Evidence for gradients of human genetic diversity within and among continents

Biogeographic Perspectives on Human Genetic Diversification

Modern humans originated in Africa 300,000 yr ago, and before leaving their continent of origin, they underwent a process of intense diversification involving complex demographic dynamics. Upon exiting Africa, different populations emerged on the four other inhabited continents, shaped by the interplay of various evolutionary processes, such as migrations, founder effects, and natural selection. Within each region, continental populations, in turn, diversified and evolved almost independently for millennia. As a backdrop to this diversification, introgressions from archaic species contributed to establishing different patterns of genetic diversity in different geographic regions, reshaping our understanding of our species' variability. With the increasing availability of genomic data, it has become possible to delineate the subcontinental human population structure precisely. However, the bias toward the genomic research focused on populations from the global North has limited our understanding of the real diversity of our species and the processes and events that guided different human groups throughout their evolutionary history. This perspective is part of a series of articles celebrating 40 yr since our journal, Molecular Biology and Evolution, was founded (Russo et al. 2024). The perspective is accompanied by virtual issues, a selection of papers on human diversification published by Genome Biology and Evolution and Molecular Biology and Evolution.

Race and statistics in facial recognition: Producing types, physical attributes, and genealogies

Principal component analysis (PCA) is a common statistical procedure. In forensics, it is used in facial recognition technologies and composite sketching systems. PCA is especially helpful in contexts with high facial diversity, which is often translated as racial diversity. In these settings, researchers use PCA to define a 'normal face' and organize the rest of the available facial diversity based on their resemblance to or difference from that norm. In this way, the use of PCA introduces an 'ontology of the normal' in which expectations about how a normal face should look are corroborated by statistical calculations of normality. I argue that the use of PCA can lead to a statistical reification of racial stereotypes that informs recognition practices. I discuss current and historical cases in which PCA is used: one of face perception theorization ('face space theory') and two of technology development (the 'eigenfaces' facial recognition algorithm and the 'EvoFIT' composite sketching system). In each, PCA aligns facial normality with racial expectations, and instrumentalizes race in specific ways: as a type, physical attribute, or genealogy. This analysis of PCA does two things. First, it opens the black box of facial recognition to uncover how stereotypes and intuitions about normality become part of theories and technologies of facial recognition. Second, it explains why racial categorizations remain central in contemporary identification technologies and other forensic practices.

Socioeconomic status significantly impacts childhood cancer survival in South Africa

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Significantly discrepant survival rates have been documented in single disease childhood cancer cohorts in South Africa; those from higher socioeconomic groups were shown to have a significantly lower risk of death than those from less affluent households. This study aimed to determine the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on childhood cancer survival using pooled South African data.

METHODS

Five databases spanning January 2000 to December 2021 were interrogated. SES status was assigned based on a public sector annual household income classification. H0 households (formally unemployed) received free healthcare. H1, H2 and H3 (annual income > United States Dollar [USD] 19,000) households paid for healthcare relative to their income. The Spearman test assessed correlations between SES and disease stage in patients with solid tumours. Hazard ratios were determined using Cox regression modelling. The Kaplan-Meier procedure estimated overall survival (OS).

RESULTS

A total of 1598 children were eligible for analysis; 1269 had a solid tumour with a negative correlation between SES and stage (Spearman rho = -.178; p < .001). Patients with solid tumours and lower SES showed proportionately higher numbers of stage III and IV disease (p < .01). This proportion decreased with higher SES categories. In the multivariate analyses adjusted for sex, age, tumour type and stage, higher SES was associated with lower mortality risk (p < .001), indicating that the impact of SES on survival was in excess of any effect that could be explained by lower stage disease alone. There was a strong positive correlation between race and SES (Fisher's exact tests, p < .001) across all groups and all SES strata. Five-year OS was 85.3% in children from H3 households versus 46.3% in children from H0 households (p < .001).

CONCLUSION

SES significantly impacts childhood cancer survival for children with solid tumours in South Africa. SES is a robust surrogate for race in South Africa as a prognostic metric of disease outcome in childhood cancer. Advocacy to increase social support for impoverished patients is essential to achieve equitable improvements in outcomes treated with standardised national treatment guidelines.

The Use of Race, Ethnicity, and Region Associations in a USMLE Step 1 Resource

Phenomenon: Mental shortcuts are commonly used in medical education to facilitate the learning and application of a large volume of information. However, the use of demographic identifiers such as race, ethnicity, region, and descent from one of these groups as mental shortcuts in association with disease can perpetuate misconceptions about the construction of these identities and reinforce stereotypes. The United States Medical Licensing Exam (USMLE) Step 1 is a major driver of pre-clinical undergraduate medical education that requires memorization of a large volume of information and application of this information to clinical vignettes. This study assesses how demographic identifiers have been used in a nearly universally used study resource for this exam. Approach: The authors analyzed First Aid for the USMLE Step 1 2020, Thirtieth Edition, a resource that contains "high yield facts" and was built and maintained based on experiences with the USMLE Step 1 for references to race, ethnicity, region, and descent from one of these groups and the distribution of skin tones used in photos. These findings were subsequently compared to the changes made in the 2021 edition of the resource. Findings: The authors found 50 references in the 2020 edition to race, ethnicity, region, and descent from one of these groups, all in relation to disease. More than half of these references had an associated heritable component. Black or African American race was disproportionately represented, comprising more than half of all racial associations (13/24). Additionally, light skin tone was used in 170/204 photos (84.2%) in the 2020 edition. In the 2021 edition, only 12/209 photos (5.7%) were new or changed. Insights: These findings highlight the trend to associate race with disease while also furthering the misconception that there are innate, heritable differences between socially constructed groups and establishing light skin tone as the norm. While some favorable changes were made to the 2021 text, further work within this resource and across medical education is required to avoid further misuse of race and challenge existing implicit biases.

Race, Ethnicity, and Pharmacogenomic Variation in the United States and the United Kingdom

The relevance of race and ethnicity to genetics and medicine has long been a matter of debate. An emerging consensus holds that race and ethnicity are social constructs and thus poor proxies for genetic diversity. The goal of this study was to evaluate the relationship between race, ethnicity, and clinically relevant pharmacogenomic variation in cosmopolitan populations. We studied racially and ethnically diverse cohorts of 65,120 participants from the United States All of Us Research Program (All of Us) and 31,396 participants from the United Kingdom Biobank (UKB). Genome-wide patterns of pharmacogenomic variation-6311 drug response-associated variants for All of Us and 5966 variants for UKB-were analyzed with machine learning classifiers to predict participants' self-identified race and ethnicity. Pharmacogenomic variation predicts race/ethnicity with averages of 92.1% accuracy for All of Us and 94.3% accuracy for UKB. Group-specific prediction accuracies range from 99.0% for the White group in UKB to 92.9% for the Hispanic group in All of Us. Prediction accuracies are substantially lower for individuals who identified with more than one group in All of Us (16.7%) or as Mixed in UKB (70.7%). There are numerous individual pharmacogenomic variants with large allele frequency differences between race/ethnicity groups in both cohorts. Frequency differences for toxicity-associated variants predict hundreds of adverse drug reactions per 1000 treated participants for minority groups in All of Us. Our results indicate that race and ethnicity can be used to stratify pharmacogenomic risk in the US and UK populations and should not be discounted when making treatment decisions. We resolve the contradiction between the results reported here and the orthodoxy of race and ethnicity as non-genetic, social constructs by emphasizing the distinction between global and local patterns of human genetic diversity, and we stress the current and future limitations of race and ethnicity as proxies for pharmacogenomic variation.

Where to draw the line? Expanding the delineation of conservation units to highly mobile taxa

Conservation units (CUs) are an essential tool for maximizing evolutionary potential and prioritizing areas across a species' range for protection when implementing conservation and management measures. However, current workflows for identifying CUs on the basis of neutral and adaptive genomic variation largely ignore information contained in patterns of isolation by distance (IBD), frequently the primary signal of population structure in highly mobile taxa, such as birds, bats, and marine organisms with pelagic larval stages. While individuals located on either end of a species' distribution may exhibit clear genetic, phenotypic, and ecological differences, IBD produces subtle changes in allele frequencies across space, making it difficult to draw clear boundaries for conservation purposes in the absence of discrete population structure. Here, we highlight potential pitfalls that arise when applying common methods for delineating CUs to continuously distributed organisms and review existing methods for detecting subtle breakpoints in patterns of IBD that can indicate barriers to gene flow in highly mobile taxa. In addition, we propose a new framework for identifying CUs in all organisms, including those characterized by continuous genomic differentiation, and suggest several possible ways to harness the information contained in patterns of IBD to guide conservation and management decisions.

Exploration of the ancestral inference effectiveness of 126 SNPs and the genetic feature of Inner Mongolian Manchu population

In addition to the validated ancestry-informative single nucleotide polymorphisms (AI-SNPs) in classic panels, there are many new potential AI-SNPs yet to be explored. Moreover, the search for AI-SNPs with high discriminatory power for ancestry inference in inter- and intra-continental populations has become a realistic need. In this study, 126 novel AI-SNPs were selected to distinguish the African, European, Central/South Asian and East Asian populations, and a random forest model was introduced to assess the performance of the AI-SNP set. This set was further used in the genetic analysis of the Manchu people in Inner Mongolia, China, based on 79 reference populations from seven continental regions. Results showed that the 126 AI-SNPs were able to achieve the ancestry inference for African, East Asian, European, and Central/South Asian populations. Genetic analyses indicated that Inner Mongolian Manchus were genetically typical of East Asians and were more closely related to the northern Han Chinese and Japanese than to other Altaic-speaking populations. Overall, this study provided a selection of new promising loci for ancestry inference of major intercontinental populations and intracontinental subgroups, as well as genetic insights and valuable data for dissecting the genetic structure of the Inner Mongolian Manchu group.

Racism: Eroding the health of Black communities

ABSTRACT

Even in the context of major advances in medicine, racial minorities continue to suffer worse medical outcomes. Although race is defined as a social, nonscientific construct, researchers have continued to use it as proxy to explain genetic and evolutionary differences among patients. Poorer health outcomes among Black Americans are known to be related to the psychosocial and physiological stress of racism. Black communities experience premature health deterioration because of the cumulative effects of social, economic, and political oppression and marginalization. Additionally, recent assertions that racism is best seen as a chronic disease has added value to understanding the effect of racism on the health of Black people. Using evidence-based information to assess the health of Black patients is a key step to assist clinicians in promptly addressing this chronic threat to the health of Black patients.

Attitudes and beliefs regarding race-targeted genetic testing of Black people: A systematic review

Geographical ancestry has been associated with an increased risk of various genetic conditions. Race and ethnicity often have been used as proxies for geographical ancestry. Despite numerous problems associated with the crude reliance on race and ethnicity as proxies for geographical ancestry, some genetic testing in the clinical, research, and employment settings has been and continues to be race- or ethnicity-based. Race-based or race-targeted genetic testing refers to genetic testing offered only or primarily to people of particular racial or ethnic groups because of presumed differences among groups. One current example is APOL1 testing of Black kidney donors. Race-based genetic testing raises numerous ethical and policy questions. Given the ongoing reliance on the Black race in genetic testing, it is important to understand the views of people who identify as Black or are identified as Black (including African American, Afro-Caribbean, and Hispanic Black) regarding race-based genetic testing that targets Black people because of their race. We conducted a systematic review of studies and reports of stakeholder-engaged projects that examined how people who identify as or are identified as Black perceive genetic testing that specifically presumes genetic differences exist among racial groups or uses race as a surrogate for ancestral genetic variation and targets Black people. Our review identified 14 studies that explicitly studied this question and another 13 that implicitly or tacitly studied this matter. We found four main factors that contribute to a positive attitude toward race-targeted genetic testing (facilitators) and eight main factors that are associated with concerns regarding race-targeted genetic testing (barriers). This review fills an important gap. These findings should inform future genetic research and the policies and practices developed in clinical, research, public health, or other settings regarding genetic testing.

Barriers to and Facilitators of Early Hearing Detection and Intervention in the United States: A Systematic Review

OBJECTIVES

Early hearing detection and intervention (EHDI) is guided by the 1-3-6 approach: screening by one month, diagnosis by 3 mo, and early intervention (EI) enrollment by 6 mo. Although screening rates remain high, successful diagnosis and EI-enrollment lag in comparison. The aim of this systematic review is to critically examine and synthesize the barriers to and facilitators of EHDI that exist for families, as they navigate the journey of congenital hearing loss diagnosis and management in the United States. Understanding barriers across each and all stages is necessary for EHDI stakeholders to develop and test novel approaches which will effectively reduce barriers to early hearing healthcare.

DESIGN

A systematic literature search was completed in May and August 2021 for empirical articles focusing on screening, diagnosis, and EI of children with hearing loss. Two independent reviewers completed title and abstract screening, full-text review, data extraction, and quality assessments with a third independent reviewer establishing consensus at each stage. Data synthesis was completed using the Framework Analysis approach to categorize articles into EHDI journey timepoints and individual/family-level factors versus system-level factors.

RESULTS

Sixty-two studies were included in the narrative synthesis. Results revealed that both individual/family-level (e.g., economic stability, medical status of the infant including middle ear involvement) and system-level barriers (e.g., system-service capacity, provider knowledge, and program quality) hinder timely diagnosis and EI for congenital hearing loss. Specific social determinants of health were noted as barriers to effective EHDI; however, system-level facilitators such as care coordination, colocation of services, and family support programs have been shown to mitigate the negative impact of those sociodemographic factors.

CONCLUSIONS

Many barriers exist for families to obtain appropriate and timely EHDI for their children, but system-level changes could facilitate the process and contribute to long-term outcomes improvement. Limitations of this study include limited generalizability due to the heterogeneity of EHDI programs and an inability to ascertain factor interactions.

Pathogenomics of Helicobacter pylori

The human stomach bacterium Helicobacter pylori, the causative agent of gastritis, ulcers and adenocarcinoma, possesses very high genetic diversity. H. pylori has been associated with anatomically modern humans since their origins over 100,000 years ago and has co-evolved with its human host ever since. Predominantly intrafamilial and local transmission, along with genetic isolation, genetic drift, and selection have facilitated the development of distinct bacterial populations that are characteristic for large geographical areas. H. pylori utilizes a large arsenal of virulence and colonization factors to mediate the interaction with its host. Those include various adhesins, the vacuolating cytotoxin VacA, urease, serine protease HtrA, the cytotoxin-associated genes pathogenicity island (cagPAI)-encoded type-IV secretion system and its effector protein CagA, all of which contribute to disease development. While many pathogenicity-related factors are present in all strains, some belong to the auxiliary genome and are associated with specific phylogeographic populations. H. pylori is naturally competent for DNA uptake and recombination, and its genome evolution is driven by extraordinarily high recombination and mutation rates that are by far exceeding those in other bacteria. Comparative genome analyses revealed that adaptation of H. pylori to individual hosts is associated with strong selection for particular protein variants that facilitate immune evasion, especially in surface-exposed and in secreted virulence factors. Recent studies identified single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in H. pylori that are associated with the development of severe gastric disease, including gastric cancer. Here, we review the current knowledge about the pathogenomics of H. pylori.

Challenges in selecting admixture models and marker sets to infer genetic ancestry in a Brazilian admixed population

The inference of genetic ancestry plays an increasingly prominent role in clinical, population, and forensic genetics studies. Several genotyping strategies and analytical methodologies have been developed over the last few decades to assign individuals to specific biogeographic regions. However, despite these efforts, ancestry inference in populations with a recent history of admixture, such as those in Brazil, remains a challenge. In admixed populations, proportion and components of genetic ancestry vary on different levels: (i) between populations; (ii) between individuals of the same population, and (iii) throughout the individual's genome. The present study evaluated 1171 admixed Brazilian samples to compare the genetic ancestry inferred by tri-/tetra-hybrid admixture models and evaluated different marker sets from those with small numbers of ancestry informative markers panels (AIMs), to high-density SNPs (HDSNP) and whole-genome-sequence (WGS) data. Analyses revealed greater variation in the correlation coefficient of ancestry components within and between admixed populations, especially for minority ancestral components. We also observed positive correlation between the number of markers in the AIMs panel and HDSNP/WGS. Furthermore, the greater the number of markers, the more accurate the tri-/tetra-hybrid admixture models.

New strategies for characterizing genetic structure in wide-ranging, continuously distributed species: A Greater Sage-grouse case study

Characterizing genetic structure across a species’ range is relevant for management and conservation as it can be used to define population boundaries and quantify connectivity. Wide-ranging species residing in continuously distributed habitat pose substantial challenges for the characterization of genetic structure as many analytical methods used are less effective when isolation by distance is an underlying biological pattern. Here, we illustrate strategies for overcoming these challenges using a species of significant conservation concern, the Greater Sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), providing a new method to identify centers of genetic differentiation and combining multiple methods to help inform management and conservation strategies for this and other such species. Our objectives were to (1) describe large-scale patterns of population genetic structure and gene flow and (2) to characterize genetic subpopulation centers across the range of Greater Sage-grouse. Samples from 2,134 individuals were genotyped at 15 microsatellite loci. Using standard STRUCTURE and spatial principal components analyses, we found evidence for four or six areas of large-scale genetic differentiation and, following our novel method, 12 subpopulation centers of differentiation. Gene flow was greater, and differentiation reduced in areas of contiguous habitat (eastern Montana, most of Wyoming, much of Oregon, Nevada, and parts of Idaho). As expected, areas of fragmented habitat such as in Utah (with 6 subpopulation centers) exhibited the greatest genetic differentiation and lowest effective migration. The subpopulation centers defined here could be monitored to maintain genetic diversity and connectivity with other subpopulation centers. Many areas outside subpopulation centers are contact zones where different genetic groups converge and could be priorities for maintaining overall connectivity. Our novel method and process of leveraging multiple different analyses to find common genetic patterns provides a path forward to characterizing genetic structure in wide-ranging, continuously distributed species.

KLFDAPC: a supervised machine learning approach for spatial genetic structure analysis

Geographic patterns of human genetic variation provide important insights into human evolution and disease. A commonly used tool to detect and describe them is principal component analysis (PCA) or the supervised linear discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC). However, genetic features produced from both approaches could fail to correctly characterize population structure for complex scenarios involving admixture. In this study, we introduce Kernel Local Fisher Discriminant Analysis of Principal Components (KLFDAPC), a supervised non-linear approach for inferring individual geographic genetic structure that could rectify the limitations of these approaches by preserving the multimodal space of samples. We tested the power of KLFDAPC to infer population structure and to predict individual geographic origin using neural networks. Simulation results showed that KLFDAPC has higher discriminatory power than PCA and DAPC. The application of our method to empirical European and East Asian genome-wide genetic datasets indicated that the first two reduced features of KLFDAPC correctly recapitulated the geography of individuals and significantly improved the accuracy of predicting individual geographic origin when compared to PCA and DAPC. Therefore, KLFDAPC can be useful for geographic ancestry inference, design of genome scans and correction for spatial stratification in GWAS that link genes to adaptation or disease susceptibility.

Considerations for the Use of Race in Research in Obstetrics and Gynecology

The race variable in research has been the topic of debate in both research and clinical realms. The tension surrounding the discourse of the use of race in research stem from the difficulties in defining race, the limitations of the variable, and the implications for health and racial equity. In this review, we dissect the challenges faced when incorporating race into research and offer a guide for incorporating race in research in a manner that promotes racial and health equity.

Re-situations of scientific knowledge: a case study of a skirmish over clusters vs clines in human population genomics

We track and analyze the re-situation of scientific knowledge in the field of human population genomics ancestry studies. We understand re-situation as a process of accommodating the direct or indirect transfer of objects of knowledge from one site/situation to (one or many) other sites/situations. Our take on the concept borrows from Mary S. Morgan's work on facts traveling while expanding it to include other objects of knowledge such as models, data, software, findings, and visualizations. We structure a specific case study by tracking the re-situation of these objects between three research projects studying human population diversity reported in three articles in Science, Genome Research and PLoS Genetics between 2002 and 2005. We characterize these three engagements as a unit of analysis, a "skirmish," in order to compare: (a) the divergence of interests in how life-scientists answer similar research questions and (b) to track the challenging transformation of workflows in research laboratories as these scientific objects are re-situated individually or in bundles. Our analysis of the case study shows that an accurate understanding of re-situation requires tracking the whole bundle of objects in a project because they interact in particular key ways. The absence or dismissal of these interactions opens the door to unforeseen trade-offs, misunderstandings and misrepresentations about research design(s) and workflow(s) and what these say about the questions asked and the findings produced.

A geometric relationship of F 2 , F 3 and F 4 -statistics with principal component analysis

Principal component analysis (PCA) and F -statistics sensu Patterson are two of the most widely used population genetic tools to study human genetic variation. Here, I derive explicit connections between the two approaches and show that these two methods are closely related. F -statistics have a simple geometrical interpretation in the context of PCA, and orthogonal projections are a key concept to establish this link. I show that for any pair of populations, any population that is admixed as determined by an F 3 -statistic will lie inside a circle on a PCA plot. Furthermore, the F 4 -statistic is closely related to an angle measurement, and will be zero if the differences between pairs of populations intersect at a right angle in PCA space. I illustrate my results on two examples, one of Western Eurasian, and one of global human diversity. In both examples, I find that the first few PCs are sufficient to approximate most F -statistics, and that PCA plots are effective at predicting F -statistics. Thus, while F -statistics are commonly understood in terms of discrete populations, the geometric perspective illustrates that they can be viewed in a framework of populations that vary in a more continuous manner.

This article is part of the theme issue ‘Celebrating 50 years since Lewontin's apportionment of human diversity’.

A biosocial return to race? A cautionary view for the postgenomic era

Recent studies demonstrating epigenetic and developmental sensitivity to early environments, as exemplified by fields like the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) and environmental epigenetics, are bringing new data and models to bear on debates about race, genetics, and society. Here, we first survey the historical prominence of models of environmental determinism in early formulations of racial thinking to illustrate how notions of direct environmental effects on bodies have been used to naturalize racial hierarchy and inequalities in the past. Next, we conduct a scoping review of postgenomic work in environmental epigenetics and DOHaD that looks at the role of race/ethnicity in human health (2000–2021). Although there is substantial heterogeneity in how race is conceptualized and interpreted across studies, we observe practices that may unwittingly encourage typological thinking, including: using DNA methylation as a novel marker of racial classification; neglect of variation and reversibility within supposedly homogenous racial groups; and a tendency to label and reify whole groups as pathologized or impaired. Even in the very different politico‐economic and epistemic context of contemporary postgenomic science, these trends echo deeply held beliefs in Western thinking which claimed that different environments shape different bodies and then used this logic to argue for essential differences between Europeans and non‐Europeans. We conclude with a series of suggestions on interpreting and reporting findings in these fields that we feel will help researchers harness this work to benefit disadvantaged groups while avoiding the inadvertent dissemination of new and old forms of stigma or prejudice.

Use of Race in Kidney Research and Medicine: Concepts, Principles, and Practice

Black Americans and other racially and ethnically minoritized individuals are disproportionately burdened by higher morbidity and mortality from kidney disease when compared with their White peers. Yet, kidney researchers and clinicians have struggled to fully explain or rectify causes of these inequalities. Many studies have sought to identify hypothesized genetic and/or ancestral origins of biologic or behavioral deficits as singular explanations for racial and ethnic inequalities in kidney health. However, these approaches reinforce essentialist beliefs that racial groups are inherently biologically and behaviorally different. These approaches also often conflate the complex interactions of individual-level biologic differences with aggregated population-level disparities that are due to structural racism (i.e., sociopolitical policies and practices that created and perpetuate harmful health outcomes through inequities of opportunities and resources). We review foundational misconceptions about race, racism, genetics, and ancestry that shape research and clinical practice with a focus on kidney disease and related health outcomes. We also provide recommendations on how to embed key equity-enhancing concepts, terms, and principles into research, clinical practice, and medical publishing standards.

A framework for research into continental ancestry groups of the UK Biobank

BACKGROUND

The UK Biobank is a large prospective cohort, based in the UK, that has deep phenotypic and genomic data on roughly a half a million individuals. Included in this resource are data on approximately 78,000 individuals with "non-white British ancestry." While most epidemiology studies have focused predominantly on populations of European ancestry, there is an opportunity to contribute to the study of health and disease for a broader segment of the population by making use of the UK Biobank's "non-white British ancestry" samples. Here, we present an empirical description of the continental ancestry and population structure among the individuals in this UK Biobank subset.

RESULTS

Reference populations from the 1000 Genomes Project for Africa, Europe, East Asia, and South Asia were used to estimate ancestry for each individual. Those with at least 80% ancestry in one of these four continental ancestry groups were taken forward (N = 62,484). Principal component and K-means clustering analyses were used to identify and characterize population structure within each ancestry group. Of the approximately 78,000 individuals in the UK Biobank that are of "non-white British" ancestry, 50,685, 6653, 2782, and 2364 individuals were associated to the European, African, South Asian, and East Asian continental ancestry groups, respectively. Each continental ancestry group exhibits prominent population structure that is consistent with self-reported country of birth data and geography.

CONCLUSIONS

Methods outlined here provide an avenue to leverage UK Biobank's deeply phenotyped data allowing researchers to maximize its potential in the study of health and disease in individuals of non-white British ancestry.

Review of the Forensic Applicability of Biostatistical Methods for Inferring Ancestry from Autosomal Genetic Markers

The inference of ancestry has become a part of the services many forensic genetic laboratories provide. Interest in ancestry may be to provide investigative leads or identify the region of origin in cases of unidentified missing persons. There exist many biostatistical methods developed for the study of population structure in the area of population genetics. However, the challenges and questions are slightly different in the context of forensic genetics, where the origin of a specific sample is of interest compared to the understanding of population histories and genealogies. In this paper, the methodologies for modelling population admixture and inferring ancestral populations are reviewed with a focus on their strengths and weaknesses in relation to ancestry inference in the forensic context.

Academic Medicine's Journey Toward Racial Equity Must Be Grounded in History: Recommendations for Becoming an Antiracist Academic Medical Center

The harsh realities of racial inequities related to COVID-19 and civil unrest following police killings of unarmed Black men and women in the United States in 2020 heightened awareness of racial injustices around the world. Racism is deeply embedded in academic medicine, yet the nobility of medicine and nursing has helped health care professionals distance themselves from racism. Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC), like many U.S. academic medical centers, affirmed its commitment to racial equity in summer 2020. A Racial Equity Task Force was charged with identifying barriers to achieving racial equity at the medical center and medical school and recommending key actions to rectify long-standing racial inequities. The task force, composed of students, staff, and faculty, produced more than 60 recommendations, and its work brought to light critical areas that need to be addressed in academic medicine broadly. To dismantle structural racism, academic medicine must: (1) confront medicine's racist past, which has embedded racial inequities in the U.S. health care system; (2) develop and require health care professionals to possess core competencies in the health impacts of structural racism; (3) recognize race as a sociocultural and political construct, and commit to debiologizing its use; (4) invest in benefits and resources for health care workers in lower-paid roles, in which racial and ethnic minorities are often overrepresented; and (5) commit to antiracism at all levels, including changing institutional policies, starting at the executive leadership level with a vision, metrics, and accountability.

Connectomics in Brain Aging and Dementia - The Background and Design of a Study of a Connectome Related to Human Disease

The natural history of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) includes significant alterations in the human connectome, and this disconnection results in the dementia of AD. The organizing principle of our research project is the idea that the expression of cognitive dysfunction in the elderly is the result of two independent processes — the neuropathology associated with AD, and second the neuropathological changes of cerebrovascular disease. Synaptic loss, senile plaques, and neurofibrillary tangles are the functional and diagnostic hallmarks of AD, but it is the structural changes as a consequence of vascular disease that reduce brain reserve and compensation, resulting in an earlier expression of the clinical dementia syndrome. This work is being completed under the auspices of the Human Connectome Project (HCP). We have achieved an equal representation of Black individuals (vs. White individuals) and enrolled 60% Women. Each of the participants contributes demographic, behavioral and laboratory data. We acquire data relative to vascular risk, and the participants also undergo in vivo amyloid imaging, and magnetoencephalography (MEG). All of the data are publicly available under the HCP guidelines using the Connectome Coordinating Facility and the NIMH Data Archive. Locally, we use these data to address specific questions related to structure, function, AD, aging and vascular disease in multi-modality studies leveraging the differential advantages of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), MEG, and in vivo beta amyloid imaging.

The Propagation of Racial Disparities in Cardiovascular Genomics Research

Genomics research has improved our understanding of the genetic basis for human traits and diseases. This progress is now being translated into clinical care as we move toward a future of precision medicine. Many hope that expanded use of genomic testing will improve disease screening, diagnosis, risk stratification, and treatment. In many respects, cardiovascular medicine is leading this charge. However, most cardiovascular genomics research has been conducted in populations of primarily European ancestry. This bias has critical downstream effects. Here, we review the current disparities in cardiovascular genomics research, and we outline how these disparities propagate forward through all phases of the translational pipeline. If not adequately addressed, biases in genomics research will further compound the existing health disparities that face underrepresented and marginalized populations.

A century of genetic homogenization in Baltic salmon-evidence from archival DNA

Intra-species genetic homogenization arising from anthropogenic impacts is a major threat to biodiversity. However, few taxa have sufficient historical material to systematically quantify long-term genetic changes. Using archival DNA collected over approximately 100 years, we assessed spatio-temporal genetic change in Atlantic salmon populations across the Baltic Sea, an area heavily impacted by hydropower exploitation and associated with large-scale mitigation stocking. Analysis was carried out by screening 82 SNPs in 1680 individuals from 13 Swedish rivers. We found an overall decrease in genetic divergence and diminished isolation by distance among populations, strongly indicating genetic homogenization over the past century. We further observed an increase in genetic diversity within populations consistent with increased gene flow. The temporal genetic change was lower in larger wild populations than in smaller wild and hatchery-reared ones, indicating that larger populations have been able to support a high number of native spawners in relation to immigrants. Our results demonstrate that stocking practices of salmon in the Baltic Sea have led to the homogenization of populations over the last century, potentially compromising their ability to adapt to environmental change. Stocking of reared fish is common worldwide, and our study is a cautionary example of the potentially long-term negative effects of such activities.

Recent genetic connectivity and clinal variation in chimpanzees

Much like humans, chimpanzees occupy diverse habitats and exhibit extensive behavioural variability. However, chimpanzees are recognized as a discontinuous species, with four subspecies separated by historical geographic barriers. Nevertheless, their range-wide degree of genetic connectivity remains poorly resolved, mainly due to sampling limitations. By analyzing a geographically comprehensive sample set amplified at microsatellite markers that inform recent population history, we found that isolation by distance explains most of the range-wide genetic structure of chimpanzees. Furthermore, we did not identify spatial discontinuities corresponding with the recognized subspecies, suggesting that some of the subspecies-delineating geographic barriers were recently permeable to gene flow. Substantial range-wide genetic connectivity is consistent with the hypothesis that behavioural flexibility is a salient driver of chimpanzee responses to changing environmental conditions. Finally, our observation of strong local differentiation associated with recent anthropogenic pressures portends future loss of critical genetic diversity if habitat fragmentation and population isolation continue unabated.

Janus-faced race: Is race biological, social, or mythical?

As belief in the reality of race as a biological category among U.S. anthropologists has fallen, belief in the reality of race as a social category has risen in its place. The view that race simply does not exist-that it is a myth-is treated with suspicion. While racial classification is linked to many of the worst evils of recent history, it is now widely believed to be necessary to fight back against racism. In this article, I argue that race is indeed a biological fiction, but I critique the claim that race is socially real. I defend a form of anti-realist reconstructionism about race, which says that there are no races, only racialized groups-groups mistakenly believed to be races. I argue that this is the most attractive position about race from a metaphysical perspective, and that it is also the position most conductive to public understanding and social justice.

Population structure and pharmacogenomic risk stratification in the United States

BACKGROUND

Pharmacogenomic (PGx) variants mediate how individuals respond to medication, and response differences among racial/ethnic groups have been attributed to patterns of PGx diversity. We hypothesized that genetic ancestry (GA) would provide higher resolution for stratifying PGx risk, since it serves as a more reliable surrogate for genetic diversity than self-identified race/ethnicity (SIRE), which includes a substantial social component. We analyzed a cohort of 8628 individuals from the United States (US), for whom we had both SIRE information and whole genome genotypes, with a focus on the three largest SIRE groups in the US: White, Black (African-American), and Hispanic (Latino). Our approach to the question of PGx risk stratification entailed the integration of two distinct methodologies: population genetics and evidence-based medicine. This integrated approach allowed us to consider the clinical implications for the observed patterns of PGx variation found within and between population groups.

RESULTS

Whole genome genotypes were used to characterize individuals' continental ancestry fractions-European, African, and Native American-and individuals were grouped according to their GA profiles. SIRE and GA groups were found to be highly concordant. Continental ancestry predicts individuals' SIRE with > 96% accuracy, and accordingly, GA provides only a marginal increase in resolution for PGx risk stratification. In light of the concordance between SIRE and GA, taken together with the fact that information on SIRE is readily available to clinicians, we evaluated PGx variation between SIRE groups to explore the potential clinical utility of race and ethnicity. PGx variants are highly diverged compared to the genomic background; 82 variants show significant frequency differences among SIRE groups, and genome-wide patterns of PGx variation are almost entirely concordant with SIRE. The vast majority of PGx variation is found within rather than between groups, a well-established fact for almost all genetic variants, which is often taken to argue against the clinical utility of population stratification. Nevertheless, analysis of highly differentiated PGx variants illustrates how SIRE partitions PGx variation based on groups' characteristic ancestry patterns. These cases underscore the extent to which SIRE carries clinically valuable information for stratifying PGx risk among populations, albeit with less utility for predicting individual-level PGx alleles (genotypes), supporting the concept of population pharmacogenomics.

CONCLUSIONS

Perhaps most interestingly, we show that individuals who identify as Black or Hispanic stand to gain far more from the consideration of race/ethnicity in treatment decisions than individuals from the majority White population.

Chicago Face Database: Multiracial expansion

Multiracial individuals represent a growing segment of the population and have been increasingly the focus of empirical study. Much of this research centers on the perception and racial categorization of multiracial individuals. The current paper reviews some of this research and describes the different types of stimuli that have been used in these paradigms. We describe the strengths and weaknesses associated with different operationalizations of multiracialism and highlight the dearth of research using faces of real multiracial individuals, which we posit may be due to the lack of available stimuli. Our research seeks to satisfy this need by providing a free set of high-resolution, standardized images featuring 88 real multiracial individuals along with extensive norming data and objective physical measures of these faces. These data are offered as an extension of the widely used Chicago Face Database and are available for download at www.chicagofaces.org for use in research.

Leveraging genetic ancestry to study health disparities

Research to understand human genomic variation and its implications in health has great potential to contribute in the reduction of health disparities. Biological anthropology can play important roles in genomics and health disparities research using a biocultural approach. This paper argues that racial/ethnic categories should not be used as a surrogate for sociocultural factors or global genomic clusters in biomedical research or clinical settings, because of the high genetic heterogeneity that exists within traditional racial/ethnic groups. Genetic ancestry is used to show variation in ancestral genomic contributions to recently admixed populations in the United States, such as African Americans and Hispanic/Latino Americans. Genetic ancestry estimates are also used to examine the relationship between ancestry‐related biological and sociocultural factors affecting health disparities. To localize areas of genomes that contribute to health disparities, admixture mapping and genome‐wide association studies (GWAS) are often used. Recent GWAS have identified many genetic variants that are highly differentiated among human populations that are associated with disease risk. Some of these are population‐specific variants. Many of these variants may impact disease risk and help explain a portion of the difference in disease burden among racial/ethnic groups. Genetic ancestry is also of particular interest in precision medicine and disparities in drug efficacy and outcomes. By using genetic ancestry, we can learn about potential biological differences that may contribute to the heterogeneity observed across self‐reported racial groups.

Special Issue: Race reconciled II: Interpreting and communicating biological variation and race in 2021

Liaison of Sugar Control With Time to Sputum Culture Conversion in Multi-Drug Resistant Tuberculosis

Background

Many elements have been studied repeatedly that influence time to sputum culture conversion in multi-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB). Deranged sugars not only hamper one’s infection contesting ability but also increase the chances of drug resistance. Our aim was to establish whether or not glycemic control alters MDR-TB treatment outcome.

Methods

A prospective cohort study was conducted at the TB Clinic of Jinnah Postgraduate Medical Center, Karachi, Pakistan. Newly diagnosed MDR-TB cases were started on WHO-recommended treatment regime. HbA1c (hemoglobin A1c or glycated hemoglobin) was tested at the start of treatment irrespective of the previous diabetic status. Sputum samples, 30 days apart, were taken during the initial phase of the MDR TB treatment until two consecutive samples showed conversion. Pearson's correlation coefficient was calculated to see the link between time to sputum culture conversion and HbA1c.

Results

Among 47 patients, 19 (40.4%) new cases, whereas 28 (59.8%) were previously treated for drug-sensitive TB. Our 39 patients converted during six months, of which 18 (46%) converted in one month, 14 (35.9%) in two months, 6 (15.4%) in three months, and only 1 in five months. Mean time to sputum culture conversion was 1.77 ± 0.9 months. There was a slightly negative correlation between HbA1c and sputum culture conversion time (r = -0.075, p = 0.649).

Conclusions

Sugar control does not affect sputum culture conversion in MDR-TB when an optimal treatment regime is applied.

Racial/ethnic and geographic differences in polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) levels across maternal, placental, and fetal tissues during mid-gestation

Prenatal polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) exposures are a public health concern due to their persistence and potential for reproductive and developmental harm. However, we have little information about the extent of fetal exposures during critical developmental periods and the variation in exposures for groups that may be more highly exposed, such as communities of color and lower socioeconomic status (SES). To characterize maternal-fetal PBDE exposures among potentially vulnerable groups, PBDE levels were examined in the largest sample of matched maternal serum, placenta, and fetal liver tissues during mid-gestation among a geographically, racially/ethnically, and socially diverse population of pregnant women from Northern California and the Central Valley (n = 180; 2014-16). Maternal-fetal PBDE levels were compared to population characteristics using censored Kendall's tau correlation and linear regression. PBDEs were commonly detected in all biomatrices. Before lipid adjustment, wet-weight levels of all four PBDE congeners were highest in the fetal liver (p < 0.001), whereas median PBDE levels were significantly higher in maternal serum than in the fetal liver or placenta after lipid-adjustment (p < 0.001). We also found evidence of racial/ethnic disparities in PBDE exposures (Non-Hispanic Black > Latina/Hispanic > Non-Hispanic White > Asian/Pacific Islander/Other; p < 0.01), with higher levels of BDE-100 and BDE-153 among non-Hispanic Black women compared to the referent group (Latina/Hispanic women). In addition, participants living in Fresno/South Central Valley had 34% (95% CI: - 2.4 to 84%, p = 0.07) higher wet-weight levels of BDE-47 than residents living in the San Francisco Bay Area. PBDEs are widely detected and differentially distributed in maternal-fetal compartments. Non-Hispanic Black pregnant women and women from Southern Central Valley geographical populations may be more highly exposed to PBDEs. Further research is needed to identify sources that may be contributing to differential exposures and associated health risks among these vulnerable populations.

Nose approximation among South African groups from cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) using a new computer-assisted method based on automatic landmarking

Considering the high demand for the identification of unknown remains in South Africa, a need exists to establish reliable facial approximation techniques that will take into account sex and age and, most importantly, be useful within the South African context. This study aimed to provide accurate statistical models for predicting nasal soft-tissue shape from information about the underlying skull subtract among a South African sample. The database containing 200 cone-beam computer tomography (CBCT) scans (100 black South Africans and 100 white South Africans). The acquisition and extraction of the 3D relevant anatomical structures (hard- and soft-tissue) were performed by an automated three-dimensional (3D) method based on an automatic dense landmarking procedure using MeVisLab © v. 2.7.1 software. An evaluation of shape differences attributed to known factors (ancestry, sex, size, and age) was performed using geometric morphometric and statistical models of prediction were created using a Projection onto Latent Structures Regression (PLSR) algorithm. The accuracy of the estimated soft-tissue nose was evaluated in terms of metric deviations on training and un-trained datasets. Our findings demonstrated the influence of factors (sex, aging, and allometry) on the variability of the hard- and soft-tissue among two South African population groups. This research provides accurate statistical models optimized by including additional information such as ancestry, sex, and age. When using the landmark-to landmark distances, the prediction errors ranged between 1.769mm and 2.164mm for black South Africans at the tip of the nose and the alae, while they ranged from 2.068mm to 2.175mm for the white subsample. The prediction errors on un-trained data were slightly larger, ranging between 2.139mm and 2.833mm for the black South African sample at the tip of the nose and the alae and ranging from 2.575mm to 2.859mm for the white South African sample. This research demonstrates the utilization of an automated 3Dmethod based on an automatic landmarking method as a convenient prerequisite for providing a valid and reliable nose prediction model that meets population-specific standards for South Africans.

Influence of Paleolithic range contraction, admixture and long-distance dispersal on genetic gradients of modern humans in Asia

Cavalli-Sforza and coauthors originally explored the genetic variation of modern humans throughout the world and observed an overall east-west genetic gradient in Asia. However, the specific environmental and population genetics processes causing this gradient were not formally investigated and promoted discussion in recent studies. Here we studied the influence of diverse environmental and population genetics processes on Asian genetic gradients and identified which could have produced the observed gradient. To do so, we performed extensive spatially-explicit computer simulations of genetic data under the following scenarios: (a) variable levels of admixture between Paleolithic and Neolithic populations, (b) migration through long-distance dispersal (LDD), (c) Paleolithic range contraction induced by the last glacial maximum (LGM), and (d) Neolithic range expansions from one or two geographic origins (the Fertile Crescent and the Yangzi and Yellow River Basins). Next, we estimated genetic gradients from the simulated data and we found that they were sensible to the analysed processes, especially to the range contraction induced by LGM and to the number of Neolithic expansions. Some scenarios were compatible with the observed east-west genetic gradient, such as the Paleolithic expansion with a range contraction induced by the LGM or two Neolithic range expansions from both the east and the west. In general, LDD increased the variance of genetic gradients among simulations. We interpreted the obtained gradients as a consequence of both allele surfing caused by range expansions and isolation by distance along the vast east-west geographic axis of this continent.

Importance of Genetic Studies of Cardiometabolic Disease in Diverse Populations

Genome-wide association studies have revolutionized our understanding of the genetic underpinnings of cardiometabolic disease. Yet, the inadequate representation of individuals of diverse ancestral backgrounds in these studies may undercut their ultimate potential for both public health and precision medicine. The goal of this review is to describe the imperativeness of studying the populations who are most affected by cardiometabolic disease, to the aim of better understanding the genetic underpinnings of the disease. We support this premise by describing the current variation in the global burden of cardiometabolic disease and emphasize the importance of building a globally and ancestrally representative genetics evidence base for the identification of population-specific variants, fine-mapping, and polygenic risk score estimation. We discuss the important ethical, legal, and social implications of increasing ancestral diversity in genetic studies of cardiometabolic disease and the challenges that arise from the (1) lack of diversity in current reference populations and available analytic samples and the (2) unequal generation of health-associated genomic data and their prediction accuracies. Despite these challenges, we conclude that additional, unprecedented opportunities lie ahead for public health genomics and the realization of precision medicine, provided that the gap in diversity can be systematically addressed. Achieving this goal will require concerted efforts by social, academic, professional and regulatory stakeholders and communities, and these efforts must be based on principles of equity and social justice.

Tentacular Faces: Race and the Return of the Phenotype in Forensic Identification

The face, just like DNA, is taken to represent a unique individual. This article proposes to move beyond this representational model and to attend to the work that a face can do. I introduce the concept of tentacularity to capture the multiple works accomplished by the face. Drawing on the example of DNA phenotyping, which is used to produce a composite face of an unknown suspect, I first show that this novel technology does not so much produce the face of an individual suspect but that of a suspect population. Second, I demonstrate how the face draws the interest of diverse publics, who with their gaze flesh out its content and contours; the face engages and yields an affective response. I argue that the biologization of appearance by way of the face contributes to the racialization of populations. [race, phenotype, material‐semiotics, facial typologies, forensics genetics, DNA phenotyping]

Genetic Landscapes Reveal How Human Genetic Diversity Aligns with Geography

Geographic patterns in human genetic diversity carry footprints of population history and provide insights for genetic medicine and its application across human populations. Summarizing and visually representing these patterns of diversity has been a persistent goal for human geneticists, and has revealed that genetic differentiation is frequently correlated with geographic distance. However, most analytical methods to represent population structure do not incorporate geography directly, and it must be considered post hoc alongside a visual summary of the genetic structure. Here, we estimate "effective migration" surfaces to visualize how human genetic diversity is geographically structured. The results reveal local patterns of differentiation in detail and emphasize that while genetic similarity generally decays with geographic distance, the relationship is often subtly distorted. Overall, the visualizations provide a new perspective on genetics and geography in humans and insight to the geographic distribution of human genetic variation.

What have the revelations about Neanderthal DNA revealed about Homo sapiens?

Genetic studies have presented increasing indications about the complexity of the interactions between Homo sapiens, Neanderthals and Denisovans, during Pleistocene. The results indicate potential replacement or admixture of the groups of hominins that lived in the same region at different times. Recently, the time of separation among these hominins in relation to the Last Common Ancestor – LCA has been reasonably well established. Events of mixing with emphasis on the Neanderthal gene flow into H. sapiens outside Africa, Denisovans into H. sapiens ancestors in Oceania and continental Asia, Neanderthals into Denisovans, as well as the origin of some phenotypic features in specific populations such as the color of the skin, eyes, hair and predisposition to develop certain kinds of diseases have also been found. The current information supports the existence of both replacement and interbreeding events, and indicates the need to revise the two main explanatory models, the Multiregional and the Out-of-Africa hypotheses, about the origin and evolution of H. sapiens and its co-relatives. There is definitely no longer the possibility of justifying only one model over the other. This paper aims to provide a brief review and update on the debate around this issue, considering the advances brought about by the recent genetic as well as morphological traits analyses.

Genetic Polymorphisms of Pharmacogenes among the Genetically Isolated Circassian Subpopulation from Jordan

Several genetic variants have been identified that cause variation among different populations and even within individuals of a similar descent. This leads to interindividual variations in the optimal dose of the drug that is required to sustain the treatment efficiency. In this study, 56 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within several pharmacogenes were analyzed in 128 unrelated subjects from a genetically isolated group of Circassian people living in Jordan. We also compared these variant distributions to other ethnic groups that are available at two databases (Genome 1000 and eXAC). Our results revealed that the distribution of allele frequencies within genes among Circassians in Jordan showed similarities and disparities when compared to other populations. This study provides a powerful base for clinically relevant SNPs to enhance medical research and future pharmacogenomic studies. Rare variants detected in isolated populations can significantly guide to novel loci involved in the development of clinically relevant traits.

New insights into population structure of the European golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) revealed by microsatellite analysis

Connectivity between golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) populations is poorly understood. Field studies exploring natal dispersal suggest that this raptor is a philopatric species, but with the ability to roam far. However, little is known about the population structure of the species in Europe. Our study is based on 14 microsatellite loci and is complemented by new and previously published mitochondrial control region DNA data. The present dataset includes 121 eagles from Scotland, Norway, Finland, Estonia, the Mediterranean and Alpine regions. Our sampling focused on the Alpine and Mediterranean populations because both mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages found in golden eagles, the Holarctic and the Mediterranean, are known to co-occur there. Cluster analyses of nuclear DNA support a shallow split into northern and southern populations in Europe, similar to the distribution of the two mtDNA lineages, with the Holarctic lineage occurring in the north and the Mediterranean lineage predominating in the south. Additionally, Scotland shows significant differentiation and low relative migration levels that indicate isolation from the mainland populations. Alpine and Mediterranean golden eagles do not show nuclear structure corresponding to divergent mtDNA lineages. This indicates that the presence of northern Holarctic mitochondrial haplotypes in the Alps and the Mediterranean is attributable to past admixture rather than recent long-distance dispersal.

Genetic Polymorphisms of Pharmacogenomic VIP Variants in the Circassian Subpopulation from Jordan

BACKGROUND

It has been suggested that genetic variation within candidate pharmacogenes contributes to the differences in drug safety and efficacy as well as risk of adverse drug reactions among different ethnic groups. Illustrating the polymorphic distribution of Very Important Pharmacogenes (VIPs) in various ethnic groups will contribute to the development of personalized medicine for those populations.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to identify the polymorphic distribution of VIPs in the Circassian subpopulation of Jordan and compare their allele frequencies with those of other populations.

METHODS

A total of 130 healthy and unrelated Circassian adults from Jordan were randomly recruited and genotyped for eleven VIP variants within the thiopurine S-methyltransferase (TPMT), ATP-binding cassette, sub-family B, member 1 (ABCB1), and vitamin D receptor (VDR) genes via Sequenom's MassARRAY® genotyping platform (iPLEX GOLD).

RESULTS

Our data on the allelic frequencies of the investigated VIP variants were compared to those of 18 other populations, comprising 11 HapMap populations, 6 Exome Aggregation Consortium populations, and the Chechen- Jordanian population from Jordan. Circassian-Jordanians were found to most resemble the African, Chechen- Jordanian, European (Finnish), European (non-Finnish), and South-Asian populations.

CONCLUSION

Circassians from Jordan significantly differ from other populations in terms of the allelic frequencies of selected VIP variants. The present findings constitute the first set of pharmacogenetic data for Circassian population from Jordan, providing a basis for safe drug administration that may be useful in diagnosing and treating diseases in this ethnic group.