Identification of protein kinases responsible for phosphorylation of Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen leader protein at serine-35, which regulates its coactivator function

Epstein-Barr virus protein EBNA-LP engages YY1 through leucine-rich motifs to promote naïve B cell transformation

Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) is associated with numerous cancers including B cell lymphomas. In vitro, EBV transforms primary B cells into immortalized Lymphoblastoid Cell Lines (LCLs) which serves as a model to study the role of viral proteins in EBV malignancies. EBV induced cellular transformation is driven by viral proteins including EBV-Nuclear Antigens (EBNAs). EBNA-LP is important for the transformation of naïve but not memory B cells. While EBNA-LP was thought to promote gene activation by EBNA2, EBNA-LP Knock Out (LPKO) virus-infected cells express EBNA2-activated genes efficiently. Therefore, a gap in knowledge exists as to what roles EBNA-LP plays in naïve B cell transformation. We developed a trans-complementation assay wherein transfection with wild-type EBNA-LP rescues the transformation of peripheral blood- and cord blood-derived naïve B cells by LPKO virus. Despite EBNA-LP phosphorylation sites being important in EBNA2 co-activation; neither phospho-mutant nor phospho-mimetic EBNA-LP was defective in rescuing naïve B cell outgrowth. However, we identified conserved leucine-rich motifs in EBNA-LP that were required for transformation of adult naïve and cord blood B cells. Because cellular PPAR-γ coactivator (PGC) proteins use leucine-rich motifs to engage transcription factors including YY1, a key regulator of DNA looping and metabolism, we examined the role of EBNA-LP in engaging cellular transcription factors. We found a significant overlap between EBNA-LP and YY1 in ChIP-Seq data and confirmed their biochemical association in LCLs by endogenous co-immunoprecipitation. Moreover, we found that the EBNA-LP leucine-rich motifs were required for YY1 interaction in LCLs. Finally, we used Cas9 to knockout YY1 in primary total B cells and naïve B cells prior to EBV infection and found YY1 to be essential for EBV-mediated transformation. We propose that EBNA-LP engages YY1 through conserved leucine-rich motifs to promote EBV transformation of naïve B cells.

Functional diversity: update of the posttranslational modification of Epstein-Barr virus coding proteins

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a human oncogenic herpesvirus with a typical life cycle consisting of latent phase and lytic phase, is associated with many human diseases. EBV can express a variety of proteins that enable the virus to affect host cell processes and evade host immunity. Additionally, these proteins provide a basis for the maintenance of viral infection, contribute to the formation of tumors, and influence the occurrence and development of related diseases. Posttranslational modifications (PTMs) are chemical modifications of proteins after translation and are very important to guarantee the proper biological functions of these proteins. Studies in the past have intensely investigated PTMs of EBV-encoded proteins. EBV regulates the progression of the latent phase and lytic phase by affecting the PTMs of its encoded proteins, which are critical for the development of EBV-associated human diseases. In this review, we summarize the PTMs of EBV-encoded proteins that have been discovered and studied thus far with focus on their effects on the viral life cycle.

Retrograde Regulation by the Viral Protein Kinase Epigenetically Sustains the Epstein-Barr Virus Latency-to-Lytic Switch To Augment Virus Production

Herpesviruses are ubiquitous, and infection by some, like Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), is nearly universal. To persist, EBV must periodically switch from a latent to a replicative/lytic phase. This productive phase is responsible for most herpesvirus-associated diseases. EBV encodes a latency-to-lytic switch protein which, upon activation, sets off a vectorially constrained cascade of gene expression that results in production of infectious virus. While triggering expression of the switch protein ZEBRA is essential to lytic cycle entry, sustaining its expression is equally important to avoid premature termination of the lytic cascade. We report that the viral protein kinase (vPK), encoded by a gene that is kinetically downstream of the lytic switch, sustains expression of ZEBRA, amplifies the lytic cascade, increasing virus production, and, importantly, prevents the abortive lytic cycle. We find that vPK, through a noncanonical site phosphorylation, activates the cellular phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase ATM to cause phosphorylation of the heterochromatin enforcer KAP1/TRIM28 even in the absence of EBV genomes or other EBV proteins. Phosphorylation of KAP1 renders it unable to restrain ZEBRA, thereby further derepressing and sustaining its expression to culminate in virus production. This partnership with a host kinase and a transcriptional corepressor enables retrograde regulation by vPK of ZEBRA, an observation that is counter to the unidirectional regulation of gene expression reminiscent of most DNA viruses.IMPORTANCE Herpesviruses infect nearly all humans and persist quiescently for the life of the host. These viruses intermittently activate into the lytic phase to produce infectious virus, thereby causing disease. To ensure that lytic activation is not prematurely terminated, expression of the virally encoded lytic switch protein needs to be sustained. In studying Epstein-Barr virus, one of the most prevalent human herpesviruses that also causes cancer, we have discovered that a viral kinase activated by the viral lytic switch protein partners with a cellular kinase to deactivate a silencer of the lytic switch protein, thereby providing a positive feedback loop to ensure successful completion of the viral productive phase. Our findings highlight key nodes of interaction between the host and virus that could be exploited to treat lytic phase-associated diseases by terminating the lytic phase or kill cancer cells harboring herpesviruses by accelerating the completion of the lytic cascade.

Investigation of differentially expressed genes in nasopharyngeal carcinoma by integrated bioinformatics analysis

Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is a common malignancy of the head and neck. The aim of the present study was to conduct an integrated bioinformatics analysis of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and to explore the molecular mechanisms of NPC. Two profiling datasets, GSE12452 and GSE34573, were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus database and included 44 NPC specimens and 13 normal nasopharyngeal tissues. R software was used to identify the DEGs between NPC and normal nasopharyngeal tissues. Distributions of DEGs in chromosomes were explored based on the annotation file and the CYTOBAND database of DAVID. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis were applied. Additionally, a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, constructed using the STRING database and visualized by Cytoscape, was used to identify hub genes, key modules and important transcription factors (TFs). A total of 906 DEGs were identified; 434 (47.90%) DEGs were upregulated and 472 (52.10%) were downregulated. The DEGs were demonstrated to be enriched in chromosome 7p15-p14, 2q31, 1q21-q22, 1q21, 4q21 and 1p31-p22. DEGs were mainly enriched for the following GO terms: 'Cilium movement', 'microtubule bundle formation' and 'axoneme assembly'. KEGG pathway enrichment analysis revealed that pathways for 'cell cycle', 'DNA replication', 'interleukin-17 signaling', 'amoebiasis' and 'glutathione metabolism' were enriched. In addition, a PPI network comprising 867 nodes and 1,241 edges was constructed. Finally, five hub genes (aurora kinase A, cell division cycle 6, mitotic arrest deficient 2-like 1, DNA topoisomerase 2α and TPX2 microtubule nucleation factor), 8 modules, and 14 TFs were identified. Modules analysis revealed that cyclin-dependent kinase 1 and exportin 1 were involved in the pathway of Epstein-Barr virus infection. In summary, the hub genes, key modules and TFs identified in this study may promote our understanding of the pathogenesis of NPC and require further in-depth investigation.

Molecular mechanisms of EBV-driven cell cycle progression and oncogenesis

The early stage of oncogenesis is linked to the disorder of the cell cycle. Abnormal gene expression often leads to cell cycle disorders, resulting in malignant transformation of human cells. Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) is associated with a diverse range of human neoplasms, such as malignant lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma and gastric cancer. EBV mainly infects human lymphocytes and oropharyngeal epithelial cells. EBV is latent in lymphocytes for a long period of time, is detached from the cytoplasm by circular DNA, and can integrate into the chromosome of cells. EBV expresses a variety of latent genes during latent infection. The interaction between EBV latent genes and oncogenes leads to host cell cycle disturbances, including the promotion of G₁/S phase transition and inhibition of cell apoptosis, thereby promoting the development of EBV-associated neoplasms. Molecular mechanisms of EBV-driven cell cycle progression and oncogenesis involve diverse genes and signal pathways. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms of EBV-driven cell cycle progression and promoting oncogenesis.

New Interactors of the Truncated EBNA-LP Protein Identified by Mass Spectrometry in P3HR1 Burkitt's Lymphoma Cells

The Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen leader protein (EBNA-LP) acts as a co-activator of EBNA-2, a transcriptional activator essential for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-induced B-cell transformation. Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) cells harboring a mutant EBV strain that lacks both the EBNA-2 gene and 3' exons of EBNA-LP express Y1Y2-truncated isoforms of EBNA-LP (tEBNA-LP) and better resist apoptosis than if infected with the wild-type virus. In such BL cells, tEBNA-LP interacts with the protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) catalytic subunit (PP2A C), and this interaction likely plays a role in resistance to apoptosis. Here, 28 cellular and four viral proteins have been identified by mass spectrometry as further possible interactors of tEBNA-LP. Three interactions were confirmed by immunoprecipitation and Western blotting, namely with the A structural subunit of PP2A (PP2A A), the structure-specific recognition protein 1 (SSRP1, a component of the facilitate chromatin transcription (FACT) complex), and a new form of the transcription factor EC (TFEC). Thus, tEBNA-LP appears to be involved not only in cell resistance to apoptosis through its interaction with two PP2A subunits, but also in other processes where its ability to co-activate transcriptional regulators could be important.

The regulatory role of protein phosphorylation in human gammaherpesvirus associated cancers

Activation of specific sets of protein kinases by intracellular signal molecules has become more and more apparent in the past decade. Phosphorylation, one of key posttranslational modification events, is activated by kinase or regulatory protein and is vital for controlling many physiological functions of eukaryotic cells such as cell proliferation, differentiation, malignant transformation, and signal transduction mediated by external stimuli. Moreovers, the reversible modification of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation can result in different features of the target substrate molecules including DNA binding, protein-protein interaction, subcellular location and enzymatic activity, and is often hijacked by viral infection. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi’s sarcomaassociated herpesvirus (KSHV), two human oncogenic gamma-herpesviruses, are shown to tightly associate with many malignancies. In this review, we summarize the recent progresses on understanding of molecular properties and regulatory modes of cellular and viral proteins phosphorylation influenced by these two tumor viruses, and highlight the potential therapeutic targets and strategies against their related cancers.

Characterization of a Toxoplasma gondii calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase homolog

Background

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular parasite of the phylum Apicomplexa and a major pathogen of animals and immunocompromised humans, in whom it causes encephalitis. Understanding the mechanism of tachyzoite invasion is important for the discovery of new drug targets and may serve as a model for the study of other apicomplexan parasites. We previously showed that Plasmodium falciparum expresses a homolog of human calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK) that is important for host cell invasion. In this study, to identify novel targets for the treatment of Toxoplasma gondii infection (another apicomplexan parasite), we sought to identify a CaMK-like protein in the T. gondii genome and to characterize its role in the life-cycle of this parasite.

Methods

An in vitro kinase assay was performed to assess the phosphorylation activities of a novel CaMK-like protein in T. gondii by using purified proteins with various concentrations of calcium, calmodulin antagonists, or T. gondii glideosome proteins. Indirect immunofluorescence microscopy was performed to detect the localization of this protein kinase by using the antibodies against this protein and organellar maker proteins of T. gondii.

Results

We identified a novel CaMK homolog in T. gondii, T. gondii CaMK-related kinase (TgCaMKrk), which exhibits calmodulin-independent autophosphorylation and substrate phosphorylation activity. However, calmodulin antagonists had no effect on its kinase activity. In T. gondii-infected cells, TgCaMKrk localized to the apical ends of extracellular and intracellular tachyzoites. TgCaMKrk phosphorylated TgGAP45 for phosphorylation in vitro.

Conclusions

Our data improve our understanding of T. gondii motility and infection, the interaction between parasite protein kinases and glideosomes, and drug targets for protozoan diseases.

Evaluation of the enzyme activity of protozoan protein kinases by using an in vitro kinase assay

The life cycles of parasites are more complicated than those of other biological species. Protein kinases (PKs) encoded by parasites are the main triggers of life stage conversions. Phosphorylation by cellular PKs regulates important cellular processes, and the protozoan genome contains many PKs. Some PK inhibitors inhibit specific parasite life cycle event. In this report, I present a practical approach to expressing and purifying protozoan PKs by using a wheat germ cell-free protein synthesis system and I assess the phosphorylation activities of protozoan PKs by using an in vitro kinase assay.

Phosphoproteomic Profiling Reveals Epstein-Barr Virus Protein Kinase Integration of DNA Damage Response and Mitotic Signaling

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is etiologically linked to infectious mononucleosis and several human cancers. EBV encodes a conserved protein kinase BGLF4 that plays a key role in the viral life cycle. To provide new insight into the host proteins regulated by BGLF4, we utilized stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC)-based quantitative proteomics to compare site-specific phosphorylation in BGLF4-expressing Akata B cells. Our analysis revealed BGLF4-mediated hyperphosphorylation of 3,046 unique sites corresponding to 1,328 proteins. Frequency analysis of these phosphosites revealed a proline-rich motif signature downstream of BGLF4, indicating a broader substrate recognition for BGLF4 than its cellular ortholog cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1). Further, motif analysis of the hyperphosphorylated sites revealed enrichment in ATM, ATR and Aurora kinase substrates while functional analyses revealed significant enrichment of pathways related to the DNA damage response (DDR), mitosis and cell cycle. Phosphorylation of proteins associated with the mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) indicated checkpoint activation, an event that inactivates the anaphase promoting complex/cyclosome, APC/C. Furthermore, we demonstrated that BGLF4 binds to and directly phosphorylates the key cellular proteins PP1, MPS1 and CDC20 that lie upstream of SAC activation and APC/C inhibition. Consistent with APC/C inactivation, we found that BGLF4 stabilizes the expression of many known APC/C substrates. We also noted hyperphosphorylation of 22 proteins associated the nuclear pore complex, which may contribute to nuclear pore disassembly and SAC activation. A drug that inhibits mitotic checkpoint activation also suppressed the accumulation of extracellular EBV virus. Taken together, our data reveal that, in addition to the DDR, manipulation of mitotic kinase signaling and SAC activation are mechanisms associated with lytic EBV replication. All MS data have been deposited in the ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD002411 (http://proteomecentral.proteomexchange.org/dataset/PXD002411).

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a herpesvirus that is associated with B cell and epithelial human cancers. Herpesviruses encode a protein kinase which is an important regulator of lytic virus replication and is consequently a target for anti-viral drug development. The EBV genome encodes for a serine/threonine protein kinase called BGLF4. Previous work on BGLF4 has largely focused on its cyclin-dependent kinase 1 (CDK1)-like activity. The range of BGLF4 cellular substrates and the full impact of BGLF4 on the intracellular microenvironment still remain to be elucidated. Here, we utilized unbiased quantitative phosphoproteomic approach to dissect the changes in the cellular phosphoproteome that are mediated by BGLF4. Our MS analyses revealed extensive hyperphosphorylation of substrates that are normally targeted by CDK1, Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM), Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3-related (ATR) proteins and Aurora kinases. The up-regulated phosphoproteins were functionally linked to the DNA damage response, mitosis and cell cycle pathways. Our data demonstrate widespread changes in the cellular phosphoproteome that occur upon BGLF4 expression and suggest that manipulation of the DNA damage and mitotic kinase signaling pathways are central to efficient EBV lytic replication.

BGLF4 kinase modulates the structure and transport preference of the nuclear pore complex to facilitate nuclear import of Epstein-Barr virus lytic proteins

BGLF4 kinase, the only Ser/Thr protein kinase encoded by the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome, phosphorylates multiple viral and cellular substrates to optimize the cellular environment for viral DNA replication and the nuclear egress of nucleocapsids. Previously, we found that nuclear targeting of BGLF4 is through direct interaction with the FG repeat-containing nucleoporins (FG-Nups) Nup62 and Nup153 independently of cytosolic transport factors. Here, we investigated the regulatory effects of BGLF4 on the structure and biological functions of the nuclear pore complex (NPC). In EBV-positive NA cells, the distribution of FG-Nups was modified during EBV reactivation. In transfected cells, BGLF4 changed the staining pattern of Nup62 and Nup153 in a kinase activity-dependent manner. Detection with anti-phospho-Ser/Thr-Pro MPM-2 antibody demonstrated that BGLF4 induced the phosphorylation of Nup62 and Nup153. The nuclear targeting of importin β was attenuated in the presence of BGLF4, leading to inhibition of canonical nuclear localization signal (NLS)-mediated nuclear import. An in vitro nuclear import assay revealed that BGLF4 induced the nuclear import of larger molecules. Notably, we found that BGLF4 promoted the nuclear import of several non-NLS-containing EBV proteins, including the viral DNA-replicating enzymes BSLF1, BBLF2/3, and BBLF4 and the major capsid protein (VCA), in cotransfected cells. The data presented here suggest that BGLF4 interferes with the normal functions of Nup62 and Nup153 and preferentially helps the nuclear import of viral proteins for viral DNA replication and assembly. In addition, the nuclear import-promoting activity was found in cells expressing the BGLF4 homologs of another two gammaherpesviruses but not those from alpha- and betaherpesviruses.

IMPORTANCE

During lytic replication, many EBV genome-encoded proteins need to be transported into the nucleus, not only for viral DNA replication but also for the assembly of nucleocapsids. Because nuclear pore complexes are effective gateways that control nucleocytoplasmic traffic, most EBV proteins without canonical NLSs are retained in the cytoplasm until they form complexes with their NLS-containing partners for nuclear targeting. In this study, we found that EBV BGLF4 protein kinase interacts with the Nup62 and Nup153 and induces the redistribution of FG-Nups. BGLF4 modulates the function of the NPC to inhibit the nuclear import of host NLS-containing proteins. Simultaneously, the nuclear import of non-NLS-containing EBV lytic proteins was enhanced, possibly through phosphorylation of Nup62 and Nup153, nuclear pore dilation, or microtubule reorganization. Overall, our data suggest that BGLF4-induced modification of nuclear pore transport may block nuclear targeting of cellular proteins and increase the import of viral proteins to promote viral lytic replication.

A locus encompassing the Epstein-Barr virus bglf4 kinase regulates expression of genes encoding viral structural proteins

The mechanism regulating expression of late genes, encoding viral structural components, is an unresolved problem in the biology of DNA tumor viruses. Here we show that BGLF4, the only protein kinase encoded by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), controls expression of late genes independent of its effect on viral DNA replication. Ectopic expression of BGLF4 in cells lacking the kinase gene stimulated the transcript levels of six late genes by 8- to 10-fold. Introduction of a BGLF4 mutant that eliminated its kinase activity did not stimulate late gene expression. In cells infected with wild-type EBV, siRNA to BGLF4 (siG4) markedly reduced late gene expression without compromising viral DNA replication. Synthesis of late products was restored upon expression of a form of BGLF4 resistant to the siRNA. Studying the EBV transcriptome using mRNA-seq during the late phase of the lytic cycle in the absence and presence of siG4 showed that BGLF4 controlled expression of 31 late genes. Analysis of the EBV transcriptome identified BGLF3 as a gene whose expression was reduced as a result of silencing BGLF4. Knockdown of BGLF3 markedly reduced late gene expression but had no effect on viral DNA replication or expression of BGLF4. Our findings reveal the presence of a late control locus encompassing BGLF3 and BGLF4 in the EBV genome, and provide evidence for the importance of both proteins in post-replication events that are necessary for expression of late genes.

Hsp90 inhibitor 17-DMAG decreases expression of conserved herpesvirus protein kinases and reduces virus production in Epstein-Barr virus-infected cells

All eight human herpesviruses have a conserved herpesvirus protein kinase (CHPK) that is important for the lytic phase of the viral life cycle. In this study, we show that heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) interacts directly with each of the eight CHPKs, and we demonstrate that an Hsp90 inhibitor drug, 17-dimethylaminoethylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-DMAG), decreases expression of all eight CHPKs in transfected HeLa cells. 17-DMAG also decreases expression the of the endogenous Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase (EBV PK, encoded by the BGLF4 gene) in lytically infected EBV-positive cells and inhibits phosphorylation of several different known EBV PK target proteins. Furthermore, 17-DMAG treatment abrogates expression of the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) kinase UL97 in HCMV-infected human fibroblasts. Importantly, 17-DMAG treatment decreased the EBV titer approximately 100-fold in lytically infected AGS-Akata cells without causing significant cellular toxicity during the same time frame. Increased EBV PK expression in 17-DMAG-treated AGS-Akata cells did not restore EBV titers, suggesting that 17-DMAG simultaneously targets multiple viral and/or cellular proteins required for efficient viral replication. These results suggest that Hsp90 inhibitors, including 17-DMAG, may be a promising group of drugs that could have profound antiviral effects on herpesviruses.

Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 targets the nucleus through interaction with nucleoporins

BGLF4 of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase that phosphorylates multiple viral and cellular substrates to optimize the cellular environment for viral DNA replication and the nuclear egress of viral nucleocapsids. BGLF4 is expressed predominantly in the nucleus at early and late stages of virus replication, while a small portion of BGLF4 is distributed in the cytoplasm at the late stage of virus replication and packaged into the virion. Here, we analyzed systematically the functional domains crucial for nuclear localization of BGLF4 and found that both the N and C termini play important modulating roles. Analysis of amino acid substitution mutants revealed that the C terminus of BGLF4 does not contain a conventional nuclear localization signal (NLS). Additionally, deletion of the C-terminal putative helical regions at amino acids 386 to 393 and 410 to 419 diminished the nuclear translocation of BGLF4, indicating that the secondary structure of the C terminus is important for the localization of BGLF4. The green fluorescent protein-fused wild-type or C-terminal helical regions of BGLF4 associate with phenylalanine/glycine repeat-containing nucleoporins (Nups) in nuclear envelope fractionation. Both coimmunoprecipitation and in vitro pull-down assays further demonstrated that BGLF4 binds to Nup62 and Nup153. Remarkably, nuclear import assay with permeabilized HeLa cells demonstrated that BGLF4 translocated into nucleus independent of cytosolic factors. Data presented here suggest that BGLF4 employs a novel mechanism through direct interactions with nucleoporins for its nuclear targeting.

SUMO binding by the Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 is crucial for BGLF4 function

An Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) protein microarray was used to screen for proteins binding noncovalently to the small ubiquitin-like modifier SUMO2. Among the 11 SUMO binding proteins identified was the conserved protein kinase BGLF4. The mutation of potential SUMO interaction motifs (SIMs) in BGLF4 identified N- and C-terminal SIMs. The mutation of both SIMs changed the intracellular localization of BGLF4 from nuclear to cytoplasmic, while BGLF4 mutated in the N-terminal SIM remained predominantly nuclear. The mutation of the C-terminal SIM yielded an intermediate phenotype with nuclear and cytoplasmic staining. The transfer of BGLF4 amino acids 342 to 359 to a nuclear green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged reporter protein led to the relocalization of the reporter to the cytoplasm. Thus, the C-terminal SIM lies adjacent to a nuclear export signal, and coordinated SUMO binding by the N- and C-terminal SIMs blocks export and allows the nuclear accumulation of BGLF4. The mutation of either SIM prevented SUMO binding in vitro. The ability of BGLF4 to abolish the SUMOylation of the EBV lytic cycle transactivator ZTA was dependent on both BGLF4 SUMO binding and BGLF4 kinase activity. The global profile of SUMOylated cell proteins was also suppressed by BGLF4 but not by the SIM or kinase-dead BGLF4 mutant. The effective BGLF4-mediated dispersion of promyelocytic leukemia (PML) bodies was dependent on SUMO binding. The SUMO binding function of BGLF4 was also required to induce the cellular DNA damage response and to enhance the production of extracellular virus during EBV lytic replication. Thus, SUMO binding by BGLF4 modulates BGLF4 function and affects the efficiency of lytic EBV replication.

Phosphorylation events during viral infections provide potential therapeutic targets

For many medically relevant viruses, there is now considerable evidence that both viral and cellular kinases play important roles in viral infection. Ultimately, these kinases, and the cellular signaling pathways that they exploit, may serve as therapeutic targets for treating patients. Currently, small molecule inhibitors of kinases are under investigation as therapy for herpes viral infections. Additionally, a number of cellular or host-directed tyrosine kinase inhibitors that have been previously FDA approved for cancer treatment are under study in animal models and clinical trials, as they have shown promise for the treatment of various viral infections as well. This review will highlight the wide range of viral proteins phosphorylated by viral and cellular kinases, and the potential for variability of kinase recognition sites within viral substrates to impact phosphorylation and kinase prediction. Research studying kinase-targeting prophylactic and therapeutic treatments for a number of viral infections will also be discussed.

Identification of Toxoplasma gondii cAMP dependent protein kinase and its role in the tachyzoite growth

Background

cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) has been implicated in the asexual stage of the Toxoplasma gondii life cycle through assaying the effect of a PKA-specific inhibitor on its growth rate. Since inhibition of the host cell PKA cannot be ruled out, a more precise evaluation of the role of PKA, as well as characterization of the kinase itself, is necessary.

Methodology/Principal Finding

The inhibitory effects of two PKA inhibitors, H89, an ATP-competitive chemical inhibitor, and PKI, a substrate-competitive mammalian natural peptide inhibitor, were estimated. In the in vitro kinase assay, the inhibitory effect of PKI on a recombinant T. gondii PKA catalytic subunit (TgPKA-C) was weaker compared to that on mammalian PKA-C. In a tachyzoite growth assay, PKI had little effect on the growth of tachyzoites, whereas H89 strongly inhibited it. Moreover, T. gondii PKA regulatory subunit (TgPKA-R)-overexpressing tachyzoites showed a significant growth defect.

Conclusions/Significance

Our data suggest that PKA plays an important role in the growth of tachyzoites, and the inhibitory effect of substrate-competitive inhibitor PKI on T. gondii PKA was low compared to that of the ATP competitive inhibitor H89.

Development of drugs for Epstein-Barr virus using high-throughput in silico virtual screening

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human herpesvirus that is causally associated with endemic forms of Burkitt's lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma and lymphoproliferative disease in immunosuppressed individuals. On a global scale, EBV infects > 90% of the adult population and is responsible for ∼ 1% of all human cancers. To date, there is no efficacious drug or therapy for the treatment of EBV infection and EBV-related diseases.

AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW

In this review, we discuss the existing anti-EBV inhibitors and those under development. We discuss the value of different molecular targets, including EBV lytic DNA replication enzymes as well as proteins that are expressed exclusively during latent infection, such as EBV nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA-1) and latent membrane protein 1. As the atomic structure of the EBNA-1 DNA binding domain has been described, it is an attractive target for in silico methods of drug design and small molecule screening. We discuss the use of computational methods that can greatly facilitate the development of novel inhibitors and how in silico screening methods can be applied to target proteins with known structures, such as EBNA-1, to treat EBV infection and disease.

WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN

The reader is familiarized with the problems in targeting of EBV for inhibition by small molecules and how computational methods can greatly facilitate this process.

TAKE HOME MESSAGE

Despite the impressive efficacy of nucleoside analogs for the treatment of herpesvirus lytic infection, there remain few effective treatments for latent infections. As EBV latent infection persists within and contributes to the formation of EBV-associated cancers, targeting EBV latent proteins is an unmet medical need. High-throughput in silico screening can accelerate the process of drug discovery for novel and selective agents that inhibit EBV latent infection and associated disease.

Viral serine/threonine protein kinases

Phosphorylation represents one the most abundant and important posttranslational modifications of proteins, including viral proteins. Virus-encoded serine/threonine protein kinases appear to be a feature that is unique to large DNA viruses. Although the importance of these kinases for virus replication in cell culture is variable, they invariably play important roles in virus virulence. The current review provides an overview of the different viral serine/threonine protein kinases of several large DNA viruses and discusses their function, importance, and potential as antiviral drug targets.

Key motifs in EBV (Epstein-Barr virus)-encoded protein kinase for phosphorylation activity and nuclear localization

A sole EBV (Epstein-Barr virus)-encoded protein kinase (EBV-PK) (the BGLF4 gene product) plays important roles in viral infection. Although a number of targets of this protein have been identified, the kinase itself remains largely unstudied with regard to its enzymology and structure. In the present study, site-directed mutagenesis has been employed to generate mutations targeting residues involved in nuclear localization of the EBV-PK, core residues in subdomain III of the protein kinase domain conserved in most protein kinases or residues in subdomain VIa conserved only within the HPK (herpesvirus-encoded protein kinase) group. Deletion of amino acids 389-391 resulted in exclusive cytoplasmic localization of the protein, indicating the involvement of this region in nuclear translocation of the EBV-PK. Mutations at the amino acids Glu113 (core component), Phe175, Leu178, Phe184, Leu185 and Asn186 (conserved in HPKs) resulted in loss of EBV-PK autophosphorylation, protein substrate [EBV EA-D (early antigen diffused)] phosphorylation, and ability to facilitate ganciclovir phosphorylation. These results reiterate the unique features of this group of kinases and present an opportunity for designing more specific antiviral compounds.

Escape of herpesviruses from the nucleus

The nuclear envelope of eukaryotic cells is composed of double lipid-bilayer membranes, the membrane-connected nuclear pore complexes and an underlying nuclear lamina network. The nuclear pore complexes serve as gates for regulating the transport of macromolecules between cytoplasm and nucleus. The nuclear lamina not only provides an intact meshwork for maintaining the nuclear stiffness but also presents a natural barrier against most DNA viruses. Herpesviruses are large DNA viruses associated with multiple human and animal diseases. The complex herpesviral virion contains more than 30 viral proteins. After viral DNA replication, the newly synthesised genome is packaged into the pre-assembled intranuclear capsid. The nucleocapsid must then transverse through the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm for the subsequent maturation process. Information regarding how nucleocapsid breaches the rigid nuclear lamina barrier and accesses the inner nuclear membrane for primary envelopment has emerged recently. From the point of view of both viral components and nuclear structure, this review summarises recent advances in the complicated protein-protein interactions and the phosphorylation regulations involved in the nuclear egress of herpesviral nucleocapsids.

Characterization of Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 kinase expression control at the transcriptional and translational levels

The BGLF4 protein of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a serine/threonine protein kinase that phosphorylates several viral and cellular substrates at cellular cyclin-dependent kinase target sites. BGLF4 is required for efficient viral DNA replication and release of mature virions. It also stimulates the transactivation activity of the immediate-early transactivator Zta (BZLF1) and suppresses the transactivation activities of BMRF1 and EBNA-2. This study aimed to characterize further the regulation of BGLF4 expression at the transcriptional and translational levels. It was shown that BGLF4 was expressed with early kinetics and reached maximal levels after DNA replication. The promoter activity of BGLF4 was upregulated mainly by the immediate-early transactivator Rta, rather than Zta, as revealed by Zta-specific short hairpin RNA in EBV-positive cells and by luciferase reporter assays. By rapid amplification of 5' cDNA ends, two major transcriptional start sites were identified at 201 and 255 nt upstream of the first in-frame ATG of BGLF4 in P3HR1 cells. An additional transcript initiated from -468 was detected in Akata cells. The translation initiation site of BGLF4 was confirmed by mutagenesis, in vitro translation and transient transfection. The translation regulatory effect mediated by the long 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) of BGLF4 was demonstrated by dual reporter assays in 293T and EBV-positive NA cells. These results suggested that different promoter usage and 5'UTR-mediated translation enhancement may ensure the proper expression of BGLF4 at various stages of virus replication.

Simian virus 40 T/t antigens and lamin A/C small interfering RNA rescue the phenotype of an Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase (BGLF4) mutant

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded viral protein kinase, EBV-PK (the BGLF4 gene product), is required for efficient nuclear viral egress in 293 cells. However, since EBV-PK phosphorylates a number of different viral and cellular proteins (including lamin A/C), the relative importance of each target during lytic viral replication remains unclear. We show here that an EBV PK mutant (PKmut; containing stop codons at residues 1 and 5 in EBV-PK) is highly defective for release of infectious virus from 293 cells but not 293T cells. Furthermore, the phenotype of the PKmut in 293 cells is substantially reversed by expression of the simian virus 40 (SV40) large (T) and small (t) T antigens. Efficient rescue requires the presence of both SV40 T/t proteins. We show that 293T cells have a much higher level of constitutive lamin A/C phosphorylation than do 293 cells over residues (S22 and S392) that promote phosphorylation-dependent nuclear disassembly and that both large T and small t contribute to enhanced lamin A/C phosphorylation. Finally, we demonstrate that knockdown of lamin A/C expression using small interfering RNA also rescues the PKmut phenotype in 293 cells. These results suggest that essential roles of EBV-PK during lytic viral replication include the phosphorylation and dispersion of lamin A/C.

Maribavir inhibits epstein-barr virus transcription in addition to viral DNA replication

Although many drugs inhibit the replication of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) in cell culture systems, there is still no drug that is effective and approved for use in primary EBV infection. More recently, maribavir (MBV), an l-ribofuranoside benzimidazole, has been shown to be a potent and nontoxic inhibitor of EBV replication and to have a mode of action quite distinct from that of acyclic nucleoside analogs such as acyclovir (ACV) that is based primarily on MBV's ability to block the phosphorylation of target proteins by EBV and human cytomegalovirus protein kinases. However, since the antiviral mechanisms of the drug are complex, we have carried out a comprehensive analysis of the effects of MBV on the RNA expression levels of all EBV genes with a quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR-based array. We show that in comparisons with ACV, the RNA expression profiles produced by the two drugs are entirely different, with MBV causing a pronounced inhibition of multiple viral mRNAs and with ACV causing virtually none. The results emphasize the different modes of action of the two drugs and suggest that the action of MBV may be linked to indirect effects on the transcription of EBV genes through the interaction of BGLF4 with multiple viral proteins.

The Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 and the exonuclease BGLF5 have opposite effects on the regulation of viral protein production

The Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 and BGLF5 genes encode a protein kinase and an alkaline exonuclease, respectively. Both proteins were previously found to regulate multiple steps of virus replication, including lytic DNA replication and primary egress. However, while inactivation of BGLF4 led to the downregulation of several viral proteins, the absence of BGLF5 had the opposite effect. Using recombinant viruses that lack both viral enzymes, we confirm and extend these initial observations, e.g., by showing that both BGLF4 and BGLF5 are required for proper phosphorylation of the DNA polymerase processivity factor BMRF1. We further found that neither BGLF4 nor BGLF5 is required for baseline viral protein production. Complementation with BGLF5 downregulated mRNA levels and translation of numerous viral genes, though to various degrees, whereas BGLF4 had the opposite effect. BGLF4 and BGLF5 influences on viral expression were most pronounced for BFRF1 and BFLF2, two proteins essential for nuclear egress. For most viral genes studied, cotransfection of BGLF4 and BGLF5 had only a marginal influence on their expression patterns, showing that BGLF4 antagonizes BGLF5-mediated viral gene shutoff. To be able to exert its functions on viral gene expression, BGLF4 must be able to escape BGLF5's shutoff activities. Indeed, we found that BGLF5 stimulated the BGLF4 gene's transcription through an as yet uncharacterized molecular mechanism. The BGLF4/BGLF5 enzyme pair builds a regulatory loop that allows fine-tuning of virus protein production, which is required for efficient viral replication.

Molecular analyses of Toxoplasma gondii calmodulin-like domain protein kinase isoform 3

Ca(2+) signaling is thought to play an important role in Toxoplasma gondii motility, including invasion of and egress from host cells. Recently, it has been reported that phosphorylation of the glideosome apparatus components of T. gondii occurs during invasion. To elucidate the role of T. gondii calmodulin-like domain protein kinase in the signaling pathway that bridges Ca(2+) stimulation and motility, we characterized T. gondii calmodulin-like domain protein kinase isoform 3 (TgCDPKif3). TgCDPKif3 is homologous to Plasmodium falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 1, which has been reported to phosphorylate P. falciparum glideosome components. TgCDPKif3 was purified as a fusion protein that was labeled with [gamma-(32)P]ATP, and the label was subsequently removed by phosphatase treatment. Phosphorylation was eliminated when the putative catalytic lysine residue of TgCDPKif3 was replaced with alanine. TgCDPKif3 phosphorylated Histone II(AS) as a representative substrate in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner at a high Ca(2+) concentration. TgCDPKif3 was localized to the apical ends of tachyzoites. TgCDPKif3 showed the translocation between intra- and extracellular tachyzoites. TgCDPKif3 could phosphorylate T. gondii aldolase 1 (TgALD1) in vitro. The interaction between TgCDPKif3 and TgALD1 was confirmed by the co-immunoprecipitation assay in mammal cells. We suggested that TgCDPKif3 could participate in the motility of T. gondii through the phosphorylation of glideosome complex member.

Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 4

In Plasmodium berghei, the orthologous gene of P. falciparum calcium-dependent protein kinase 4 (PfCDPK4) was reported to be essential for the exflagellation of male gametocytes. To elucidate the role of PfCDPK4 in P. falciparum gametogenesis, we characterized the biological function of PfCDPK4 in vitro. PfCDPK4 was purified as a fusion protein that was labeled with [gamma-(32)P]ATP; this labeling was then eliminated by phosphatase. Phosphorylation activity of PfCDPK4 was eliminated when its putative catalytic lysine residue was replaced with alanine. In biochemical analyses, PfCDPK4 was found to have characteristics that were similar to those of homologous proteins from plants. PfCDPK4 phosphorylation was activated when experimental conditions were changed from those characteristic of human blood (37 degrees C, pH 7.4) to those of the mosquito bloodmeal (at least 5 degrees C below 37 degrees C, pH 7.6, with xanthurenic acid (XA)). PfCDPK4 was overexpressed in day 15 gametocytes exposed to XA or human serum. Thus, PfCDPK4 phosphorylation is activated by an increase in Ca(2+) concentration or pH and by a decrease in temperature, and is associated with the Ca(2+) signals that facilitate P. falciparum gametogenesis.

Epstein-Barr virus polymerase processivity factor enhances BALF2 promoter transcription as a coactivator for the BZLF1 immediate-early protein

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BMRF1 protein is an essential replication protein acting at viral replication forks as a viral DNA polymerase processivity factor, whereas the BALF2 protein is a single-stranded DNA-binding protein that also acts at replication forks and is most abundantly expressed during viral productive replication. Here we document that the BMRF1 protein evidently enhances viral BZLF1 transcription factor-mediated transactivation of the BALF2 gene promoter. Mutagenesis and electrophoretic mobility shift assays demonstrated the BALF2 promoter to harbor two BZLF1 protein-binding sites (BZLF1-responsive elements). Direct binding of the BZLF1 protein to BZLF1-responsive elements and physical interaction between BZLF1 and BMRF1 proteins are prerequisite for the BMRF1 protein up-regulation of the BALF2 gene promoter. A monomeric mutant, C95E, which is defective in homodimerization, could still interact and enhance BZLF1-mediated transactivation. Furthermore although EBV protein kinase phosphorylates BMRF1 protein extensively, it turned out that phosphorylation of the protein by the kinase is inhibitory to the enhancement of the BZLF1-mediated transactivation of BALF2 promoter. Exogenous expression of BMRF1 protein augmented BALF2 expression in HEK293 cells harboring the EBV genome but lacking BMRF1 and BALF5 genes, demonstrating functions as a transcriptional regulator in the context of viral infection. Overall the BMRF1 protein is a multifunctional protein that cannot only act as a DNA polymerase processivity factor but also enhances BALF2 promoter transcription as a coactivator for the BZLF1 protein, regulating the expression level of viral single-stranded DNA-binding protein.

Phosphorylation of p27Kip1 by Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase induces its degradation through SCFSkp2 ubiquitin ligase actions during viral lytic replication

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) productive replication occurs in an S-phase-like cellular environment with high cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activity. The EBV protein kinase (PK), encoded by the viral BGLF4 gene, is a Ser/Thr protein kinase, which phosphorylates both viral and cellular proteins, modifying the cellular environment for efficient viral productive replication. We here provide evidence that the EBV PK phosphorylates the CDK inhibitor p27(Kip1), resulting in ubiquitination and degradation in a proteasome-dependent manner during EBV productive replication. Experiments with BGLF4 knockdown by small interfering RNA and BGLF4 knock-out viruses clarified that EBV PK is involved in p27(Kip1) degradation upon lytic replication. Transfection of the BGLF4 expression vector revealed that EBV PK alone could phosphorylate the Thr-187 residue of p27(Kip1) and that the ubiquitination and degradation of p27(Kip1) occurred in an SCF(Skp2) ubiquitin ligase-dependent manner. In vitro, EBV PK proved capable of phosphorylating p27(Kip1) at Thr-187. Unlike cyclin E-CDK2 activity, the EBV PK activity was not inhibited by p27(Kip1). Overall, EBV PK enhances p27(Kip1) degradation effectively upon EBV productive replication, contributing to establishment of an S-phase-like cellular environment with high CDK activity.

Efficient production of infectious viruses requires enzymatic activity of Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BGLF4 gene product is the only protein kinase encoded by the virus genome. In order to elucidate its physiological roles in viral productive replication, we here established a BGLF4-knockout mutant and a revertant virus. While the levels of viral DNA replication of the deficient mutant were equivalent to those of the wild-type and the revertant, virus production was significantly impaired. Expression of the BGLF4 protein in trans fully complemented the low yield of the mutant virus, while expression of a kinase-dead (K102I) form of the protein failed to restore the virus titer. These results demonstrate that BGLF4 plays a significant role in production of infectious viruses and that the kinase activity is crucial.

Protein array identification of substrates of the Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4

A conserved family of herpesvirus protein kinases plays a crucial role in herpesvirus DNA replication and virion production. However, despite the fact that these kinases are potential therapeutic targets, no systematic studies have been performed to identify their substrates. We generated an Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) protein array to evaluate the targets of the EBV protein kinase BGLF4. Multiple proteins involved in EBV lytic DNA replication and virion assembly were identified as previously unrecognized substrates for BGLF4, illustrating the broad role played by this protein kinase. Approximately half of the BGLF4 targets were also in vitro substrates for the cellular kinase CDK1/cyclin B. Unexpectedly, EBNA1 was identified as a substrate and binding partner of BGLF4. EBNA1 is essential for replication and maintenance of the episomal EBV genome during latency. BGLF4 did not prevent EBNA1 binding to sites in the EBV latency origin of replication, oriP. Rather, we found that BGLF4 was recruited by EBNA1 to oriP in cells transfected with an oriP vector and BGLF4 and in lytically induced EBV-positive Akata cells. In cells transfected with an oriP vector, the presence of BGLF4 led to more rapid loss of the episomal DNA, and this was dependent on BGLF4 kinase activity. Similarly, expression of doxycycline-inducible BGLF4 in Akata cells led to a reduction in episomal EBV genomes. We propose that BGLF4 contributes to effective EBV lytic cycle progression, not only through phosphorylation of EBV lytic DNA replication and virion proteins, but also by interfering with the EBNA1 replication function.

Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 interacts with viral transactivator BZLF1 and regulates its transactivation activity

BGLF4 is a serine/threonine protein kinase encoded by Epstein-Barr virus. One of the physiological substrates of BGLF4 is viral transactivator BZLF1. In the present study, it was demonstrated that alanine substitution of the serine residue at position 209 (S209A) in BZLF1 eliminated phosphorylation of the protein by BGLF4 in vitro. The S209A mutation in BZLF1, as well as a K102I mutation in BGLF4, which inactivated catalytic activity of the viral kinase, also inhibited formation of a stable BGLF4-BZLF1 complex and downregulation of BZLF1 autotransactivation activity mediated by BGLF4. These results indicate that formation of a stable complex of BGLF4-BZLF1 enables downregulation of BZLF1 autoregulation activity and it appears that BGLF4 phosphorylation of BZLF1 may be involved in these processes.

Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 kinase suppresses the interferon regulatory factor 3 signaling pathway

The BGLF4 protein kinase of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a member of the conserved family of herpesvirus protein kinases which, to some extent, have a function similar to that of the cellular cyclin-dependent kinase in regulating multiple cellular and viral substrates. In a yeast two-hybrid screening assay, a splicing variant of interferon (IFN) regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) was found to interact with the BGLF4 protein. This interaction was defined further by coimmunoprecipitation in transfected cells and glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down in vitro. Using reporter assays, we show that BGLF4 effectively suppresses the activities of the poly(I:C)-stimulated IFN-beta promoter and IRF3-responsive element. Moreover, BGLF4 represses the poly(I:C)-stimulated expression of endogenous IFN-beta mRNA and the phosphorylation of STAT1 at Tyr701. In searching for a possible mechanism, BGLF4 was shown not to affect the dimerization, nuclear translocation, or CBP recruitment of IRF3 upon poly(I:C) treatment. Notably, BGLF4 reduces the amount of active IRF3 recruited to the IRF3-responsive element containing the IFN-beta promoter region in a chromatin immunoprecipitation assay. BGLF4 phosphorylates GST-IRF3 in vitro, but Ser339-Pro340 phosphorylation-dependent, Pin1-mediated downregulation is not responsible for the repression. Most importantly, we found that three proline-dependent phosphorylation sites at Ser123, Ser173, and Thr180, which cluster in a region between the DNA binding and IRF association domains of IRF3, contribute additively to the BGLF4-mediated repression of IRF3(5D) transactivation activity. IRF3 signaling is activated in reactivated EBV-positive NA cells, and the knockdown of BGLF4 further stimulates IRF3-responsive reporter activity. The data presented here thus suggest a novel mechanism by which herpesviral protein kinases suppress host innate immune responses and facilitate virus replication.

Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 kinase induces disassembly of the nuclear lamina to facilitate virion production

DNA viruses adopt various strategies to modulate the cellular environment for efficient genome replication and virion production. Previously, we demonstrated that the BGLF4 kinase of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) induces premature chromosome condensation through the activation of condensin and topoisomerase IIalpha (C. P. Lee, J. Y. Chen, J. T. Wang, K. Kimura, A. Takemoto, C. C. Lu, and M. R. Chen, J. Virol. 81:5166-5180, 2007). In this study, we show that BGLF4 interacts with lamin A/C and phosphorylates lamin A protein in vitro. Using a green fluorescent protein (GFP)-lamin A system, we found that Ser-22, Ser-390, and Ser-392 of lamin A are important for the BGLF4-induced disassembly of the nuclear lamina and the EBV reactivation-mediated redistribution of nuclear lamin. Virion production and protein levels of two EBV primary envelope proteins, BFRF1 and BFLF2, were reduced significantly by the expression of GFP-lamin A(5A), which has five Ser residues replaced by Ala at amino acids 22, 390, 392, 652, and 657 of lamin A. Our data indicate that BGLF4 kinase phosphorylates lamin A/C to promote the reorganization of the nuclear lamina, which then may facilitate the interaction of BFRF1 and BFLF2s and subsequent virion maturation. UL kinases of alpha- and betaherpesviruses also induce the disassembly of the nuclear lamina through similar sites on lamin A/C, suggesting a conserved mechanism for the nuclear egress of herpesviruses.

Characterization of Plasmodium falciparum protein kinase 2

A sustained elevation of free Ca(2+) is observed on the rupture and release of merozoites of Plasmodium falciparum from the erythrocytes. The immunoelectron micrographs demonstrate that calmodulin is localized in merozoites. To elucidate the Ca(2+) signal of P. falciparum invasion, we attempted to characterize P. falciparum protein kinase 2 (PfPK2), which is homologous to human calcium calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMK). PfPK2 was purified as a fusion protein that was labeled with [gamma-(32)P]ATP; this labeling was then eliminated by phosphatase. This phosphorylation was eliminated when the putative catalytic lysine residue of PfPK2 was replaced with alanine. PfPK2 phosphorylated histone II(AS) as a representative substrate in a Ca(2+)- and calmodulin-dependent manner. Calmodulin antagonists inhibited the phosphorylation of PfPK2 in vitro and markedly decreased the parasitemia of ring forms in an invasion assay, whereas CaMKII-specific inhibitors had no effect. PfPK2 was localized in the merozoites in the culture of P. falciparum. Thus, purified PfPK2 possesses protein kinase activity in a Ca(2+)- and calmodulin-dependent manner and the catalytic lysine of this protein was determined. These data suggest that PfPK2 is the Plasmodium protein kinase expressed in the merozoites during the invasion stage.

Effect of phosphorylation on the transactivation activity of Epstein-Barr virus BMRF1, a major target of the viral BGLF4 kinase

Modification of human herpesvirus DNA polymerase processivity factors (PFs) by phosphorylation occurs frequently during viral lytic replication. However, functional regulation of the herpesvirus PFs through phosphorylation is not well understood. In addition to processivity, the PF BMRF1 of Epstein-Barr virus can function as a transactivator to activate the BHLF1 promoter within the lytic origin of replication (oriLyt), which is assumed to facilitate DNA replication through remodelling viral chromatin structure. BMRF1 is known to be phosphorylated by the viral BGLF4 kinase, but its impact on BMRF1 function is unclear. Seven candidate BGLF4 target sites were predicted within a proline-rich region between the DNA-processivity and nuclear-localization domains of BMRF1. We show that four of these residues, Ser-337, Thr-344, Ser-349 and Thr-355, are responsible for the BGLF4-induced hyperphosphorylation of BMRF1. In functional analyses, a phosphorylation-mimicking mutant of BMRF1 shows similar nuclear localization, as well as DNA-binding ability, to the wild type; however, it displays stronger synergistic activation of the BHLF1 promoter with Zta. Notably, BGLF4 downregulates BMRF1 transactivation and enhances the transactivation activity of Zta and the synergistic activation of BMRF1 and Zta on the BHLF1 promoter. Our findings suggest that BGLF4 may modulate the activation of the oriLyt BHLF1 promoter coordinately through multiple mechanisms to facilitate optimal oriLyt-dependent viral DNA replication.

Xeroderma pigmentosum C is involved in Epstein Barr virus DNA replication

Cellular mismatch and base-excision repair machineries have been shown to be involved in Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) lytic DNA replication. We report here that nucleotide-excision repair (NER) may also play an important role in EBV lytic DNA replication. Firstly, the EBV BGLF4 kinase interacts with xeroderma pigmentosum C (XPC), the critical DNA damage-recognition factor of NER, in yeast and in vitro, as demonstrated by yeast two-hybrid and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assays. Simultaneously, XPC was shown, by indirect immunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation assays, to interact and colocalize with BGLF4 in EBV-positive NA cells undergoing lytic viral replication. In addition, the efficiency of EBV DNA replication was reduced about 30-40 % by an XPC small interfering RNA. Expression of BGLF4 enhances cellular DNA-repair activity in p53-defective H1299/bcl2 cells in a host-cell reactivation assay. This enhancement was not observed in the XPC-mutant cell line XP4PA-SV unless complemented by ectopic XPC, suggesting that BGLF4 may stimulate DNA repair in an XPC-dependent manner. Overall, we suggest that the interaction of BGLF4 and XPC may be involved in DNA replication and repair and thereby enhance the efficiency of viral DNA replication.

Conserved herpesvirus protein kinases

Conserved herpesviral protein kinases (CHPKs) are a group of enzymes conserved throughout all subfamilies of Herpesviridae. Members of this group are serine/threonine protein kinases that are likely to play a conserved role in viral infection by interacting with common host cellular and viral factors; however, along with a conserved role, individual kinases may have unique functions in the context of viral infection in such a way that they are only partially replaceable even by close homologues. Recent studies demonstrated that CHPKs are crucial for viral infection and suggested their involvement in regulation of numerous processes at various infection steps (primary infection, nuclear egress, tegumentation), although the mechanisms of this regulation remain unknown. Notwithstanding, recent advances in discovery of new CHPK targets, and studies of CHPK knockout phenotypes have raised their attractiveness as targets for antiviral therapy. A number of compounds have been shown to inhibit the activity of human cytomegalovirus (HCMV)-encoded UL97 protein kinase and exhibit a pronounced antiviral effect, although the same compounds are inactive against Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded protein kinase BGLF4, illustrating the fact that low homology between the members of this group complicates development of compounds targeting the whole group, and suggesting that individualized, structure-based inhibitor design will be more effective. Determination of CHPK structures will greatly facilitate this task.

Epstein-Barr virus protein kinase BGLF4 is a virion tegument protein that dissociates from virions in a phosphorylation-dependent process and phosphorylates the viral immediate-early protein BZLF1

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BGLF4 is a viral protein kinase that is expressed in the lytic phase of infection and is packaged in virions. We report here that BGLF4 is a tegument protein that dissociates from the virion in a phosphorylation-dependent process. We also present evidence that BGLF4 interacts with and phosphorylates BZLF1, a key viral regulator of lytic infection. These conclusions are based on the following observations. (i) In in vitro tegument release assays, a significant fraction of BGLF4 was released from virions in the presence of physiological NaCl concentrations. (ii) Addition of physiological concentrations of ATP and MgCl(2) to virions enhanced BGLF4 release, but phosphatase treatment of virions significantly reduced BGLF4 release. (iii) A recombinant protein containing a domain of BZLF1 was specifically phosphorylated by purified recombinant BGLF4 in vitro, and BGLF4 altered BZLF1 posttranslational modification in vivo. (iv) BZLF1 was specifically coimmunoprecipitated with BGLF4 in 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate-treated B95-8 cells and in COS-1 cells transiently expressing both of these viral proteins. (v) BGLF4 and BZLF1 were colocalized in intranuclear globular structures, resembling the viral replication compartment, in Akata cells treated with anti-human immunoglobulin G. Our results suggest that BGLF4 functions not only in lytically infected cells by phosphorylating viral and cellular targets but also immediately after viral penetration like other herpesvirus tegument proteins.

Epstein-Barr virus-encoded protein kinase (BGLF4) is involved in production of infectious virus

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BGLF4 gene product is a protein kinase (PK). Although this kinase has been characterized and several of its targets have been identified, its biological role remains enigmatic. We have generated and assessed a BGLF4 knockdown phenotype by means of RNA interference and report the following: (i) BGLF4-targeting small interfering RNA effectively inhibited the expression of its product, the viral PK, during lytic reactivation, (ii) BGLF4 knockdown partially inhibited viral DNA replication and expression of selected late viral genes, (iii) the absence of EBV PK resulted in retention of the viral nucleocapsids in the nuclei, and (iv) as a result of the nuclear retention, release of infectious virions is significantly retarded. Our results provide evidence that EBV PK plays an important role in nuclear egress of the virus and ultimately is crucial for lytic virus replication.

Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 kinase induces premature chromosome condensation through activation of condensin and topoisomerase II

Previous studies of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) replication focused mainly on the viral and cellular factors involved in replication compartment assembly and controlling the cell cycle. However, little is known about how EBV reorganizes nuclear architecture and the chromatin territories. In EBV-positive nasopharyngeal carcinoma NA cells or Akata cells, we noticed that cellular chromatin becomes highly condensed upon EBV reactivation. In searching for the possible mechanisms involved, we found that transient expression of EBV BGLF4 kinase induces unscheduled chromosome condensation, nuclear lamina disassembly, and stress fiber rearrangements, independently of cellular DNA replication and Cdc2 activity. BGLF4 interacts with condensin complexes, the major components in mitotic chromosome assembly, and induces condensin phosphorylation at Cdc2 consensus motifs. BGLF4 also stimulates the decatenation activity of topoisomerase II, suggesting that it may induce chromosome condensation through condensin and topoisomerase II activation. The ability to induce chromosome condensation is conserved in another gammaherpesvirus kinase, murine herpesvirus 68 ORF36. Together, these findings suggest a novel mechanism by which gammaherpesvirus kinases may induce multiple premature mitotic events to provide more extrachromosomal space for viral DNA replication and successful egress of nucleocapsid from the nucleus.

Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen leader protein coactivates transcription through interaction with histone deacetylase 4

Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen (EBNA) leader protein (EBNALP) coactivates promoters with EBNA2 and is important for Epstein-Barr virus immortalization of B cells. Investigation of the role of histone deacetylases (HDACs) in EBNALP and EBNA2 promoter regulation has now identified EBNALP and EBNA2 to be associated with HDAC4 in a lymphoblastoid cell line. Furthermore, a transcription-deficient EBNALP point mutant did not associate with HDAC4. HDAC4 and 5 overexpression repressed EBNA2 activation and EBNALP coactivation, whereas other HDACs had little effect. Moreover, EBNALP expression decreased nuclear HDAC4. Expression of 14-3-3 anchors HDAC4 in the cytoplasm, increased EBNALP effects, and reversed HDAC4 or 5 repression. HDAC4 reversal depended on the HDAC4 nuclear export sequence. Consistent with EBNALP coactivation being mediated by nuclear HDAC4 depletion, HDAC4 overexpression increased nuclear HDAC4 and specifically repressed EBNA2-dependent activation as well as EBNALP-dependent coactivation. Also, EBNALP, HDAC4, and 14-3-3 could be immunoprecipitated in a single complex. Thus, these data strongly support a model in which EBNALP coactivates transcription by relocalizing HDAC4 and 5 from EBNA2 activated promoters to the cytoplasm. The observed EBNALP effects are likely also in part through HDAC5, which is highly homologous to HDAC4.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-encoded protein kinase and its interaction with K-bZIP

The oncogenic herpesvirus, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, also identified as human herpesvirus 8, contains genes producing proteins that control transcription and influence cell signaling. Open reading frame 36 (ORF36) of this virus encodes a serine/threonine protein kinase, which is designated the viral protein kinase (vPK). Our recent efforts to elucidate the role of vPK in the viral life cycle have focused on identifying viral protein substrates and determining the effects of vPK-mediated phosphorylation on specific steps in viral replication. The vPK gene was transcribed into 4.2-kb and 3.6-kb mRNAs during the early and late phases of viral reactivation. vPK is colocalized with viral DNA replication/transcription compartments as marked by a polymerase processivity factor, and K-bZIP, a protein known to bind the viral DNA replication origin (Ori-Lyt) and to regulate viral transcription. The vPK physically associated with and strongly phosphorylated K-bZIP at threonine 111, a site also recognized by the cyclin-dependent kinase Cdk2. Both K-bZIP and vPK were corecruited to viral promoters targeted by K-bZIP as well as to the Ori-Lyt region. Phosphorylation of K-bZIP by vPK had a negative impact on K-bZIP transcription repression activity. The extent of posttranslational modification of K-bZIP by sumoylation, a process that influences its repression function, was decreased by vPK phosphorylation at threonine 111. Our data thus identify a new role of vPK as a modulator of viral transcription.

Phosphorylation of MCM4 at sites inactivating DNA helicase activity of the MCM4-MCM6-MCM7 complex during Epstein-Barr virus productive replication

Induction of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lytic replication blocks chromosomal DNA replication notwithstanding an S-phase-like cellular environment with high cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activity. We report here that the phosphorylated form of MCM4, a subunit of the MCM complex essential for chromosomal DNA replication, increases with progression of lytic replication, Thr-19 and Thr-110 being CDK2/CDK1 targets whose phosphorylation inactivates MCM4-MCM6-MCM7 (MCM4-6-7) complex-associated DNA helicase. Expression of EBV-encoded protein kinase (EBV-PK) in HeLa cells caused phosphorylation of these sites on MCM4, leading to cell growth arrest. In vitro, the sites of MCM4 of the MCM4-6-7 hexamer were confirmed to be phosphorylated with EBV-PK, with the same loss of helicase activity as with CDK2/cyclin A. Introducing mutations in the N-terminal six Ser and Thr residues of MCM4 reduced the inhibition by CDK2/cyclin A, while EBV-PK inhibited the helicase activities of both wild-type and mutant MCM4-6-7 hexamers, probably since EBV-PK can phosphorylate MCM6 and another site(s) of MCM4 in addition to the N-terminal residues. Therefore, phosphorylation of the MCM complex by redundant actions of CDK and EBV-PK during lytic replication might provide one mechanism to block chromosomal DNA replication in the infected cells through inactivation of DNA unwinding by the MCM4-6-7 complex.

Phosphorylation of MCM4 at sites inactivating DNA helicase activity of the MCM4-MCM6-MCM7 complex during Epstein-Barr virus productive replication

Induction of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lytic replication blocks chromosomal DNA replication notwithstanding an S-phase-like cellular environment with high cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) activity. We report here that the phosphorylated form of MCM4, a subunit of the MCM complex essential for chromosomal DNA replication, increases with progression of lytic replication, Thr-19 and Thr-110 being CDK2/CDK1 targets whose phosphorylation inactivates MCM4-MCM6-MCM7 (MCM4-6-7) complex-associated DNA helicase. Expression of EBV-encoded protein kinase (EBV-PK) in HeLa cells caused phosphorylation of these sites on MCM4, leading to cell growth arrest. In vitro, the sites of MCM4 of the MCM4-6-7 hexamer were confirmed to be phosphorylated with EBV-PK, with the same loss of helicase activity as with CDK2/cyclin A. Introducing mutations in the N-terminal six Ser and Thr residues of MCM4 reduced the inhibition by CDK2/cyclin A, while EBV-PK inhibited the helicase activities of both wild-type and mutant MCM4-6-7 hexamers, probably since EBV-PK can phosphorylate MCM6 and another site(s) of MCM4 in addition to the N-terminal residues. Therefore, phosphorylation of the MCM complex by redundant actions of CDK and EBV-PK during lytic replication might provide one mechanism to block chromosomal DNA replication in the infected cells through inactivation of DNA unwinding by the MCM4-6-7 complex.

Herpes simplex virus 1-encoded protein kinase UL13 phosphorylates viral Us3 protein kinase and regulates nuclear localization of viral envelopment factors UL34 and UL31

UL13 and Us3 are protein kinases encoded by herpes simplex virus 1. We report here that Us3 is a physiological substrate for UL13 in infected cells, based on the following observations. (i) The electrophoretic mobility, in denaturing gels, of Us3 isoforms from Vero cells infected with wild-type virus was slower than that of isoforms from cells infected with a UL13 deletion mutant virus (DeltaUL13). After treatment with phosphatase, the electrophoretic mobility of the Us3 isoforms from cells infected with wild-type virus changed, with one isoform migrating as fast as one of the Us3 isoforms from DeltaUL13-infected cells. (ii) A recombinant protein containing a domain of Us3 was phosphorylated by UL13 in vitro. (iii) The phenotype of DeltaUL13 resembles that of a recombinant virus lacking the Us3 gene (DeltaUs3) with respect to localization of the viral envelopment factors UL34 and UL31, whose localization has been shown to be regulated by Us3. UL34 and UL31 are localized in a smooth pattern throughout the nuclei of cells infected with wild-type virus, whereas their localization in DeltaUL13- and DeltaUs3-infected cells appeared as nuclear punctate patterns. These results indicate that UL13 phosphorylates Us3 in infected cells and regulates UL34 and UL31 localization, either by phosphorylating Us3 or by a Us3-independent mechanism.

Detection of Epstein-Barr virus BGLF4 protein kinase in virus replication compartments and virus particles

BGLF4 is the only serine/threonine protein kinase identified in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV); it is known to phosphorylate viral DNA polymerase processivity factor, EA-D (BMRF1), EBNA-LP, EBNA-2, cellular EF-1delta and nucleoside analogue ganciclovir. However, the expression and biological functions of BGLF4 have not yet been clearly demonstrated in EBV-infected cells. To reveal authentic functions of BGLF4 protein within viral-replicating cells, a panel of specific monoclonal antibodies was generated and characterized. The major immunogenic regions of BGLF4 were mapped to aa 27-70 and 327-429. Using these antibodies, the expression kinetics and localization of BGLF4 were analysed in reactivated EBV-positive lymphoid and epithelial cells. BGLF4 was expressed as a phosphoprotein at the early lytic stage and was detected predominantly in the nucleus of EBV-positive cells, but small amounts of BGLF4 were observed in cytosolic and heavy membrane fractions at the late phase of virus replication. Additionally, it was demonstrated that BGLF4 co-localizes with viral DNA polymerase processivity factor, EA-D (BMRF1), in the virus replication compartment and that it is a virion component. Finally, possible functional domains at the N terminus of BGLF4 were analysed and it was found that aa 1-26 of BGLF4 are dispensable for EA-D phosphorylation, whereas deletion of aa 27-70 reduced kinase activity.

Development of a monoclonal antibody against Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen leader protein (EBNA-LP) that can detect EBNA-LP expressed in P3HR1 cells

A mouse monoclonal antibody, LP4D3, was raised against purified Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen leader protein (EBNA-LP) fused to glutathione-S-transferase. The antibody detected endogenous and exogenous EBNA-LP in immunoblotting, immunofluorescence and immunoprecipitation assays, and the epitope of the antibody was mapped in the W2 domain of EBNA-LP. While another monoclonal antibody to EBNA-LP, JF186, which is widely used for analyses of the viral protein, did not react with truncated forms of EBNA-LP expressed in P3HR1 cells, as reported earlier, the LP4D3 antibody did. The LP4D3 antibody will be a useful tool for further studies of EBNA-LP, especially investigations into the phenotypes of mutant EBNA-LP expressed in P3HR1 cells.

The role of protein kinase activity expressed by the UL13 gene of herpes simplex virus 1: the activity is not essential for optimal expression of UL41 and ICP0

Herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) UL13 is a viral protein kinase that is packaged into virions and regulates optimal expression of ICP0 and a subset of late (gamma) proteins, including UL41 in infected cells. In the present study, we investigated the role(s) of the protein kinase activity of UL13 in viral replication using a recombinant virus expressing enzymatically inactive UL13 after an amino acid substitution in the invariant lysine of UL13. The recombinant virus carrying this mutation formed smaller plaques yielded 10-fold less progeny than wild-type virus but could not be differentiated from wild-type virus with respect to accumulation of UL41 and ICP0 in infected cells. These results indicate that the protein kinase activity of UL13 plays a role in viral replication in cell culture, but the activity is not essential for the optimal expression of UL41 and ICP0.