin. Testing environmental specimens from wild bird habitats has been proposed as an alternative surveillance strategy. These specimens are thought to contain diverse IAVs deposited by a broad range of avian hosts, including species that are not typically sampled by surveillance programs. To enable this surveillance strategy, we developed a targeted genomic sequencing method for characterizing IAVs in these challenging environmental specimens. It combines custom hybridization probes, unique molecular index-based library construction, and purpose-built bioinformatic tools, allowing IAV genomic material to be enriched and analyzed with single-fragment resolution. We demonstrated our method on 90 sediment specimens from wetlands around Vancouver, Canada. We recovered 2,312 IAV genome fragments originating from all eight IAV genome segments. Eleven hemagglutinin subtypes and nine neuraminidase subtypes were detected, including H5, the current global surveillance priority. Our results demonstrate that targeted genomic sequencing of environmental specimens from wild bird habitats could become a valuable complement to avian influenza surveillance programs.IMPORTANCEIn this study, we developed genome sequencing tools for characterizing avian influenza viruses in sediment from wild bird habitats. These tools enable an environment-based approach to avian influenza surveillance. This could improve early detection of dangerous strains in local wild birds, allowing poultry producers to better protect their flocks and prevent human exposures to potential pandemic threats. Furthermore, we purposefully developed these methods to contend with viral genomic material that is diluted, fragmented, incomplete, and derived from multiple strains and hosts. These challenges are common to many environmental specimens, making these methods broadly applicable for genomic pathogen surveillance in diverse contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin S. Kuchinski
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Michelle Coombe
- Animal Health Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sarah C. Mansour
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Gabrielle Angelo P. Cortez
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Marzieh Kalhor
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Chelsea G. Himsworth
- Animal Health Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
- School of Population and Public Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative, Abbotsford, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Natalie A. Prystajecky
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- British Columbia Centre for Disease Control, Provincial Health Services Authority, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
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Na L, Sun L, Yu M, Zhang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Zhang H, Qi T, Guo W, Guo X, Wang S, Wang J, Lin Y, Wang X. Avian ANP32A incorporated in avian influenza A virions promotes interspecies transmission by priming early viral replication in mammals. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadj4163. [PMID: 38295177 PMCID: PMC10830118 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adj4163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/02/2024]
Abstract
Species-specific differences in acidic nuclear phosphoprotein 32 family member A (ANP32A) determine the restriction of avian-signature polymerase in mammalian cells. Mutations that evade this restriction, such as PB2-E627K, are frequently acquired when avian influenza A viruses jump from avian hosts to mammalian hosts. However, the mechanism underlying this adaptation process is still unclear. Here, we report that host factor ANP32 proteins can be incorporated into influenza viral particles through combination with the viral RNA polymerase (vPol) and then transferred into targeted cells where they support virus replication. The packaging of the ANP32 proteins into influenza viruses is dependent on their affinity with the vPol. Avian ANP32A (avANP32A) delivered by avian influenza A virions primes early viral replication in mammalian cells, thereby favoring the downstream interspecies transmission event by increasing the total amount of virus carrying adaptive mutations. Our study clarifies one role of avANP32A where it is used by avian influenza virus to help counteract the restriction barrier in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Na
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Liuke Sun
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Mengmeng Yu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Yingzhi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Zhenyu Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Haili Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Research, Ministry of Education, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun 130062, China
| | - Ting Qi
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Wei Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Xing Guo
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Shida Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Jingfei Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Yuezhi Lin
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
- Institute of Western Agriculture, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin 150069, China
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Yang J, Yan J, Zhang C, Li S, Yuan M, Zhang C, Shen C, Yang Y, Fu L, Xu G, Shi W, Ma Z, Luo TR, Bi Y. Genetic, biological and epidemiological study on a cluster of H9N2 avian influenza virus infections among chickens, a pet cat, and humans at a backyard farm in Guangxi, China. Emerg Microbes Infect 2023; 12:2143282. [PMID: 36328956 PMCID: PMC9769140 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2022.2143282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
During an investigation in October 2018, two people with diarrhoea, mild abdominal pain, and mild arthralgia symptoms in Guangxi, China, were identified as infected by H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV). Four H9N2 AIVs were isolated from one of two patients, a pet cat, and a dead chicken (two respective isolates from its lung and kidney tissues) bred by the patients at a backyard farm. Epidemiological investigation indicated that the newly bought chicken died first, and clinical syndromes appeared subsequently in the two owners and one cat. Furthermore, the two individuals possessed high H9N2-specific hemagglutination inhibition and microneutralization antibodies. Shared nucleotide sequence identity (99.9% - 100%) for all genes was detected in the four H9N2 isolates, and hemagglutinin (HA) T138A located on the receptor binding domain (RBD), resulted from nucleotide polymorphisms that were exclusively found in the isolate from the female patient. Moreover, HA K137N on the RBD was found in isolates from these three host species. Importantly, these four H9N2 isolates presented an exclusive binding preference for the human-type receptor (α2-6-SA), and could replicate and cause pathological changes in mice. Phylogenetic analyses showed that these four isolates clustered together and belonged to clade C1.2, lineage Y280. In addition, H9N2 viruses of human origin are genetically divergent and interspersed with the widespread poultry-origin H9N2 AIVs. All these results indicate a high risk of H9N2 AIVs in public health, and effective prevention and control measures against H9N2 AIVs should be considered and performed for both animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jianhua Yan
- Laboratory of Animal Infectious Diseases, Medical College & College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning, People’s Republic of China
| | - Cheng Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China,College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumchi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shanqin Li
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Immunity, Guangdong Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Emerging Infectious Diseases, State Key Discipline of Infectious Disease, Second Hospital Affiliated to Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen Third People’s Hospital, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Manhua Yuan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chunge Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Chenguang Shen
- School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yang Yang
- Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Immunity, Guangdong Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Emerging Infectious Diseases, State Key Discipline of Infectious Disease, Second Hospital Affiliated to Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen Third People’s Hospital, Shenzhen, People’s Republic of China
| | - Lifeng Fu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guanlong Xu
- China Institute of Veterinary Drug Control, Beijing, People’s Republic of China
| | - Weifeng Shi
- Key Laboratory of Etiology and Epidemiology of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, People’s Republic of China
| | - Zhenghai Ma
- College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Urumchi, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ting Rong Luo
- Laboratory of Animal Infectious Diseases, Medical College & College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning, People’s Republic of China, Yuhai Bi CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China; Ting Rong Luo Laboratory of Animal Infectious Diseases, Medical College & College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530005, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhai Bi
- CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, People’s Republic of China, Yuhai Bi CAS Key Laboratory of Pathogen Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Microbiology, Center for Influenza Research and Early-warning (CASCIRE), CAS-TWAS Center of Excellence for Emerging Infectious Diseases (CEEID), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, People's Republic of China; Ting Rong Luo Laboratory of Animal Infectious Diseases, Medical College & College of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Guangxi University, Nanning, 530005, People's Republic of China
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Alasiri A, Soltane R, Hegazy A, Khalil AM, Mahmoud SH, Khalil AA, Martinez-Sobrido L, Mostafa A. Vaccination and Antiviral Treatment against Avian Influenza H5Nx Viruses: A Harbinger of Virus Control or Evolution. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:1628. [PMID: 38005960 PMCID: PMC10675773 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11111628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the panzootic nature of emergent highly pathogenic avian influenza H5Nx viruses in wild migratory birds and domestic poultry, only a limited number of human infections with H5Nx viruses have been identified since its emergence in 1996. Few countries with endemic avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have implemented vaccination as a control strategy, while most of the countries have adopted a culling strategy for the infected flocks. To date, China and Egypt are the two major sites where vaccination has been adopted to control avian influenza H5Nx infections, especially with the widespread circulation of clade 2.3.4.4b H5N1 viruses. This virus is currently circulating among birds and poultry, with occasional spillovers to mammals, including humans. Herein, we will discuss the history of AIVs in Egypt as one of the hotspots for infections and the improper implementation of prophylactic and therapeutic control strategies, leading to continuous flock outbreaks with remarkable virus evolution scenarios. Along with current pre-pandemic preparedness efforts, comprehensive surveillance of H5Nx viruses in wild birds, domestic poultry, and mammals, including humans, in endemic areas is critical to explore the public health risk of the newly emerging immune-evasive or drug-resistant H5Nx variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahlam Alasiri
- Department of Basic Sciences, Adham University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.); (R.S.)
| | - Raya Soltane
- Department of Basic Sciences, Adham University College, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah 21955, Saudi Arabia; (A.A.); (R.S.)
| | - Akram Hegazy
- Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza District, Giza 12613, Egypt;
| | - Ahmed Magdy Khalil
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA;
- Department of Zoonotic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Sara H. Mahmoud
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Center, Giza 12622, Egypt;
| | - Ahmed A. Khalil
- Veterinary Sera and Vaccines Research Institute (VSVRI), Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Cairo 11435, Egypt;
| | | | - Ahmed Mostafa
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, TX 78227, USA;
- Center of Scientific Excellence for Influenza Viruses, National Research Center, Giza 12622, Egypt;
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6
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Pekarek MJ, Weaver EA. Existing Evidence for Influenza B Virus Adaptations to Drive Replication in Humans as the Primary Host. Viruses 2023; 15:2032. [PMID: 37896807 PMCID: PMC10612074 DOI: 10.3390/v15102032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza B virus (IBV) is one of the two major types of influenza viruses that circulate each year. Unlike influenza A viruses, IBV does not harbor pandemic potential due to its lack of historical circulation in non-human hosts. Many studies and reviews have highlighted important factors for host determination of influenza A viruses. However, much less is known about the factors driving IBV replication in humans. We hypothesize that similar factors influence the host restriction of IBV. Here, we compile and review the current understanding of host factors crucial for the various stages of the IBV viral replication cycle. While we discovered the research in this area of IBV is limited, we review known host factors that may indicate possible host restriction of IBV to humans. These factors include the IBV hemagglutinin (HA) protein, host nuclear factors, and viral immune evasion proteins. Our review frames the current understanding of IBV adaptations to replication in humans. However, this review is limited by the amount of research previously completed on IBV host determinants and would benefit from additional future research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eric A. Weaver
- Nebraska Center for Virology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583, USA;
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7
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Lin L, Wang X, Chen Z, Deng T, Yan Y, Dong W, Huang Y, Zhou J. TRIM21 restricts influenza A virus replication by ubiquitination-dependent degradation of M1. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011472. [PMID: 37343022 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Tripartite motif-containing protein 21 (TRIM21), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, plays a critical role in the host antiviral response. However, the mechanism and antiviral spectrum of TRIM21 in influenza A virus (IAV) remain unclear. Here, we report that TRIM21 inhibits the replication of various IAV subtypes by targeting matrix protein 1 (M1) from H3/H5/H9, but not H1 and H7 M1. Mechanistically, TRIM21 binds to the residue R95 of M1 and facilitates K48 ubiquitination of M1 K242 for proteasome-dependent degradation, leading to the inhibition of H3, H5, and H9 IAV replication. Interestingly, the recombinant viruses with M1 R95K or K242R mutations were resistance to TRIM21 and exhibited more robust replication and severe pathogenicity. Moreover, the amino acid sequence M1 proteins, mainly from avian influenza such as H5N1, H7N9, H9N2, ranging from 1918 to 2022, reveals a gradual dominant accumulation of the TRIM21-driven R95K mutation when the virus jumps into mammals. Thus, TRIM21 in mammals' functions as a host restriction factor and drives a host adaptive mutation of influenza A virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lulu Lin
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University Center for Veterinary Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University First Affiliated Hospital, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xingbo Wang
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University Center for Veterinary Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhen Chen
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, China
| | - Tingjuan Deng
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University Center for Veterinary Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yan Yan
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University Center for Veterinary Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Weiren Dong
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University Center for Veterinary Sciences, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yu Huang
- Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Fuzhou, China
| | - Jiyong Zhou
- MOA Key Laboratory of Animal Virology, Zhejiang University Center for Veterinary Sciences, Hangzhou, China
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University First Affiliated Hospital, Hangzhou, China
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8
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Zorić JM, Veljović L, Radosavljević V, Glišić D, Kureljušić J, Maletić J, Savić B. Protein sequence features of H1N1 swine influenza A viruses detected on commercial swine farms in Serbia. J Vet Res 2023; 67:147-154. [PMID: 38143831 PMCID: PMC10740377 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2023-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Swine influenza A viruses (swIAVs) are characterised by high mutation rates and zoonotic and pandemic potential. In order to draw conclusions about virulence in swine and pathogenicity to humans, we examined the existence of molecular markers and accessory proteins, cross-reactivity with vaccine strains, and resistance to antiviral drugs in five strains of H1N1 swIAVs. Material and Methods Amino acid (AA) sequences of five previously genetically characterised swIAVs were analysed in MEGA 7.0 software and the Influenza Research Database. Results Amino acid analysis revealed three virus strains with 590S/591R polymorphism and T271A substitution within basic polymerase 2 (PB2) AA chains, which cause enhanced virus replication in mammalian cells. The other two strains possessed D701N and R251K substitutions within PB2 and synthesised PB1-F2 protein, which are the factors of increased polymerase activity and virulence in swine. All strains synthesised PB1-N40, PA-N155, PA-N182, and PA-X proteins responsible for enhanced replication in mammalian cells and downregulation of the immune response of the host. Mutations detected within haemagglutinin antigenic sites imply the antigenic drift of the five analysed viruses in relation to the vaccine strains. All viruses show susceptibility to neuraminidase inhibitors and baloxavir marboxil, which is important in situations of incidental human infections. Conclusion The detection of virulence markers and accessory proteins in the analysed viruses suggests their higher propensity for replication in mammalian cells, increased virulence, and potential for transmission to humans, and implies compromised efficacy of influenza vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ljubiša Veljović
- Department of Virology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Vladimir Radosavljević
- Department of Virology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Dimitrije Glišić
- Department of Virology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jasna Kureljušić
- Department of Food and Feed Safety, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Jelena Maletić
- Department of Poultry Diseases, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Božidar Savić
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, 11000Belgrade, Serbia
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9
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Wang Z, Li H, Li Y, Wu Z, Ai H, Zhang M, Rong L, Blinov ML, Tong Q, Liu L, Sun H, Pu J, Feng W, Liu J, Sun Y. Mixed selling of different poultry species facilitates emergence of public-health-threating avian influenza viruses. Emerg Microbes Infect 2023; 12:2214255. [PMID: 37191631 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2023.2214255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Live poultry markets (LPMs) are regarded as hubs for avian influenza virus (AIV) transmission in poultry and are a major risk factor in human AIV infections. We performed an AIV surveillance study at a wholesale LPM, where different poultry species were sold in separate stalls, and nine retail LPMs, which received poultry from the wholesale LPM but where different poultry species were sold in one stall, in Guangdong province from 2017 to 2019. A higher AIV isolation rate was observed at the retail LPMs than the wholesale LPM. H9N2 was the dominant AIV subtype and was mainly present in chickens and quails. The genetic diversity of H9N2 viruses was greater at the retail LPMs, where a complex system of two-way transmission between different poultry species had formed. The isolated H9N2 viruses could be classed into four genotypes: G57 and the three novel genotypes, NG164, NG165, and NG166. The H9N2 AIVs isolated from chickens and quails at the wholesale LPM only belonged to the G57 and NG164 genotypes, respectively. However, the G57, NG164, and NG165 genotypes were identified in both chickens and quails at the retail LPMs. We found that the replication and transmission of the NG165 genotype were more adaptive to both poultry and mammalian models than those of its precursor genotype, NG164. Our findings revealed that mixed poultry selling at retail LPMs has increased the genetic diversity of AIVs, which might facilitate the emergence of novel viruses that threaten public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
- State Key Laboratories of Agrobiotechnology, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongkui Li
- Liaoning Agricultural Development Service Center, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuhan Li
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhuanli Wu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hui Ai
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Ming Zhang
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Libin Rong
- Department of Mathematics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Michael L Blinov
- Center for Cell Analysis and Modeling, University of Connecticut School of Medicine, Farmington, CT, USA
| | - Qi Tong
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Litao Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Honglei Sun
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Pu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenhai Feng
- State Key Laboratories of Agrobiotechnology, and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, College of Biological Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Jinhua Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yipeng Sun
- National Key Laboratory of Veterinary Public Health Security, Key Laboratory for Prevention and Control of Avian Influenza and Other Major Poultry Diseases and Key Laboratory of Animal Epidemiology of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, People's Republic of China
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10
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Cai L, Dang M, Yang Y, Mei R, Li F, Tao X, Palukaitis P, Beckett R, Miller WA, Gray SM, Xu Y. Naturally occurring substitution of an amino acid in a plant virus gene-silencing suppressor enhances viral adaptation to increasing thermal stress. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011301. [PMID: 37011127 PMCID: PMC10101640 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cereal yellow dwarf virus (CYDV-RPV) encodes a P0 protein that functions as a viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR). The strength of silencing suppression is highly variable among CYDV-RPV isolates. In this study, comparison of the P0 sequences of CYDV-RPV isolates and mutational analysis identified a single C-terminal amino acid that influenced P0 RNA-silencing suppressor activity. A serine at position 247 was associated with strong suppressor activity, whereas a proline at position 247 was associated with weak suppressor activity. Amino acid changes at position 247 did not affect the interaction of P0 with SKP1 proteins from Hordeum vulgare (barley) or Nicotiana benthamiana. Subsequent studies found P0 proteins containing a P247 residue were less stable than the P0 proteins containing an S247 residue. Higher temperatures contributed to the lower stability and in planta and the P247 P0 proteins were subject to degradation via the autophagy-mediated pathway. A P247S amino acid residue substitution in P0 increased CYDV-RPV replication after expression in agroinfiltrated plant leaves and increased viral pathogenicity of P0 generated from the heterologous Potato virus X expression vector system. Moreover, an S247 CYDV-RPV could outcompete the P247 CYDV-RPV in a mixed infection in natural host at higher temperature. These traits contributed to increased transmission by aphid vectors and could play a significant role in virus competition in warming climates. Our findings underscore the capacity of a plant RNA virus to adapt to climate warming through minor genetic changes in gene-silencing suppressor, resulting in the potential for disease persistence and prevalence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Cai
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Mingqing Dang
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Yawen Yang
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ruoxin Mei
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Bio-Resources in Yunnan, Yunnan Agricultural University, Kunming, China
| | - Xiaorong Tao
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Peter Palukaitis
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Seoul Women's University, Nowon-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Randy Beckett
- Department of Plant Pathology, Entomology and Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - W Allen Miller
- Department of Plant Pathology, Entomology and Microbiology, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa, United States of America
| | - Stewart M Gray
- Plant Pathology and Plant-Microbe Biology Section, School of Integrated Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
- Emerging Pests and Pathogens Research Unit, USDA, ARS, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Yi Xu
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Jiangsu Province, China
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11
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Utility of Human In Vitro Data in Risk Assessments of Influenza A Virus Using the Ferret Model. J Virol 2023; 97:e0153622. [PMID: 36602361 PMCID: PMC9888249 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01536-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
As influenza A viruses (IAV) continue to cross species barriers and cause human infection, the establishment of risk assessment rubrics has improved pandemic preparedness efforts. In vivo pathogenicity and transmissibility evaluations in the ferret model represent a critical component of this work. As the relative contribution of in vitro experimentation to these rubrics has not been closely examined, we sought to evaluate to what extent viral titer measurements over the course of in vitro infections are predictive or correlates of nasal wash and tissue measurements for IAV infections in vivo. We compiled data from ferrets inoculated with an extensive panel of over 50 human and zoonotic IAV (inclusive of swine-origin and high- and low-pathogenicity avian influenza viruses associated with human infection) under a consistent protocol, with all viruses concurrently tested in a human bronchial epithelial cell line (Calu-3). Viral titers in ferret nasal wash specimens and nasal turbinate tissue correlated positively with peak titer in Calu-3 cells, whereas additional phenotypic and molecular determinants of influenza virus virulence and transmissibility in ferrets varied in their association with in vitro viral titer measurements. Mathematical modeling was used to estimate more generalizable key replication kinetic parameters from raw in vitro viral titers, revealing commonalities between viral infection progression in vivo and in vitro. Meta-analyses inclusive of IAV that display a diverse range of phenotypes in ferrets, interpreted with mathematical modeling of viral kinetic parameters, can provide critical information supporting a more rigorous and appropriate contextualization of in vitro experiments toward pandemic preparedness. IMPORTANCE Both in vitro and in vivo models are employed for assessing the pandemic potential of novel and emerging influenza A viruses in laboratory settings, but systematic examinations of how well viral titer measurements obtained in vitro align with results from in vivo experimentation are not frequently performed. We show that certain viral titer measurements following infection of a human bronchial epithelial cell line are positively correlated with viral titers in specimens collected from virus-inoculated ferrets and employ mathematical modeling to identify commonalities between viral infection progression between both models. These analyses provide a necessary first step in enhanced interpretation and incorporation of in vitro-derived data in risk assessment activities and highlight the utility of employing mathematical modeling approaches to more closely examine features of virus replication not identifiable by experimental studies alone.
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12
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Del Rosario JMM, da Costa KAS, Temperton NJ. Pseudotyped Viruses for Influenza. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1407:153-173. [PMID: 36920696 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-99-0113-5_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
We have developed an influenza hemagglutinin (HA) pseudotype (PV) library encompassing all influenza A (IAV) subtypes from HA1-HA18, influenza B (IBV) subtypes (both lineages), representative influenza C (ICV), and influenza D (IDV) viruses. These influenza HA (or hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) for ICV and IDV) pseudotypes have been used in a pseudotype microneutralization assay (pMN), an optimized luciferase reporter assay, that is highly sensitive and specific for detecting neutralizing antibodies against influenza viruses. This has been an invaluable tool in detecting the humoral immune response against specific hemagglutinin or hemagglutinin-esterase fusion proteins for IAV to IDV in serum samples and for screening antibodies for their neutralizing abilities. Additionally, we have also produced influenza neuraminidase (NA) pseudotypes for IAV N1-N9 subtypes and IBV lineages. We have utilized these NA-PV as surrogate antigens in in vitro assays to assess vaccine immunogenicity. These NA PV have been employed as the source of neuraminidase enzyme activity in a pseudotype enzyme-linked lectin assay (pELLA) that is able to measure neuraminidase inhibition (NI) titers of reference antisera, monoclonal antibodies, and postvaccination sera. Here we show the production of influenza HA, HEF, and NA PV and their employment as substitutes for wild-type viruses in influenza serological and neutralization assays. We also introduce AutoPlate, an easily accessible web app that can analyze data from pMN and pELLA quickly and efficiently, plotting inhibition curves and calculating half-maximal concentration (IC50) neutralizing antibody titers. These serological techniques coupled with user-friendly analysis tools are faster, safer, inexpensive alternatives to classical influenza assays while also offering the reliability and reproducibility to advance influenza research and make it more accessible to laboratories around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Marie M Del Rosario
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, University of Kent and Greenwich at Medway, Chatham, UK
| | - Kelly A S da Costa
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, University of Kent and Greenwich at Medway, Chatham, UK
| | - Nigel J Temperton
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, University of Kent and Greenwich at Medway, Chatham, UK.
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13
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Tian R, Zhu H, Lu Y, Shi X, Tu P, Li H, Huang H, Chen D. Therapeutic Potential of 2-Methylquinazolin-4(3H)-one as an Antiviral Agent against Influenza A Virus-Induced Acute Lung Injury in Mice. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27227857. [PMID: 36431955 PMCID: PMC9697438 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27227857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Qingdai-Mabo (QM), a traditional Chinese herbal formula composed of medicinal herb and fungus, has been used for treatment of cough and viral pneumonia. However, the underlying mechanism and bioactive components against anti-influenza A virus remain unclear. In the present study, ethyl acetate (EA) extract of QM decoctions was tested for its biological activity against acute lung injury (ALI) and its main components were identified using UPLC-MS/MS. In total, 18 bioactive components were identified, including 2-Methylquinaozlin-4(3H)-one (C1), which showed significant antiviral activity in vitro with an IC50 of 23.8 μg/mL. Furthermore, we validated the efficacy of C1 in ameliorating ALI lesions and inflammation in influenza A virus-infected mice. The results showed that C1 significantly reduced the lung index, downregulated neuraminidase (NA) and nucleoprotein (NP), and decreased the expression of pro-inflammatory molecules IFN-α, TNF-α, MCP-1, IL-6, and IL-8; however, they enhanced levels of IL-10 and IFN-γ in lung homogenate from mice infected by influenza A virus. In addition, C1 inhibited the recruitment of macrophages. These in vitro and in vivo studies suggested that the significant anti-influenza A virus activity contributed to its curative effect on lesions and inflammation of viral pneumonia in mice. Given its potential antiviral activity against influenza A virus, C1 is determined to be a main active component in the EA extract of QM. Taken together, the antiviral activity of C1 suggests its potential as an effective treatment against viral pneumonia via the inhibition of virus replication, but the mechanism C1 on antiviral research needs to be explored further.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Tian
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Haiyan Zhu
- Department of Biological Medicines & Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Immunotherapeutics, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
- Correspondence: (H.Z.); (D.C.)
| | - Yan Lu
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Xunlong Shi
- Department of Biological Medicines & Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Immunotherapeutics, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Peng Tu
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Hong Li
- Department of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Hai Huang
- Department of Biological Medicines & Shanghai Engineering Research Center of Immunotherapeutics, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Daofeng Chen
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, No. 3728, Jin Ke Road, Shanghai 201203, China
- Correspondence: (H.Z.); (D.C.)
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14
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Lutz M, Schmierer J, Takimoto T. Host adaptive mutations in the 2009 H1N1 pandemic influenza A virus PA gene regulate translation efficiency of viral mRNAs via GRSF1. Commun Biol 2022; 5:1102. [PMID: 36253464 PMCID: PMC9576711 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-04082-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Avian species are the major natural reservoir from which pandemic influenza A viruses can be introduced to humans. Avian influenza A virus genes, including the three viral polymerase genes, PA, PB1 and PB2, require host-adaptive mutations to allow for viral replication and transmission in humans. Previously, PA from the 2009 pH1N1 viral polymerase was found to harbor host-adaptive mutations leading to enhanced viral polymerase activity. By quantifying translation and mRNA transcription, we found that the 2009 pH1N1 PA, and the associated host-adaptive mutations, led to greater translation efficiency. This was due to enhanced cytosolic accumulation of viral mRNA, which was dependent on the host RNA binding protein GRSF1. Mutations to the GRSF1 binding site in viral mRNA, as well as GRSF1 knockdown, reduced cytosolic accumulation and translation efficiency of viral mRNAs. This study identifies a previously unrecognized mechanism by which host-adaptive mutations in PA regulate viral replication and host adaptation. Importantly, these results provide greater insight into the host adaptation process of IAVs and reveal the importance of GRSF1 in the lifecycle of IAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Lutz
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Jordana Schmierer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA
| | - Toru Takimoto
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA.
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15
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Gonzalez-Obando J, Forero JE, Zuluaga-Cabrera AM, Ruiz-Saenz J. Equine Influenza Virus: An Old Known Enemy in the Americas. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10101718. [PMID: 36298583 PMCID: PMC9610386 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10101718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza is a highly contagious disease caused by the H3N8 equine influenza virus (EIV), which is endemically distributed throughout the world. It infects equids, and interspecies transmission to dogs has been reported. The H3N8 Florida lineage, which is divided into clades 1 and 2, is the most representative lineage in the Americas. The EIV infects the respiratory system, affecting the ciliated epithelial cells and preventing the elimination of foreign bodies and substances. Certain factors related to the disease, such as an outdated vaccination plan, age, training, and close contact with other animals, favor the presentation of equine influenza. This review focuses on the molecular, pathophysiological, and epidemiological characteristics of EIV in the Americas to present updated information to achieve prevention and control of the virus. We also discuss the need for monitoring the disease, the use of vaccines, and the appropriate application of those biologicals, among other biosecurity measures that are important for the control of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Gonzalez-Obando
- Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia
| | - Jorge Eduardo Forero
- Grupo de Investigación en Microbiología Veterinaria, Escuela de Microbiología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Angélica M Zuluaga-Cabrera
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de las Américas, Circular 73 N°35-04, Medellín 050010, Colombia
| | - Julián Ruiz-Saenz
- Grupo de Investigación en Ciencias Animales—GRICA, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Cooperativa de Colombia, Bucaramanga 680002, Colombia
- Correspondence:
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16
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Rochman ND, Wolf YI, Koonin EV. Molecular adaptations during viral epidemics. EMBO Rep 2022; 23:e55393. [PMID: 35848484 PMCID: PMC9346483 DOI: 10.15252/embr.202255393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Revised: 06/18/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
In 1977, the world witnessed both the eradication of smallpox and the beginning of the modern age of genomics. Over the following half-century, 7 epidemic viruses of international concern galvanized virologists across the globe and led to increasingly extensive virus genome sequencing. These sequencing efforts exerted over periods of rapid adaptation of viruses to new hosts, in particular, humans provide insight into the molecular mechanisms underpinning virus evolution. Investment in virus genome sequencing was dramatically increased by the unprecedented support for phylogenomic analyses during the COVID-19 pandemic. In this review, we attempt to piece together comprehensive molecular histories of the adaptation of variola virus, HIV-1 M, SARS, H1N1-SIV, MERS, Ebola, Zika, and SARS-CoV-2 to the human host. Disruption of genes involved in virus-host interaction in animal hosts, recombination including genome segment reassortment, and adaptive mutations leading to amino acid replacements in virus proteins involved in host receptor binding and membrane fusion are identified as the key factors in the evolution of epidemic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nash D Rochman
- National Center for Biotechnology InformationNational Library of MedicineBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Yuri I Wolf
- National Center for Biotechnology InformationNational Library of MedicineBethesdaMDUSA
| | - Eugene V Koonin
- National Center for Biotechnology InformationNational Library of MedicineBethesdaMDUSA
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17
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Whitlock F, Murcia PR, Newton JR. A Review on Equine Influenza from a Human Influenza Perspective. Viruses 2022; 14:v14061312. [PMID: 35746783 PMCID: PMC9229935 DOI: 10.3390/v14061312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses (IAVs) have a main natural reservoir in wild birds. IAVs are highly contagious, continually evolve, and have a wide host range that includes various mammalian species including horses, pigs, and humans. Furthering our understanding of host-pathogen interactions and cross-species transmissions is therefore essential. This review focuses on what is known regarding equine influenza virus (EIV) virology, pathogenesis, immune responses, clinical aspects, epidemiology (including factors contributing to local, national, and international transmission), surveillance, and preventive measures such as vaccines. We compare EIV and human influenza viruses and discuss parallels that can be drawn between them. We highlight differences in evolutionary rates between EIV and human IAVs, their impact on antigenic drift, and vaccine strain updates. We also describe the approaches used for the control of equine influenza (EI), which originated from those used in the human field, including surveillance networks and virological analysis methods. Finally, as vaccination in both species remains the cornerstone of disease mitigation, vaccine technologies and vaccination strategies against influenza in horses and humans are compared and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fleur Whitlock
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- Medical Research Council, University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK; (F.W.); (P.R.M.)
| | - J. Richard Newton
- Equine Infectious Disease Surveillance (EIDS), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
- Correspondence:
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18
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Nambou K, Anakpa M, Tong YS. Human genes with codon usage bias similar to that of the nonstructural protein 1 gene of influenza A viruses are conjointly involved in the infectious pathogenesis of influenza A viruses. Genetica 2022; 150:97-115. [PMID: 35396627 PMCID: PMC8992787 DOI: 10.1007/s10709-022-00155-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Molecular mechanisms of the non-structural protein 1 (NS1) in influenza A-induced pathological changes remain ambiguous. This study explored the pathogenesis of human infection by influenza A viruses (IAVs) through identifying human genes with codon usage bias (CUB) similar to NS1 gene of these viruses based on the relative synonymous codon usage (RSCU). CUB of the IAV subtypes H1N1, H3N2, H3N8, H5N1, H5N2, H5N8, H7N9 and H9N2 was analyzed and the correlation of RSCU values of NS1 sequences with those of the human genes was calculated. The CUB of NS1 was uneven and codons ending with A/U were preferred. The ENC-GC3 and neutrality plots suggested natural selection as the main determinant for CUB. The RCDI, CAI and SiD values showed that the viruses had a high degree of adaptability to human. A total of 2155 human genes showed significant RSCU-based correlation (p < 0.05 and r > 0.5) with NS1 coding sequences and was considered as human genes with CUB similar to NS1 gene of IAV subtypes. Differences and similarities in the subtype-specific human protein–protein interaction (PPI) networks and their functions were recorded among IAVs subtypes, indicating that NS1 of each IAV subtype has a specific pathogenic mechanism. Processes and pathways involved in influenza, transcription, immune response and cell cycle were enriched in human gene sets retrieved based on the CUB of NS1 gene of IAV subtypes. The present work may advance our understanding on the mechanism of NS1 in human infections of IAV subtypes and shed light on the therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komi Nambou
- Shenzhen Nambou1 Biotech Company Limited, 998 Wisdom Valley, No. 38-56 Zhenming Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen, 518106, China.
| | - Manawa Anakpa
- Centre d'Informatique et de Calcul, Université de Lomé, Boulevard Gnassingbé Eyadema, 01 B.P. 1515, Lomé, Togo
| | - Yin Selina Tong
- Shenzhen Nambou1 Biotech Company Limited, 998 Wisdom Valley, No. 38-56 Zhenming Road, Guangming District, Shenzhen, 518106, China
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19
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Swine H1N1 Influenza Virus Variants with Enhanced Polymerase Activity and HA Stability Promote Airborne Transmission in Ferrets. J Virol 2022; 96:e0010022. [DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00100-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse IAVs circulate in animals, yet few acquire the viral traits needed to start a human pandemic. A stabilized HA and mammalian-adapted polymerase have been shown to promote the adaptation of IAVs to humans and ferrets (the gold-standard model for IAV replication, pathogenicity, and transmissibility).
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20
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Kim G, Shin HM, Kim HR, Kim Y. Effects of Host and Pathogenicity on Mutation Rates in Avian Influenza A Viruses. Virus Evol 2022; 8:veac013. [PMID: 35295747 PMCID: PMC8922178 DOI: 10.1093/ve/veac013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Mutation is the primary determinant of genetic diversity in influenza viruses. The rate of mutation, measured in an absolute time-scale, is likely to be dependent on the rate of errors in copying RNA sequences per replication and the number of replications per unit time. Conditions for viral replication are probably different among host taxa, potentially generating the host-specificity of the viral mutation rate, and possibly between highly and low pathogenic viruses. This study investigated whether mutation rates per year in avian influenza A viruses depend on host taxa and pathogenicity. We inferred mutation rates from the rates of synonymous substitutions, which are assumed to be neutral and thus equal to mutation rates, at four segments that code internal viral proteins (PB2, PB1, PA, NP). On the phylogeny of all avian viral sequences for each segment, multiple distinct subtrees (clades) were identified that represent viral subpopulations, which are likely to have evolved within particular host taxa. Using simple regression analysis, we found that mutation rates were significantly higher in viruses infecting chickens than domestic ducks, and in those infecting wild shorebirds than wild ducks. Host-dependency of the substitution rate was also confirmed by Bayesian phylogenetic analysis. However, we did not find evidence that the mutation rate is higher in highly pathogenic than in low pathogenic viruses. We discuss these results considering viral replication rate as the major determinant of mutation rate per unit time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwanghun Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Mu Shin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- BK21 FOUR Biomedical Science Project, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- Medical Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University, Hongcheon 25159, Republic of Korea
| | - Hang-Rae Kim
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- BK21 FOUR Biomedical Science Project, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- Medical Research Institute, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea
- Wide River Institute of Immunology, Seoul National University, Hongcheon 25159, Republic of Korea
| | - Yuseob Kim
- Division of EcoScience and Department of Life Science, Ewha Womans University, Seoul 03760, Republic of Korea
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21
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The species-specific 282 residue in the PB2 subunit of the polymerase regulates RNA synthesis and replication of influenza A viruses infecting bat and non-bat hosts. J Virol 2022; 96:e0219021. [PMID: 35044213 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02190-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bat influenza viruses are genetically distant from classical influenza A viruses (IAV) and show distinct functional differences in their surface antigens. Nevertheless, any comparative analysis between bat and classical IAV RNA polymerases or their specific subunits are yet to be performed. In this work, we have identified signature residues present in the bat influenza virus polymerase, which are responsible for its altered fitness in comparison to the classical IAVs. Through comparative sequence and structural analysis, we have identified specific positions in the PB2 subunit of the polymerase, with differential amino acid preferences amongst bat and non-bat IAVs. Functional screening helped us to focus upon the previously uncharacterized PB2-282 residue, which is serine in bat virus but harbors highly conserved glutamic acid in classical IAVs. Introduction of E282S mutation in the human-adapted PB2 (influenza A/H1N1/WSN/1933) drastically reduces polymerase activity and replication efficiency of the virus in human, bat and canine cells. Interestingly, this newly identified PB2-282 resides within an evolutionary conserved "S-E-S" motif, present across different genera of influenza viruses and serves as a key regulator of RNA synthesis activity of the polymerase. In contrast, bat influenza viruses harbor an atypical "S-S-T" motif at the same position of PB2, alteration of which with the human like "S-E-T" motif significantly enhances its (H17N10/Guatemala/164/2009) polymerase activity in human cells. Together our data indicates that the PB2-S282 residue may serve as an inherent restriction element of the bat virus polymerase limiting its activity in other host species. Importance Influenza A viruses are known for their ability to perform cross-species transmission, facilitated by amino acid alterations either in the surface antigen, HA, or in the polymerase subunit PB2. Recent isolation of influenza A-like viruses from bats raised the concern about their epizootic and zoonotic potential. Here we identify a novel species-specific signature present within the influenza virus polymerase that may serve as a key factor in adaptation of influenza viruses from bat to non-bat host species. The PB2-282nd residue, which harbors a highly conserved glutamic acid for influenza viruses across all genera (A, B, C and D), encompasses an atypical serine in case of bat influenza viruses. Our data show that the human-adapted polymerase, harboring bat specific signature (PB2-S282) performs poorly, while bat PB2 protein harboring human specific signature (PB2-E282) shows increased fitness in human cells.
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22
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Abstract
Influenza A viruses are negative-sense RNA viruses that rely on their own viral replication machinery to replicate and transcribe their segmented single-stranded RNA genome. The viral ribonucleoprotein complexes in which viral RNA is replicated consist of a nucleoprotein scaffold around which the RNA genome is bound, and a heterotrimeric RNA-dependent RNA polymerase that catalyzes viral replication. The RNA polymerase copies the viral RNA (vRNA) via a replicative intermediate, called the complementary RNA (cRNA), and subsequently uses this cRNA to make more vRNA copies. To ensure that new cRNA and vRNA molecules are associated with ribonucleoproteins in which they can be amplified, the active RNA polymerase recruits a second polymerase to encapsidate the cRNA or vRNA. Host factor ANP32A has been shown to be essential for viral replication and to facilitate the formation of a dimer between viral RNA polymerases. Differences between mammalian and avian ANP32A proteins are sufficient to restrict viral replication. It has been proposed that ANP32A is only required for the synthesis of vRNA molecules from a cRNA, but not vice versa. However, this view does not match recent molecular evidence. Here we use minigenome assays, virus infections, and viral promoter mutations to demonstrate that ANP32A is essential for both vRNA and cRNA synthesis. Moreover, we show that ANP32 is not only needed for the actively replicating polymerase, but also for the polymerase that is encapsidating nascent viral RNA products. Overall, these results provide new insights into influenza A virus replication and host adaptation. IMPORTANCE Zoonotic avian influenza A viruses pose a constant threat to global health, and they have the potential to cause pandemics. Species variations in host factor ANP32A play a key role in supporting the activity of avian influenza A virus RNA polymerases in mammalian hosts. Here we show that ANP32A acts at two stages in the influenza A virus replication cycle, supporting recent structural experiments, in line with its essential role. Understanding how ANP32A supports viral RNA polymerase activity and how it supports avian polymerase function in mammalian hosts is important for understanding influenza A virus replication and the development of antiviral strategies against influenza A viruses.
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Influenza A and D Viruses in Non-Human Mammalian Hosts in Africa: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Viruses 2021; 13:v13122411. [PMID: 34960680 PMCID: PMC8706448 DOI: 10.3390/v13122411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the prevalence and current knowledge of influenza A virus (IAV) and influenza D virus (IDV) in non-human mammalian hosts in Africa. PubMed, Google Scholar, Wiley Online Library and World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE-WAHIS) were searched for studies on IAV and IDV from 2000 to 2020. Pooled prevalence and seroprevalences were estimated using the quality effects meta-analysis model. The estimated pooled prevalence and seroprevalence of IAV in pigs in Africa was 1.6% (95% CI: 0-5%) and 14.9% (95% CI: 5-28%), respectively. The seroprevalence of IDV was 87.2% (95% CI: 24-100%) in camels, 9.3% (95% CI: 0-24%) in cattle, 2.2% (95% CI: 0-4%) in small ruminants and 0.0% (95% CI: 0-2%) in pigs. In pigs, H1N1 and H1N1pdm09 IAVs were commonly detected. Notably, the highly pathogenic H5N1 virus was also detected in pigs. Other subtypes detected serologically and/or virologically included H3N8 and H7N7 in equids, H1N1, and H3N8 and H5N1 in dogs and cats. Furthermore, various wildlife animals were exposed to different IAV subtypes. For prudent mitigation of influenza epizootics and possible human infections, influenza surveillance efforts in Africa should not neglect non-human mammalian hosts. The impact of IAV and IDV in non-human mammalian hosts in Africa deserves further investigation.
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Steinberg J, Wadenpohl T, Jung S. The Endogenous RIG-I Ligand Is Generated in Influenza A-Virus Infected Cells. Viruses 2021; 13:1564. [PMID: 34452429 PMCID: PMC8402674 DOI: 10.3390/v13081564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As a result of a viral infection, viral genomes are not only recognized by RIG-I, but also lead to the activation of RNase L, which cleaves cellular RNA to generate the endogenous RIG-I ligand (eRL). The eRL was previously identified as a specific sequence derived from the internal transcribed spacer region 2, which bears a 2'3' cyclic phosphate instead of the common 5' triphosphate. By now, the generation of the eRL and its immunostimulatory effect were shown both in vitro and in reporter systems. In this work, we aimed to elucidate whether the eRL is also generated in Influenza A (IAV) and vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) infected cells. RNA was extracted from virus-infected cells and used for immunostimulations as well as specific PCR-strategies to detect eRL cleavage. We show that the eRL is generated in IAV infected HEK293 cells, but we could not detect specific eRL fragments in VSV infected cells. Further, RIG-I mediated IFN-response depends not only on viral genomes but also on the eRL, as immunostimulatory properties remain present under 5'triphosphate degrading conditions. In summary, we prove the IAV infection induced eRL generation in HEK293 cells, amplifying the innate immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephanie Jung
- Institute of Cardiovascular Immunology, University Hospital Bonn, University of Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; (J.S.); (T.W.)
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25
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Del Rosario JMM, da Costa KAS, Asbach B, Ferrara F, Ferrari M, Wells DA, Mann GS, Ameh VO, Sabeta CT, Banyard AC, Kinsley R, Scott SD, Wagner R, Heeney JL, Carnell GW, Temperton NJ. Exploiting Pan Influenza A and Pan Influenza B Pseudotype Libraries for Efficient Vaccine Antigen Selection. Vaccines (Basel) 2021; 9:741. [PMID: 34358157 PMCID: PMC8310092 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines9070741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed an influenza hemagglutinin (HA) pseudotype library encompassing Influenza A subtypes HA1-18 and Influenza B subtypes (both lineages) to be employed in influenza pseudotype microneutralization (pMN) assays. The pMN is highly sensitive and specific for detecting virus-specific neutralizing antibodies against influenza viruses and can be used to assess antibody functionality in vitro. Here we show the production of these viral HA pseudotypes and their employment as substitutes for wildtype viruses in influenza neutralization assays. We demonstrate their utility in detecting serum responses to vaccination with the ability to evaluate cross-subtype neutralizing responses elicited by specific vaccinating antigens. Our findings may inform further preclinical studies involving immunization dosing regimens in mice and may help in the creation and selection of better antigens for vaccine design. These HA pseudotypes can be harnessed to meet strategic objectives that contribute to the strengthening of global influenza surveillance, expansion of seasonal influenza prevention and control policies, and strengthening pandemic preparedness and response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Marie M. Del Rosario
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham ME4 4BF, UK; (J.M.M.D.R.); (K.A.S.d.C.); (F.F.); (G.S.M.); (S.D.S.)
- Department of Physical Sciences and Mathematics, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Manila, Manila 1000, Philippines
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
| | - Kelly A. S. da Costa
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham ME4 4BF, UK; (J.M.M.D.R.); (K.A.S.d.C.); (F.F.); (G.S.M.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Benedikt Asbach
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; (B.A.); (R.W.)
| | - Francesca Ferrara
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham ME4 4BF, UK; (J.M.M.D.R.); (K.A.S.d.C.); (F.F.); (G.S.M.); (S.D.S.)
- Vector Development and Production Laboratory, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105, USA
| | - Matteo Ferrari
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - David A. Wells
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Gurdip Singh Mann
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham ME4 4BF, UK; (J.M.M.D.R.); (K.A.S.d.C.); (F.F.); (G.S.M.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Veronica O. Ameh
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Makurdi P.M.B. 2373, Bene State, Nigeria;
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, P. Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa;
| | - Claude T. Sabeta
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, P. Bag X04, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa;
- OIE Rabies Reference Laboratory, Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Ashley C. Banyard
- Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), Department of Virology, Weybridge, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK;
| | - Rebecca Kinsley
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Simon D. Scott
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham ME4 4BF, UK; (J.M.M.D.R.); (K.A.S.d.C.); (F.F.); (G.S.M.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Ralf Wagner
- Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; (B.A.); (R.W.)
- Institute of Clinical Microbiology and Hygiene, University Hospital Regensburg, 93053 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Jonathan L. Heeney
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - George W. Carnell
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK
| | - Nigel J. Temperton
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham ME4 4BF, UK; (J.M.M.D.R.); (K.A.S.d.C.); (F.F.); (G.S.M.); (S.D.S.)
- DIOSynVax, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK; (M.F.); (D.A.W.); (R.K.); (J.L.H.); (G.W.C.)
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Mammalian cells use the autophagy process to restrict avian influenza virus replication. Cell Rep 2021; 35:109213. [PMID: 34107256 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Host adaptive mutations in the influenza A virus (IAV) PB2 protein are critical for human infection, but their molecular action is not well understood. We observe that when IAV containing avian PB2 infects mammalian cells, viral ribonucleoprotein (vRNP) aggregates that localize to the microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) are formed. These vRNP aggregates resemble LC3B-associated autophagosome structures, with aggresome-like properties, in that they cause the re-distribution of vimentin. However, electron microscopy reveals that these aggregates represent an accumulation of autophagic vacuoles. Compared to mammalian-PB2 virus, avian-PB2 virus induces higher autophagic flux in infected cells, indicating an increased rate of autophagosomes containing avian vRNPs fusing with lysosomes. We found that p62 is essential for the formation of vRNP aggregates and that the Raptor-interacting region of p62 is required for interaction with vRNPs through the PB2 polymerase subunit. Selective autophagic sequestration during late-stage virus replication is thus an additional strategy for host restriction of avian-PB2 IAV.
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Russell CJ. Hemagglutinin Stability and Its Impact on Influenza A Virus Infectivity, Pathogenicity, and Transmissibility in Avians, Mice, Swine, Seals, Ferrets, and Humans. Viruses 2021; 13:746. [PMID: 33923198 PMCID: PMC8145662 DOI: 10.3390/v13050746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetically diverse influenza A viruses (IAVs) circulate in wild aquatic birds. From this reservoir, IAVs sporadically cause outbreaks, epidemics, and pandemics in wild and domestic avians, wild land and sea mammals, horses, canines, felines, swine, humans, and other species. One molecular trait shown to modulate IAV host range is the stability of the hemagglutinin (HA) surface glycoprotein. The HA protein is the major antigen and during virus entry, this trimeric envelope glycoprotein binds sialic acid-containing receptors before being triggered by endosomal low pH to undergo irreversible structural changes that cause membrane fusion. The HA proteins from different IAV isolates can vary in the pH at which HA protein structural changes are triggered, the protein causes membrane fusion, or outside the cell the virion becomes inactivated. HA activation pH values generally range from pH 4.8 to 6.2. Human-adapted HA proteins tend to have relatively stable HA proteins activated at pH 5.5 or below. Here, studies are reviewed that report HA stability values and investigate the biological impact of variations in HA stability on replication, pathogenicity, and transmissibility in experimental animal models. Overall, a stabilized HA protein appears to be necessary for human pandemic potential and should be considered when assessing human pandemic risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles J Russell
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, TN 38105-3678, USA
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28
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Jimenez-Bluhm P, Sepulveda A, Baumberger C, Di Pillo F, Ruiz S, Salazar C, Marambio V, Berrios F, Galdames P, Amaro A, Tapia D, Sharp B, Freiden P, Meliopoulos V, Schultz-Cherry S, Hamilton-West C. Evidence of influenza infection in dogs and cats in central Chile. Prev Vet Med 2021; 191:105349. [PMID: 33892254 PMCID: PMC8521552 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2021.105349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
As companion animals, dogs and cats live in close contact with humans, generating the possibility of interspecies pathogen transmission events. Equine origin H3N8 and avian origin H5N1 influenza virus have been reported in dogs and cats respectively since 2004 with outbreaks associated with different strains recorded for both species in Asia and North America. To date, there have been no reports of influenza viruses from companion animals in South America. To fill this gap in knowledge, we performed active epidemiological surveillance in shelters that received abandoned animals, backyard production systems and veterinary clinics between May 2017 and January 2019 to estimate the burden of influenza infection in cats and dogs in the central region of Chile. Blood samples, oropharyngeal swabs or both were collected for influenza A virus detection by RT-qPCR, NP-ELISA, and hemagglutination inhibition assay. Logistic regression models were performed to assess the association between NP-ELISA-positivity and variables including sex and animal origin. The percentage of ELISA-positive samples was 43.5 % (95 % CI: 37.0-50.1) and 23.3 % (95 % CI: 10.6-42.7) for dogs and cats, respectively. No association was found between NP-ELISA results and sex or animal origin for either dogs or cats. Two ELISA positive samples showed hemagglutination inhibition titers against pandemic H1N1 influenza. One dog sample tested positive by RT-qPCR, indicating an overall RT-qPCR positivity in dogs of 1.1 % (95 % CI: 0.05-6.7). None of the tested cat samples were positive by this assay.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Jimenez-Bluhm
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alejandra Sepulveda
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cecilia Baumberger
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Francisca Di Pillo
- Núcleo de Investigaciones Aplicadas en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Soledad Ruiz
- Núcleo de Investigaciones Aplicadas en Ciencias Veterinarias y Agronómicas, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Agronomía, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carla Salazar
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Victor Marambio
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Fernanda Berrios
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Pablo Galdames
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Alicia Amaro
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - David Tapia
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Bridgett Sharp
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Pamela Freiden
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Victoria Meliopoulos
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | | | - Christopher Hamilton-West
- Department of Preventive Animal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Chile, Santiago, Chile.
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29
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Thompson AJ, Paulson JC. Adaptation of influenza viruses to human airway receptors. J Biol Chem 2020; 296:100017. [PMID: 33144323 PMCID: PMC7948470 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.rev120.013309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Through annual epidemics and global pandemics, influenza A viruses (IAVs) remain a significant threat to human health as the leading cause of severe respiratory disease. Within the last century, four global pandemics have resulted from the introduction of novel IAVs into humans, with components of each originating from avian viruses. IAVs infect many avian species wherein they maintain a diverse natural reservoir, posing a risk to humans through the occasional emergence of novel strains with enhanced zoonotic potential. One natural barrier for transmission of avian IAVs into humans is the specificity of the receptor-binding protein, hemagglutinin (HA), which recognizes sialic-acid-containing glycans on host cells. HAs from human IAVs exhibit “human-type” receptor specificity, binding exclusively to glycans on cells lining the human airway where terminal sialic acids are attached in the α2-6 configuration (NeuAcα2-6Gal). In contrast, HAs from avian viruses exhibit specificity for “avian-type” α2-3-linked (NeuAcα2-3Gal) receptors and thus require adaptive mutations to bind human-type receptors. Since all human IAV pandemics can be traced to avian origins, there remains ever-present concern over emerging IAVs with human-adaptive potential that might lead to the next pandemic. This concern has been brought into focus through emergence of SARS-CoV-2, aligning both scientific and public attention to the threat of novel respiratory viruses from animal sources. In this review, we summarize receptor-binding adaptations underlying the emergence of all prior IAV pandemics in humans, maintenance and evolution of human-type receptor specificity in subsequent seasonal IAVs, and potential for future human-type receptor adaptation in novel avian HAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Thompson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California, USA.
| | - James C Paulson
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California, USA; Department of Immunology & Microbiology, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California, USA.
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30
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Jang YH, Seong BL. Call for a paradigm shift in the design of universal influenza vaccines by harnessing multiple correlates of protection. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 15:1441-1455. [PMID: 32783765 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1801629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The genetic variability and diversity of influenza viruses, and the expansion of their hosts, present a significant threat to human health. The development of a universal influenza vaccine is urgently needed to tackle seasonal epidemics, pandemics, vaccine mismatch, and zoonotic transmissions to humans. AREAS COVERED Despite the identification of broadly neutralizing antibodies against influenza viruses, designing a universal influenza vaccine that induces such broadly neutralizing antibodies at protective levels in humans has remained challenging. Besides neutralizing antibodies, multiple correlates of protection have recently emerged as crucially important for eliciting broad protection against diverse influenza viruses. This review discusses the immune responses required for broad protection against influenza viruses, and suggests a paradigm shift from an HA stalk-based approach to other approaches that can induce multiple immunological correlates of protection for the development of a universal influenza vaccine. EXPERT OPINION To develop a truly universal influenza vaccine, multiple correlates of protection should be considered, including antibody responses and T cell immunity. Balanced induction of neutralizing antibodies, antibody effector functions, and T cell immunity will contribute to the most effective vaccination strategy. Live-attenuated influenza vaccines provide an attractive platform to improve the breadth and potency of vaccines for broader protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yo Han Jang
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology Major in Bio-Vaccine Engineering, Andong National University , Andong, South Korea
| | - Baik L Seong
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University , Seoul, South Korea.,Vaccine Innovation Technology Alliance (VITAL)-Korea, Yonsei University , Seoul, South Korea
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31
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Truncation of PA-X Contributes to Virulence and Transmission of H3N8 and H3N2 Canine Influenza Viruses in Dogs. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.00949-20. [PMID: 32461313 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00949-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine-origin H3N8 and avian-origin H3N2 canine influenza viruses (CIVs) prevalent in dogs are thought to pose a public health threat arising from intimate contact between dogs and humans. However, our understanding of CIV virulence is still limited. Influenza A virus PA-X is a fusion protein encoded in part by a +1 frameshifted open reading frame (X-ORF) in segment 3. The X-ORF can be translated in full-length (61-amino-acid) or truncated (41-amino-acid) form. Genetic analysis indicated that the X-ORFs of equine H3N8 and avian H3N2 influenza viruses encoded 61 amino acids but were truncated after introduction into dogs. To determine the effect of PA-X truncation on the biological characteristics of CIVs, we constructed four recombinant viruses on H3N8 and H3N2 CIV backgrounds bearing truncated or full-length PA-Xs. We observed that truncation of PA-X increased growth of both H3N8 and H3N2 CIVs in MDCK cells and suppressed expression from cotransfected plasmids in MDCK cells. Furthermore, truncation of PA-X enhanced viral pathogenicity in dogs, as shown by aggravated clinical symptoms and histopathological changes, increased viral replication in the respiratory system, and prolonged virus shedding. Additionally, CIVs with truncated PA-Xs were transmitted more efficiently in dogs. Global gene expression profiling of the lungs of infected dogs revealed that differentially expressed genes were mainly associated with inflammatory responses, which might contribute to the pathogenicity of PA-X-truncated CIVs. Our findings revealed that truncation of PA-X might be important for the adaptation of influenza viruses to dogs.IMPORTANCE Epidemics of equine-origin H3N8 and avian-origin H3N2 influenza viruses in canine populations are examples of successful cross-species transmission of influenza A viruses. Genetic analysis showed that the PA-X genes of equine H3N8 or avian H3N2 influenza viruses were full-length, with X-ORFs encoding 61 amino acids; however, those of equine-origin H3N8 or avian-origin H3N2 CIVs were truncated, suggesting that PA-X truncation occurred after transmission to dogs. In this study, we extended the PA-X genes of H3N8 and H3N2 CIVs and compared the biological characteristics of CIVs bearing different lengths of PA-X. We demonstrated that for both H3N8 and H3N2 viruses, truncation of PA-X increased virus yields in MDCK cells and enhanced viral replication, pathogenicity, and transmission in dogs. These results might reflect enhanced suppression of host gene expression and upregulation of genes related to inflammatory responses. Collectively, our data partially explain the conservation of truncated PA-X in CIVs.
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Hu M, Yang G, DeBeauchamp J, Crumpton JC, Kim H, Li L, Wan XF, Kercher L, Bowman AS, Webster RG, Webby RJ, Russell CJ. HA stabilization promotes replication and transmission of swine H1N1 gamma influenza viruses in ferrets. eLife 2020; 9:56236. [PMID: 32602461 PMCID: PMC7326494 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Pandemic influenza A viruses can emerge from swine, an intermediate host that supports adaptation of human-preferred receptor-binding specificity by the hemagglutinin (HA) surface antigen. Other HA traits necessary for pandemic potential are poorly understood. For swine influenza viruses isolated in 2009–2016, gamma-clade viruses had less stable HA proteins (activation pH 5.5–5.9) than pandemic clade (pH 5.0–5.5). Gamma-clade viruses replicated to higher levels in mammalian cells than pandemic clade. In ferrets, a model for human adaptation, a relatively stable HA protein (pH 5.5–5.6) was necessary for efficient replication and airborne transmission. The overall airborne transmission frequency in ferrets for four isolates tested was 42%, and isolate G15 airborne transmitted 100% after selection of a variant with a stabilized HA. The results suggest swine influenza viruses containing both a stabilized HA and alpha-2,6 receptor binding in tandem pose greater pandemic risk. Increasing evidence supports adding HA stability to pre-pandemic risk assessment algorithms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Hu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Guohua Yang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Jennifer DeBeauchamp
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Jeri Carol Crumpton
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Hyunsuh Kim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Basic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, United States
| | - Xiu-Feng Wan
- Department of Basic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, United States.,Missouri University Center for Research on Influenza Systems Biology (CRISB), University of Missouri, Columbia, United States.,Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States.,Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States.,Department of Electrical Engineering Computer Science, College of Engineering, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States.,MU Informatics Institute, University of Missouri, Columbia, United States
| | - Lisa Kercher
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Andrew S Bowman
- Department of Veterinary Preventive Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, United States
| | - Robert G Webster
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States
| | - Richard J Webby
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, United States
| | - Charles J Russell
- Department of Infectious Diseases, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, United States.,Department of Microbiology, Immunology & Biochemistry, College of Medicine, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, United States
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Yan Y, Ou J, Zhao S, Ma K, Lan W, Guan W, Wu X, Zhang J, Zhang B, Zhao W, Wan C, Shi W, Wu J, Seto D, Yu Z, Zhang Q. Characterization of Influenza A and B Viruses Circulating in Southern China During the 2017-2018 Season. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:1079. [PMID: 32547518 PMCID: PMC7272714 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.01079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The trivalent seasonal influenza vaccine was the only approved and available vaccine during the 2016–2018 influenza seasons. It did not include the B/Yamagata strain. In this study, we report an acute respiratory disease outbreak associated with influenza B/Yamagata infections in Guangzhou, Southern China (January through March, 2018). Among the 9914 patients, 2241 (22.6%) were positive for the influenza B virus, with only 312 (3.1%) positive for the influenza A virus. The influenza B/Yamagata lineage dominated during this period in Southern China. The highest incidence of influenza A virus infection occurred in the children aged 5–14 years. In contrast, populations across all age groups were susceptible to the influenza B virus. Phylogenetic, mutations, and 3D structure analyses of hemagglutinin (HA) genes were performed to assess the vaccine-virus relatedness. The recommended A/H1N1 vaccine strain (A/Michigan/45/2015) during both 2017–2018 and 2018–2019 was antigen-specific for these circulating isolates (clade 6B.1) in Spring 2018. An outbreak of influenza B/Yamagata (clade 3) infections in 2018 occurred during the absence of the corresponding vaccine during 2016–2018. The recommended influenza B/Yamagata vaccine strain (B/Phuket/3073/2013) for the following season (2018–2019) was antigen-specific. Although there were only a few influenza B/Victoria infections in Spring 2018, five amino acid mutations were identified in the HA antigenic sites of the 19 B/Victoria isolates (clade 1A), when compared with the 2016–2018 B/Victoria vaccine strain. The number was larger than expected and suggested that the influenza B HA gene may be more variable than previously thought. One of the mutations (K180N) was noted to likely alter the epitope and to potentially affect the viral antigenicity. Seven mutations were also identified in the HA antigenic sites of 2018–2020 B/Victoria vaccine strain, of which some or all may reduce immunogenicity and the protective efficacy of the vaccine, perhaps leading to more outbreaks in subsequent seasons. The combined epidemiological, phylogenetic, mutations, and 3D structural analyses of the HA genes of influenza strains reported here contribute to the understanding and evaluation of how HA mutations affect vaccine efficacy, as well as to providing important data for screening and selecting more specific, appropriate, and effective influenza vaccine candidate strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqian Yan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junxian Ou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shan Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kui Ma
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wendong Lan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenyi Guan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaowei Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Bao Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Chengsong Wan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weifeng Shi
- Key Laboratory of Etiology and Epidemiology of Emerging Infectious Diseases in Universities of Shandong, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Taian, China
| | - Jianguo Wu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Donald Seto
- Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Program, School of Systems Biology, George Mason University, Manassas, VA, United States
| | - Zhiwu Yu
- Division of Laboratory Science, The Affiliated Cancer Hospital & Institute of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qiwei Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
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Adaptation of H9N2 Influenza Viruses to Mammalian Hosts: A Review of Molecular Markers. Viruses 2020; 12:v12050541. [PMID: 32423002 PMCID: PMC7290818 DOI: 10.3390/v12050541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 05/12/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
As the number of human infections with avian and swine influenza viruses continues to rise, the pandemic risk posed by zoonotic influenza viruses cannot be underestimated. Implementation of global pandemic preparedness efforts has largely focused on H5 and H7 avian influenza viruses; however, the pandemic threat posed by other subtypes of avian influenza viruses, especially the H9 subtype, should not be overlooked. In this review, we summarize the literature pertaining to the emergence, prevalence and risk assessment of H9N2 viruses, and add new molecular analyses of key mammalian adaptation markers in the hemagglutinin and polymerase proteins. Available evidence has demonstrated that H9N2 viruses within the Eurasian lineage continue to evolve, leading to the emergence of viruses with an enhanced receptor binding preference for human-like receptors and heightened polymerase activity in mammalian cells. Furthermore, the increased prevalence of certain mammalian adaptation markers and the enhanced transmissibility of selected viruses in mammalian animal models add to the pandemic risk posed by this virus subtype. Continued surveillance of zoonotic H9N2 influenza viruses, inclusive of close genetic monitoring and phenotypic characterization in animal models, should be included in our pandemic preparedness efforts.
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Kandasamy M, Furlong K, Perez JT, Manicassamy S, Manicassamy B. Suppression of Cytotoxic T Cell Functions and Decreased Levels of Tissue-Resident Memory T Cells during H5N1 Infection. J Virol 2020; 94:e00057-20. [PMID: 32075925 PMCID: PMC7163117 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00057-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Seasonal influenza virus infections cause mild illness in healthy adults, as timely viral clearance is mediated by the functions of cytotoxic T cells. However, avian H5N1 influenza virus infections can result in prolonged and fatal illness across all age groups, which has been attributed to the overt and uncontrolled activation of host immune responses. Here, we investigate how excessive innate immune responses to H5N1 impair subsequent adaptive T cell responses in the lungs. Using recombinant H1N1 and H5N1 strains sharing 6 internal genes, we demonstrate that H5N1 (2:6) infection in mice causes higher stimulation and increased migration of lung dendritic cells to the draining lymph nodes, resulting in greater numbers of virus-specific T cells in the lungs. Despite robust T cell responses in the lungs, H5N1 (2:6)-infected mice showed inefficient and delayed viral clearance compared with H1N1-infected mice. In addition, we observed higher levels of inhibitory signals, including increased PD-1 and interleukin-10 (IL-10) expression by cytotoxic T cells in H5N1 (2:6)-infected mice, suggesting that delayed viral clearance of H5N1 (2:6) was due to the suppression of T cell functions in vivo Importantly, H5N1 (2:6)-infected mice displayed decreased numbers of tissue-resident memory T cells compared with H1N1-infected mice; however, despite the decreased number of tissue-resident memory T cells, H5N1 (2:6) was protected against a heterologous challenge from H3N2 virus (X31). Taken together, our study provides mechanistic insight for the prolonged viral replication and protracted illness observed in H5N1-infected patients.IMPORTANCE Influenza viruses cause upper respiratory tract infections in humans. In healthy adults, seasonal influenza virus infections result in mild disease. Occasionally, influenza viruses endemic in domestic birds can cause severe and fatal disease even in healthy individuals. In avian influenza virus-infected patients, the host immune system is activated in an uncontrolled manner and is unable to control infection in a timely fashion. In this study, we investigated why the immune system fails to effectively control a modified form of avian influenza virus. Our studies show that T cell functions important for clearing virally infected cells are impaired by higher negative regulatory signals during modified avian influenza virus infection. In addition, memory T cell numbers were decreased in modified avian influenza virus-infected mice. Our studies provide a possible mechanism for the severe and prolonged disease associated with avian influenza virus infections in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kevin Furlong
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Jasmine T Perez
- Department of Microbiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Santhakumar Manicassamy
- Cancer Immunology, Inflammation, and Tolerance Program, GRU Cancer Center, Augusta University, Augusta, Georgia, USA
| | - Balaji Manicassamy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa, USA
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Lee H, Jang Y, Kim NH, Kim L, Kim M, Suh YD. Discrimination between target and non-target interactions on the viral surface by merging fluorescence emission into Rayleigh scattering. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:7563-7571. [PMID: 32166304 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr07415e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Direct and quantitative determination of antibodies or cellular receptors dynamically binding to the surface of viral particles is the key issue for predicting the efficacy of therapeutic materials or host susceptibility to a new emerging pathogen. However, targeted visualization of infectious viruses is still highly challenging owing to their nanoscopic sizes and uncontrollable nonspecific interactions with loading molecules responsible for false signals. Here we present a multimodal single-molecule and single-particle (SMSP) visualization capable of simultaneously yet independently tracking Rayleigh scattering and fluorescence that, respectively, are generated from viruses (approximately 100 nm) and labeled interacting molecules. By analyzing real-time trajectories of fluorescent antibodies against a virus surface protein with reference to single virus-derived Rayleigh scattering, we determined heterogeneous binding stoichiometry of virus-antibody couplings irrespective of the nonspecific binder population. Therefore, our multimodal (or multi-level) SMSP assay visually identifies and selectively quantifies specific interactions between them with single binding event accuracy. As a 'specific-binding quantifier' to assess variable host susceptibility to a virus, it was further applied for distinguishing ratiometric bindings and spontaneous dissociation kinetics of synthesized isomeric receptors to influenza virus. The present framework could offer a solid analytical foundation for the development of a direct-acting antiviral agent inhibiting an integral viral enveloped protein and for nanobiological investigation for dissecting spatiotemporal nanoparticle-molecule interactions, which have been scarcely explored compared to those among plasmonic nanoparticles or among molecules only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haemi Lee
- Laboratory for Advanced Molecular Probing (LAMP), Bio Platform Technology Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34114, South Korea.
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Phylogenetic Analysis of HA and NA Genes of Swine Influenza Viruses in Serbia in 2016-2018. ACTA VET-BEOGRAD 2020. [DOI: 10.2478/acve-2020-0008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Pigs are very important for the epidemiology of influenza A viruses, being commonly infected with the lineages of most adapted H1N1, H3N2, H1N2 swine subtypes. Epidemiological complexity of swine influenza is increasing by a periodic spillover of human or avian viruses in the pig population when genetic shifts can occur. The objectives of this research were to determine the presence of the influenza A virus in nasal and tracheobronchial swabs and lung tissue samples of ill and dead pigs on commercial farms, to determine circulating subtypes and characterize them through the phylogenetic analysis of hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes. A total of 255 samples collected from 13 farms were analyzed by means of real-time RTPCR. The genome of influenza A virus was detected in 24 samples, which represented a 61.5% prevalence at the farms level (influenza A virus was confirmed in 8 out of 13 farms included in this study). Based on HA and NA gene sequences of 8 viruses, the circulation of H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes of influenza A viruses were determined. In addition, one farm exhibited a time separated circulation of H1N1 and H3N2 virus subtypes. Using Influenza Research Database, our viruses of the H1 subtype were classified into 1C.2.1 and 1A.3.3.2. clade. Based on the nucleotide sequences of HA genes, three viruses of the H1N1 subtype belong to the H1N1pdm09 lineage, and the other four to Eurasian “avian-like” H1avN1 lineage; while based on NA genes sequences, these seven viruses belong to Eurasian “avian-like” H1avN1 lineage. Both HA and NA genes of the virus of the H3N2 subtype belonged to the A/swine/ Gent/1/1984-like H3N2 lineage.
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Qin Z, Qu X, Lei L, Xu L, Pan Z. Y-Box-Binding Protein 3 (YBX3) Restricts Influenza A Virus by Interacting with Viral Ribonucleoprotein Complex and Imparing its Function. J Gen Virol 2020; 101:385-398. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenqiao Qin
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Xiao Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Lei Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Lulai Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
| | - Zishu Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Virology, College of Life Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, PR China
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Zhang H, Li H, Wang W, Wang Y, Han GZ, Chen H, Wang X. A unique feature of swine ANP32A provides susceptibility to avian influenza virus infection in pigs. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008330. [PMID: 32084248 PMCID: PMC7055917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Both the replication and transcription of the influenza virus are catalyzed by the viral polymerase complex. The polymerases of most avian influenza A viruses have poor performance in mammalian cells, which is considered to be one of the important species barriers. Pigs have been long considered as important intermediate hosts for interspecies transmission of the avian influenza virus, because of their susceptibility to infection with both avian and mammalian influenza viruses. However, the molecular basis of influenza polymerase adaptation in pigs remains largely unknown. ANP32A and ANP32B proteins have been identified as playing fundamental roles in influenza virus replication and host range determination. In this study, we found that swine ANP32A (swANP32A), unlike swine ANP32B or other mammalian ANP32A or B, shows stronger supporting activity to avian viral polymerase. Knockout of ANP32A in pig cells PK15 dramatically reduced avian influenza polymerase activity and viral infectivity, suggesting a unique feature of swANP32A in supporting avian influenza viral polymerase. This species-specific activity is mapped to two key sites, 106V and 156S, in swANP32A. Interestingly, the amino acid 106V is unique to pigs among all the vertebrate species studied, and when combined with 156S, exhibits positive epistasis in pigs. Mutation of 106V and 156S to the signature found in ANP32As from other mammalian species weakened the interaction between swANP32A and chicken viral polymerase, and reduced polymerase activity. Understanding the molecular basis of ANP32 proteins may help to discover new antiviral targets and design avian influenza resistant genome edited pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haili Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Hongxin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Wenqiang Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yujie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Guan-Zhu Han
- College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hualan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
| | - Xiaojun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Biotechnology, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China
- * E-mail:
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Influenza and antiviral resistance: an overview. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2020; 39:1201-1208. [PMID: 32056049 PMCID: PMC7223162 DOI: 10.1007/s10096-020-03840-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 39.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Influenza affects approximately 1 billion individuals each year resulting in between 290,000 and 650,000 deaths. Young children and immunocompromised individuals are at a particularly high risk of severe illness attributable to influenza and these are also the groups of individuals in which reduced susceptibility to neuraminidase inhibitors is most frequently seen. High levels of resistance emerged with previous adamantane therapy for influenza A and despite no longer being used to treat influenza and therefore lack of selection pressure, high levels of adamantane resistance continue to persist in currently circulating influenza A strains. Resistance to neuraminidase inhibitors has remained at low levels to date and the majority of resistance is seen in influenza A H1N1 pdm09 infected immunocompromised individuals receiving oseltamivir but is also seen less frequently with influenza A H3N2 and B. Rarely, resistance is also seen in the immunocompetent. There is evidence to suggest that these resistant strains (particularly H1N1 pdm09) are able to maintain their replicative fitness and transmissibility, although there is no clear evidence that being infected with a resistant strain is associated with a worse clinical outcome. Should neuraminidase inhibitor resistance become more problematic in the future, there are a small number of alternative novel agents within the anti-influenza armoury with different mechanisms of action to neuraminidase inhibitors and therefore potentially effective against neuraminidase inhibitor resistant strains. Limited data from use of novel agents such as baloxavir marboxil and favipiravir, does however show that resistance variants can also emerge in the presence of these drugs.
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Viral Determinants in H5N1 Influenza A Virus Enable Productive Infection of HeLa Cells. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01410-19. [PMID: 31776276 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01410-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Influenza A virus (IAV) is a human respiratory pathogen that causes yearly global epidemics, as well as sporadic pandemics due to human adaptation of pathogenic strains. Efficient replication of IAV in different species is, in part, dictated by its ability to exploit the genetic environment of the host cell. To investigate IAV tropism in human cells, we evaluated the replication of IAV strains in a diverse subset of epithelial cell lines. HeLa cells were refractory to the growth of human H1N1 and H3N2 viruses and low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses. Interestingly, a human isolate of the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus successfully propagated in HeLa cells to levels comparable to those in a human lung cell line. Heterokaryon cells generated by fusion of HeLa and permissive cells supported H1N1 virus growth, suggesting the absence of a host factor(s) required for the replication of H1N1, but not H5N1, viruses in HeLa cells. The absence of this factor(s) was mapped to reduced nuclear import, replication, and translation, as well as deficient viral budding. Using reassortant H1N1:H5N1 viruses, we found that the combined introduction of nucleoprotein (NP) and hemagglutinin (HA) from an H5N1 virus was necessary and sufficient to enable H1N1 virus growth. Overall, this study suggests that the absence of one or more cellular factors in HeLa cells results in abortive replication of H1N1, H3N2, and LPAI viruses, which can be circumvented upon the introduction of H5N1 virus NP and HA. Further understanding of the molecular basis of this restriction will provide important insights into the virus-host interactions that underlie IAV pathogenesis and tropism.IMPORTANCE Many zoonotic avian influenza A viruses have successfully crossed the species barrier and caused mild to life-threatening disease in humans. While human-to-human transmission is limited, there is a risk that these zoonotic viruses may acquire adaptive mutations enabling them to propagate efficiently and cause devastating human pandemics. Therefore, it is important to identify viral determinants that provide these viruses with a replicative advantage in human cells. Here, we tested the growth of influenza A virus in a subset of human cell lines and found that abortive replication of H1N1 viruses in HeLa cells can be circumvented upon the introduction of H5N1 virus HA and NP. Overall, this work leverages the genetic diversity of multiple human cell lines to highlight viral determinants that could contribute to H5N1 virus pathogenesis and tropism.
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Novel human reovirus isolated from children and its long-term circulation with reassortments. Sci Rep 2020; 10:963. [PMID: 31969658 PMCID: PMC6976588 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian orthoreovirus (MRV), also known as reovirus, was discovered in the 1950s and became the first reported segmented double-stranded RNA virus. MRVs have since been found in a variety of animal species, including humans. However, reports on MRV infections are scarce due to the rarity of their symptomatic occurrence. In Japanese surveillance studies, MRVs have been detected as gastrointestinal pathogens since 1981, with a total of 135 records. In Osaka City, Japan, MRV was first isolated in 1994 from a child with meningitis, and then in 2005 and 2014 from children with gastroenteritis. Here, we conducted the first molecular characterization of human MRV isolates from Japan and identified a novel human reovirus strain belonging to MRV type 2, designated the MRV-2 Osaka strain. This strain, with all three isolates classified, is closely related to MRV-2 isolates from sewage in Taiwan and is relatively close to an MRV-2 isolate from a bat in China. Our data suggest that the MRV-2 Osaka strain, which has circulated amongst humans in Japan for at least two decades, has spread internationally.
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Hemagglutinin Stability Regulates H1N1 Influenza Virus Replication and Pathogenicity in Mice by Modulating Type I Interferon Responses in Dendritic Cells. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01423-19. [PMID: 31694942 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01423-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hemagglutinin (HA) stability, or the pH at which HA is activated to cause membrane fusion, has been associated with the replication, pathogenicity, transmissibility, and interspecies adaptation of influenza A viruses. Here, we investigated the mechanisms by which a destabilizing HA mutation, Y17H (activation pH, 6.0), attenuates virus replication and pathogenicity in DBA/2 mice compared to wild-type (WT) virus (activation pH, 5.5). The extracellular lung pH was measured to be near neutral (pH 6.9 to 7.5). WT and Y17H viruses had similar environmental stability at pH 7.0; thus, extracellular inactivation was unlikely to attenuate the Y17H virus. The Y17H virus had accelerated replication kinetics in MDCK, A549, and RAW 264.7 cells when inoculated at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 3 PFU/cell. The destabilizing mutation also increased early infectivity and type I interferon (IFN) responses in mouse bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (DCs). In contrast, the HA-Y17H mutation reduced virus replication in murine airway murine nasal epithelial cell and murine tracheal epithelial cell cultures and attenuated virus replication, virus spread, the severity of infection, and cellular infiltration in the lungs of mice. Normalizing virus infection and weight loss in mice by inoculating them with Y17H virus at a dose 500-fold higher than that of WT virus revealed that the destabilized mutant virus triggered the upregulation of more host genes and increased type I IFN responses and cytokine expression in DBA/2 mouse lungs. Overall, HA destabilization decreased virulence in mice by boosting early infection in DCs, resulting in the greater activation of antiviral responses, including the type I IFN response. These studies reveal that HA stability may regulate pathogenicity by modulating IFN responses.IMPORTANCE Diverse influenza A viruses circulate in wild aquatic birds, occasionally infecting farm animals. Rarely, an avian- or swine-origin influenza virus adapts to humans and starts a pandemic. Seasonal and many universal influenza vaccines target the HA surface protein, which is a key component of pandemic influenza viruses. Understanding the HA properties needed for replication and pathogenicity in mammals may guide response efforts to control influenza. Some antiviral drugs and broadly reactive influenza vaccines that target the HA protein have suffered resistance due to destabilizing HA mutations that do not compromise replicative fitness in cell culture. Here, we show that despite not compromising fitness in standard cell cultures, a destabilizing H1N1 HA stalk mutation greatly diminishes viral replication and pathogenicity in vivo by modulating type I IFN responses. This encourages targeting the HA stalk with antiviral drugs and vaccines as well as reevaluating previous candidates that were susceptible to destabilizing resistance mutations.
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Long JS, Mistry B, Haslam SM, Barclay WS. Host and viral determinants of influenza A virus species specificity. Nat Rev Microbiol 2020; 17:67-81. [PMID: 30487536 DOI: 10.1038/s41579-018-0115-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 76.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Influenza A viruses cause pandemics when they cross between species and an antigenically novel virus acquires the ability to infect and transmit between these new hosts. The timing of pandemics is currently unpredictable but depends on ecological and virological factors. The host range of an influenza A virus is determined by species-specific interactions between virus and host cell factors. These include the ability to bind and enter cells, to replicate the viral RNA genome within the host cell nucleus, to evade host restriction factors and innate immune responses and to transmit between individuals. In this Review, we examine the host barriers that influenza A viruses of animals, especially birds, must overcome to initiate a pandemic in humans and describe how, on crossing the species barrier, the virus mutates to establish new interactions with the human host. This knowledge is used to inform risk assessments for future pandemics and to identify virus-host interactions that could be targeted by novel intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Long
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Bhakti Mistry
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Stuart M Haslam
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Wendy S Barclay
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.
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Le KT, Okamatsu M, Nguyen LT, Matsuno K, Chu DH, Tien TN, Le TT, Kida H, Sakoda Y. Genetic and antigenic characterization of the first H7N7 low pathogenic avian influenza viruses isolated in Vietnam. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2019; 78:104117. [PMID: 31760087 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2019.104117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
During the annual surveillance of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in Vietnam in 2018, three H7N7 AIV isolates were identified in domestic ducks in a single flock in Vinh Long province. The present study is the first documented report of H7N7 virus isolates in Vietnam and aimed to characterize these viruses, both genetically and antigenically. Deduced amino acid sequences for the hemagglutinins (HAs) indicated a low pathogenicity of these viruses in chickens. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the H7 HA genes of these isolates were closely related to each other and belonged to the European-Asian sublineage, together with those of H7N3 viruses isolated from ducks in Cambodia during 2017. They were not genetically related to those of Chinese H7N9 or H7N1 viruses that were previously detected in Vietnam during 2012. Interestingly, the M genes of the two H7N7 virus isolates were phylogenetically classified into distinct groups, suggesting an ongoing reassortment event in domestic ducks because they were isolated from the same flock. These H7N7 viruses exhibited somewhat different antigenic characteristics compared with other representative H7 low pathogenic AIVs. Surprisingly, the antigenicity of Vietnamese H7N7 viruses is similar to Chinese H7N9 highly pathogenic AIV. The findings of this study suggest that H7N7 viruses may be undergoing reassortment and antigenic diversification in poultry flocks in Vietnam. The silent spread of Vietnamese H7N7 viruses in chickens may lead to acquire high pathogenicity in chickens although the zoonotic potential of the viruses seems to be low since these viruses retain typical avian-specific motifs in the receptor-binding site in the HA and there is no mutation related to mammalian adaptation in PB2 gene. Thus, these results highlight the need for continuous and intensive surveillance of avian influenza in Vietnam, targeting not only highly pathogenic AIVs but also low pathogenic viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kien Trung Le
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Kitaku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Okamatsu
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Kitaku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan
| | - Lam Thanh Nguyen
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Kitaku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan; Department of Veterinary Medicine, College of Agriculture, Can Tho University, Can Tho 900000, Viet Nam
| | - Keita Matsuno
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Kitaku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan; Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Duc-Huy Chu
- Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ha Noi 115-19, Viet Nam
| | - Tien Ngoc Tien
- Regional Animal Health Office VII, Department of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Can Tho 900000, Viet Nam
| | - Tung Thanh Le
- Sub-Departments of Animal Health, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Vinh Long 890000, Viet Nam
| | - Hiroshi Kida
- Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan; Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Kita-20 Nishi-10, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Sakoda
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Kita-18 Nishi-9, Kitaku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 060-0818, Japan; Global Institution for Collaborative Research and Education (GI-CoRE), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan.
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Susceptibility of Chickens to Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI) Viruses of Wild Bird- and Poultry-Associated Subtypes. Viruses 2019; 11:v11111010. [PMID: 31683727 PMCID: PMC6893415 DOI: 10.3390/v11111010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 10/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Analysis of low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses circulating in the Netherlands in a previous study revealed associations of specific hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) subtypes with wild bird or poultry hosts. In this study, we identified putative host associations in LPAI virus internal proteins. We show that LPAI viruses isolated from poultry more frequently carried the allele A variant of the nonstructural protein (NS) gene, compared to wild bird viruses. We determined the susceptibility of chickens to wild bird–associated subtypes H3N8 and H4N6 and poultry-associated subtypes H8N4 and H9N2, carrying either NS allele A or B, in an infection experiment. We observed variations in virus shedding and replication patterns, however, these did not correlate with the predicted wild bird- or poultry-associations of the viruses. The experiment demonstrated that LPAI viruses of wild bird-associated subtypes can replicate in chickens after experimental infection, despite their infrequent detection in poultry. Although the NS1 protein is known to play a role in immune modulation, no differences were detected in the limited innate immune response to LPAI virus infection. This study contributes to a better understanding of the infection dynamics of LPAI viruses in chickens.
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Calderon BM, Danzy S, Delima GK, Jacobs NT, Ganti K, Hockman MR, Conn GL, Lowen AC, Steel J. Dysregulation of M segment gene expression contributes to influenza A virus host restriction. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007892. [PMID: 31415678 PMCID: PMC6695095 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The M segment of the 2009 pandemic influenza A virus (IAV) has been implicated in its emergence into human populations. To elucidate the genetic contributions of the M segment to host adaptation, and the underlying mechanisms, we examined a panel of isogenic viruses that carry avian- or human-derived M segments. Avian, but not human, M segments restricted viral growth and transmission in mammalian model systems, and the restricted growth correlated with increased expression of M2 relative to M1. M2 overexpression was associated with intracellular accumulation of autophagosomes, which was alleviated by interference of the viral proton channel activity by amantadine treatment. As M1 and M2 are expressed from the M mRNA through alternative splicing, we separated synonymous and non-synonymous changes that differentiate human and avian M segments and found that dysregulation of gene expression leading to M2 overexpression diminished replication, irrespective of amino acid composition of M1 or M2. Moreover, in spite of efficient replication, virus possessing a human M segment that expressed avian M2 protein at low level did not transmit efficiently. We conclude that (i) determinants of transmission reside in the IAV M2 protein, and that (ii) control of M segment gene expression is a critical aspect of IAV host adaptation needed to prevent M2-mediated dysregulation of vesicular homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda M. Calderon
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Shamika Danzy
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Gabrielle K. Delima
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Nathan T. Jacobs
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Ketaki Ganti
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Megan R. Hockman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Graeme L. Conn
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Anice C. Lowen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - John Steel
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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48
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Sreenivasan CC, Thomas M, Kaushik RS, Wang D, Li F. Influenza A in Bovine Species: A Narrative Literature Review. Viruses 2019; 11:v11060561. [PMID: 31213032 PMCID: PMC6631717 DOI: 10.3390/v11060561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 06/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
It is quite intriguing that bovines were largely unaffected by influenza A, even though most of the domesticated and wild animals/birds at the human-animal interface succumbed to infection over the past few decades. Influenza A occurs on a very infrequent basis in bovine species and hence bovines were not considered to be susceptible hosts for influenza until the emergence of influenza D. This review describes a multifaceted chronological review of literature on influenza in cattle which comprises mainly of the natural infections/outbreaks, experimental studies, and pathological and seroepidemiological aspects of influenza A that have occurred in the past. The review also sheds light on the bovine models used in vitro and in vivo for influenza-related studies over recent years. Despite a few natural cases in the mid-twentieth century and seroprevalence of human, swine, and avian influenza viruses in bovines, the evolution and host adaptation of influenza A virus (IAV) in this species suffered a serious hindrance until the novel influenza D virus (IDV) emerged recently in cattle across the world. Supposedly, certain bovine host factors, particularly some serum components and secretory proteins, were reported to have anti-influenza properties, which could be an attributing factor for the resilient nature of bovines to IAV. Further studies are needed to identify the host-specific factors contributing to the differential pathogenetic mechanisms and disease progression of IAV in bovines compared to other susceptible mammalian hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chithra C Sreenivasan
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
| | - Milton Thomas
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
| | - Radhey S Kaushik
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
| | - Dan Wang
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
- BioSystems Networks and Translational Research Center (BioSNTR), Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
| | - Feng Li
- Department of Biology and Microbiology, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
- BioSystems Networks and Translational Research Center (BioSNTR), Brookings, SD 57007, USA.
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49
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Soh YS, Moncla LH, Eguia R, Bedford T, Bloom JD. Comprehensive mapping of adaptation of the avian influenza polymerase protein PB2 to humans. eLife 2019; 8:45079. [PMID: 31038123 PMCID: PMC6491042 DOI: 10.7554/elife.45079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses like influenza are infamous for their ability to adapt to new hosts. Retrospective studies of natural zoonoses and passaging in the lab have identified a modest number of host-adaptive mutations. However, it is unclear if these mutations represent all ways that influenza can adapt to a new host. Here we take a prospective approach to this question by completely mapping amino-acid mutations to the avian influenza virus polymerase protein PB2 that enhance growth in human cells. We identify numerous previously uncharacterized human-adaptive mutations. These mutations cluster on PB2’s surface, highlighting potential interfaces with host factors. Some previously uncharacterized adaptive mutations occur in avian-to-human transmission of H7N9 influenza, showing their importance for natural virus evolution. But other adaptive mutations do not occur in nature because they are inaccessible via single-nucleotide mutations. Overall, our work shows how selection at key molecular surfaces combines with evolutionary accessibility to shape viral host adaptation. Viruses copy themselves by hijacking the cells of an infected host, but this comes with some limitations. Cells from different species have different molecular machinery and so viruses often have to specialize to a narrow group of species. This specialization consists largely of fine-tuning the way that viral proteins interact with host proteins. For instance, in bird flu viruses, a protein known as PB2 does not interact well with the machinery in human cells. Because PB2 proteins form part of the viral polymerase (the structure that copies the viral genome), this prevents bird flu viruses from replicating efficiently in humans. Sometimes however, changes in the PB2 protein allow bird flu viruses to better replicate in humans, potentially leading to deadly flu pandemics. To understand exactly how this happens, researchers have previously used two approaches: examining the changes that have happened in past flu viruses, and monitoring the evolution of bird flu viruses grown in human cells in the lab. However, these approaches can only look at a small number of the many possible genetic changes to the virus. This makes it hard to anticipate the new ways that flu might adapt to human cells in the future. To overcome this problem, Soh et al. systematically created all of the single changes to the bird flu PB2, altering every element of the protein sequence one-by-one. They then tested which of the changes to PB2 helped the virus grow better in human cells. The modifications that made the viruses thrive were on the surface of the protein, suggesting that they might improve interaction with the cell machinery of the host. Some changes have been found in bird flu viruses that have recently jumped into humans in nature, although fortunately none of these viruses have yet spread widely to cause a pandemic. Many factors affect the evolution of viruses, and their ability to infect new species. Understanding which changes in proteins help these microbes adapt to new hosts is an important element that scientists could consider to assess future risks of pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yq Shirleen Soh
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States.,Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Louise H Moncla
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States.,Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Rachel Eguia
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Trevor Bedford
- Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States.,Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States
| | - Jesse D Bloom
- Basic Sciences Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States.,Computational Biology Program, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, United States.,Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Seattle, United States
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50
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Zhu H, Damdinjav B, Gonzalez G, Patrono LV, Ramirez-Mendoza H, Amat JAR, Crispell J, Parr YA, Hammond TA, Shiilegdamba E, Leung YHC, Peiris M, Marshall JF, Hughes J, Gilbert M, Murcia PR. Absence of adaptive evolution is the main barrier against influenza emergence in horses in Asia despite frequent virus interspecies transmission from wild birds. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007531. [PMID: 30731004 PMCID: PMC6366691 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus ecology and evolution play a central role in disease emergence. However, their relative roles will vary depending on the viruses and ecosystems involved. We combined field studies, phylogenetics and experimental infections to document with unprecedented detail the stages that precede initial outbreaks during viral emergence in nature. Using serological surveys we showed that in the absence of large-scale outbreaks, horses in Mongolia are routinely exposed to and infected by avian influenza viruses (AIVs) circulating among wild birds. Some of those AIVs are genetically related to an avian-origin virus that caused an epizootic in horses in 1989. Experimental infections showed that most AIVs replicate in the equine respiratory tract without causing lesions, explaining the absence of outbreaks of disease. Our results show that AIVs infect horses but do not spread, or they infect and spread but do not cause disease. Thus, the failure of AIVs to evolve greater transmissibility and to cause disease in horses is in this case the main barrier preventing disease emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henan Zhu
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Batchuluun Damdinjav
- State Central Veterinary Laboratory, Transboundary Animal Disease Laboratory, Avian Influenza Section, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Gaelle Gonzalez
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Livia Victoria Patrono
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Project Group Epidemiology of Highly Pathogenic Microorganisms, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Humberto Ramirez-Mendoza
- Departamento de Microbiología e Inmunología, Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de Mexico, México
| | - Julien A. R. Amat
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna Crispell
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Yasmin Amy Parr
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Toni-ann Hammond
- Animal Health Trust, Lanwades Park, Kentford, Newmarket, Suffolk, United Kingdom
| | | | - Y. H. Connie Leung
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
- Laboratory Animal Unit, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - Malik Peiris
- School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China
| | - John F. Marshall
- Weipers Centre Equine Hospital, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Joseph Hughes
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Gilbert
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY, United States of America
- Boyd Orr Centre for Population and Ecosystem Health, Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Science, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, United States of America
| | - Pablo R. Murcia
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow, United Kingdom
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