ARABIDOPSIS TRITHORAX-RELATED7 is required for methylation of lysine 4 of histone H3 and for transcriptional activation of FLOWERING LOCUS C

Histone modifications affecting plant dormancy and dormancy release: common regulatory effects on hormone metabolism

As sessile organisms, plants enter periods of dormancy in response to environmental stresses to ensure continued growth and reproduction in the future. During dormancy, plant growth is suppressed, adaptive/survival mechanisms are exerted, and stress tolerance increases over a prolonged period until the plants resume their development or reproduction under favorable conditions. In this review, we focus on seed dormancy and bud dormancy, which are critical for adaptation to fluctuating environmental conditions. We provide an overview of the physiological characteristics of both types of dormancy as well as the importance of the phytohormones abscisic acid and gibberellin for establishing and releasing dormancy, respectively. Additionally, recent epigenetic analyses have revealed that dormancy establishment and release are associated with the removal and deposition of histone modifications at the loci of key regulatory genes influencing phytohormone metabolism and signaling, including DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 and DORMANCY-ASSOCIATED MADS-box genes. We discuss our current understanding of the physiological and molecular mechanisms required to establish and release seed dormancy and bud dormancy, while also describing how environmental conditions control dormancy depth, with a focus on the effects of histone modifications.

A novel strategy to map a locus associated with flowering time in canola (Brassica napus L.)

Flowering time is an important agronomic trait for canola breeders, as it provides growers with options for minimizing exposure to heat stress during flowering and to more effectively utilize soil moisture. Plants have evolved various systems to control seasonal rhythms in reproductive phenology including an internal circadian clock that responds to environmental signals. In this study, we used canola cultivar 'Westar' as a recurrent parent and canola cultivar 'Surpass 400' as the donor parent to generate a chromosome segment substitution line (CSSL) and to map a flowering time locus on chromosome A10 using molecular marker-assisted selection. This CSSL contains an introgressed 4.6 mega-bases (Mb) segment (between 13 and 17.6 Mb) of Surpass 400, which substantially delayed flowering compared with Westar. To map flowering time gene(s) within this locus, eight introgression lines (ILs) were developed carrying a series of different lengths of introgressed chromosome A10 segments using five co-dominant polymorphic markers located at 13.5, 14.0, 14.5, 15.0, 15.5, and 16.0 Mb. Eight ILs were crossed with Westar reciprocally and flowering time of resultant 16 F1 hybrids and parents were evaluated in a greenhouse (2021 and 2022). Four ILs (IL005, IL017, IL035, and IL013) showed delayed flowering compared to Westar (P < 0.0001), and their reciprocal crosses displayed a phenotype intermediate in flowering time of both homozygote parents. These results indicated that flowering time is partial or incomplete dominance, and the flowering time locus mapped within a 1 Mb region between two co-dominant polymorphic markers at 14.5-15.5 Mb on chromosome A10. The flowering time locus was delineated to be between 14.60 and 15.5 Mb based on genotypic data at the crossover site, and candidate genes within this region are associated with flowering time in canola and/or Arabidopsis. The co-dominant markers identified on chromosome A10 should be useful for marker assisted selection in breeding programs but will need to be validated to other breeding populations or germplasm accessions of canola.

Decoding histone 3 lysine methylation: Insights into seed germination and flowering

Histone lysine methylation is a highly conserved epigenetic modification across eukaryotes that contributes to creating different dynamic chromatin states, which may result in transcriptional changes. Over the years, an accumulated set of evidence has shown that histone methylation allows plants to align their development with their surroundings, enabling them to respond and memorize past events due to changes in the environment. In this review, we discuss the molecular mechanisms of histone methylation in plants. Writers, readers, and erasers of Arabidopsis histone methylation marks are described with an emphasis on their role in two of the most important developmental transition phases in plants, seed germination and flowering. Further, the crosstalk between different methylation marks is also discussed. An overview of the mechanisms of histone methylation modifications and their biological outcomes will shed light on existing research gaps and may provide novel perspectives to increase crop yield and resistance in the era of global climate change.

H3K36 methyltransferase GhKMT3;1a and GhKMT3;2a promote flowering in upland cotton

BACKGROUND

The SET domain group (SDG) genes encode histone lysine methyltransferases, which regulate gene transcription by altering chromatin structure and play pivotal roles in plant flowering determination. However, few studies have investigated their role in the regulation of flowering in upland cotton.

RESULTS

A total of 86 SDG genes were identified through genome-wide analysis in upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum). These genes were unevenly distributed across 25 chromosomes. Cluster analysis revealed that the 86 GhSDGs were divided into seven main branches. RNA-seq data and qRT‒PCR analysis revealed that lysine methyltransferase 3 (KMT3) genes were expressed at high levels in stamens, pistils and other floral organs. Using virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS), functional characterization of GhKMT3;1a and GhKMT3;2a revealed that, compared with those of the controls, the GhKMT3;1a- and GhKMT3;2a-silenced plants exhibited later budding and flowering and lower plant heightwere shorter. In addition, the expression of flowering-related genes (GhAP1, GhSOC1 and GhFT) significantly decreased and the expression level of GhSVP significantly increased in the GhKMT3;1a- and GhKMT3;2a-silenced plants compared with the control plants.

CONCLUSION

A total of 86 SDG genes were identified in upland cotton, among which GhKMT3;1a and GhKMT3;2a might regulate flowering by affecting the expression of GhAP1, GhSOC1, GhFT and GhSVP. These findings will provide genetic resources for advanced molecular breeding in the future.

Proximal termination generates a transcriptional state that determines the rate of establishment of Polycomb silencing

The mechanisms and timescales controlling de novo establishment of chromatin-mediated transcriptional silencing by Polycomb repressive complex 2 (PRC2) are unclear. Here, we investigate PRC2 silencing at Arabidopsis FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC), known to involve co-transcriptional RNA processing, histone demethylation activity, and PRC2 function, but so far not mechanistically connected. We develop and test a computational model describing proximal polyadenylation/termination mediated by the RNA-binding protein FCA that induces H3K4me1 removal by the histone demethylase FLD. H3K4me1 removal feeds back to reduce RNA polymerase II (RNA Pol II) processivity and thus enhance early termination, thereby repressing productive transcription. The model predicts that this transcription-coupled repression controls the level of transcriptional antagonism to PRC2 action. Thus, the effectiveness of this repression dictates the timescale for establishment of PRC2/H3K27me3 silencing. We experimentally validate these mechanistic model predictions, revealing that co-transcriptional processing sets the level of productive transcription at the locus, which then determines the rate of the ON-to-OFF switch to PRC2 silencing.

A COMPASS histone H3K4 trimethyltransferase pentamer transactivates drought tolerance and growth/biomass production in Populus trichocarpa

Histone H3 lysine-4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) activating drought-responsive genes in plants for drought adaptation has long been established, but the underlying regulatory mechanisms are unknown. Here, using yeast two-hybrid, bimolecular fluorescence complementation, biochemical analyses, transient and CRISPR-mediated transgenesis in Populus trichocarpa, we unveiled in this adaptation a regulatory interplay between chromatin regulation and gene transactivation mediated by an epigenetic determinant, a PtrSDG2-1-PtrCOMPASS (complex proteins associated with Set1)-like H3K4me3 complex, PtrSDG2-1-PtrWDR5a-1-PtrRbBP5-1-PtrAsh2-2 (PtrSWRA). Under drought conditions, a transcription factor PtrAREB1-2 interacts with PtrSWRA, forming a PtrSWRA-PtrAREB1-2 pentamer, to recruit PtrSWRA to specific promoter elements of drought-tolerant genes, such as PtrHox2, PtrHox46, and PtrHox52, for depositing H3K4me3 to promote and maintain activated state of such genes for tolerance. CRISPR-edited defects in the pentamer impaired drought tolerance and elevated expression of PtrHox2, PtrHox46, or PtrHox52 improved the tolerance as well as growth in P. trichocarpa. Our findings revealed the identity of the underlying H3K4 trimethyltransferase and its interactive arrangement with the COMPASS for catalysis specificity and efficiency. Furthermore, our study uncovered how the H3K4 trimethyltransferase-COMPASS complex is recruited to the effector genes for elevating H3K4me3 marks for improved drought tolerance and growth/biomass production in plants.

Plant histone variants at the nexus of chromatin readouts, stress and development

Histones are crucial proteins that are involved in packaging the DNA as condensed chromatin inside the eukaryotic cell nucleus. Rather than being static packaging units, these molecules undergo drastic variations spatially and temporally to facilitate accessibility of DNA to replication, transcription as well as wide range of gene regulatory machineries. In addition, incorporation of paralogous variants of canonical histones in the chromatin is ascribed to specific functions. Given the peculiar requirement of plants to rapidly modulate gene expression levels on account of their sessile nature, histones and their variants serve as additional layers of gene regulation. This review summarizes the mechanisms and implications of distribution, modifications and differential incorporation of histones and their variants across plant genomes, and outlines emerging themes.

Oligosaccharide production and signaling correlate with delayed flowering in an Arabidopsis genotype grown and selected in high [CO2]

Since industrialization began, atmospheric CO2 ([CO2]) has increased from 270 to 415 ppm and is projected to reach 800-1000 ppm this century. Some Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) genotypes delayed flowering in elevated [CO2] relative to current [CO2], while others showed no change or accelerations. To predict genotype-specific flowering behaviors, we must understand the mechanisms driving flowering response to rising [CO2]. [CO2] changes alter photosynthesis and carbohydrates in plants. Plants sense carbohydrate levels, and exogenous carbohydrate application influences flowering time and flowering transcript levels. We asked how organismal changes in carbohydrates and transcription correlate with changes in flowering time under elevated [CO2]. We used a genotype (SG) of Arabidopsis that was selected for high fitness at elevated [CO2] (700 ppm). SG delays flowering under elevated [CO2] (700 ppm) relative to current [CO2] (400 ppm). We compared SG to a closely related control genotype (CG) that shows no [CO2]-induced flowering change. We compared metabolomic and transcriptomic profiles in these genotypes at current and elevated [CO2] to assess correlations with flowering in these conditions. While both genotypes altered carbohydrates in response to elevated [CO2], SG had higher levels of sucrose than CG and showed a stronger increase in glucose and fructose in elevated [CO2]. Both genotypes demonstrated transcriptional changes, with CG increasing genes related to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate breakdown, amino acid synthesis, and secondary metabolites; and SG decreasing genes related to starch and sugar metabolism, but increasing genes involved in oligosaccharide production and sugar modifications. Genes associated with flowering regulation within the photoperiod, vernalization, and meristem identity pathways were altered in these genotypes. Elevated [CO2] may alter carbohydrates to influence transcription in both genotypes and delayed flowering in SG. Changes in the oligosaccharide pool may contribute to delayed flowering in SG. This work extends the literature exploring genotypic-specific flowering responses to elevated [CO2].

Cotranscriptional demethylation induces global loss of H3K4me2 from active genes in Arabidopsis

Based on studies of animals and yeasts, methylation of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me1/2/3, for mono-, di-, and tri-methylation, respectively) is regarded as the key epigenetic modification of transcriptionally active genes. In plants, however, H3K4me2 correlates negatively with transcription, and the regulatory mechanisms of this counterintuitive H3K4me2 distribution in plants remain largely unexplored. A previous genetic screen for factors regulating plant regeneration identified Arabidopsis LYSINE-SPECIFIC DEMETHYLASE 1-LIKE 3 (LDL3), which is a major H3K4me2 demethylase. Here, we show that LDL3-mediated H3K4me2 demethylation depends on the transcription elongation factor Paf1C and phosphorylation of the C-terminal domain (CTD) of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII). In addition, LDL3 binds to phosphorylated RNAPII. These results suggest that LDL3 is recruited to transcribed genes by binding to elongating RNAPII and demethylates H3K4me2 cotranscriptionally. Importantly, the negative correlation between H3K4me2 and transcription is significantly attenuated in the ldl3 mutant, demonstrating the genome-wide impacts of the transcription-driven LDL3 pathway to control H3K4me2 in plants. Our findings implicate H3K4me2 demethylation in plants as chromatin records of transcriptional activity, which ensures robust gene control.

Dynamics of epigenetic control in plants via SET domain containing proteins: Structural and functional insights

Plants control expression of their genes in a way that involves manipulating the chromatin structural dynamics in order to adapt to environmental changes and carry out developmental processes. Histone modifications like histone methylation are significant epigenetic marks which profoundly and globally modify chromatin, potentially affecting the expression of several genes. Methylation of histones is catalyzed by histone lysine methyltransferases (HKMTs), that features an evolutionary conserved domain known as SET [Su(var)3-9, E(Z), Trithorax]. This methylation is directed at particular lysine (K) residues on H3 or H4 histone. Plant SET domain group (SDG) proteins are categorized into different classes that have been conserved through evolution, and each class have specificity that influences how the chromatin structure operates. The domains discovered in plant SET domain proteins have typically been linked to protein-protein interactions, suggesting that majority of the SDGs function in complexes. Additionally, SDG-mediated histone mark deposition also affects alternative splicing events. In present review, we discussed the diversity of SDGs in plants including their structural properties. Additionally, we have provided comprehensive summary of the functions of the SDG-domain containing proteins in plant developmental processes and response to environmental stimuli have also been highlighted.

Identification and validation of new MADS-box homologous genes in 3010 rice pan-genome

KEY MESSAGE

Identification and validation of ten new MADS-box homologous genes in 3010 rice pan-genome for rice breeding. The functional genome is significant for rice breeding. MADS-box genes encode transcription factors that are indispensable for rice growth and development. The reported 15,362 novel genes in the rice pan-genome (RPAN) of Asian cultivated rice accessions provided a useful gene reservoir for the identification of more MADS-box candidates to overcome the limitation for the usage of only 75 MADS-box genes identified in Nipponbare for rice breeding. Here, we report the identification and validation of ten MADS-box homologous genes in RPAN. Origin and identity analysis indicated that they are originated from different wild rice accessions and structure of motif analysis revealed high variations in their amino acid sequences. Phylogenetic results with 277 MADS-box genes in 41 species showed that all these ten MADS-box homologous genes belong to type I (SRF-like, M-type). Gene expression analysis confirmed the existence of these ten MADS-box genes in IRIS_313-10,394, all of them were expressed in flower tissues, and six of them were highly expressed during seed development. Altogether, we identified and validated experimentally, for the first time, ten novel MADS-box genes in RPAN, which provides new genetic sources for rice improvement.

The trithorax group factor ULTRAPETALA1 controls flower and leaf development in woodland strawberry

The trithorax group (TrxG) factors play a critical role in the regulation of gene transcription by modulating histone methylation. However, the biological functions of the TrxG components are poorly characterized in different plant species. In this work, we identified three allelic ethyl methane-sulfonate-induced mutants P7, R67 and M3 in the woodland strawberry Fragaria vesca. These mutants show an increased number of floral organs, a lower pollination rate, raised achenes on the surface of the receptacle and increased leaf complexity. The causative gene is FvH4_6g44900, which contains severe mutations leading to premature stop codons or alternative splicing in each mutant. This gene encodes a protein with high similarity to ULTRAPETALA1, a component of the TrxG complex, and is therefore named as FveULT1. Yeast-two-hybrid and split-luciferase assays revealed that FveULT1 can physically interact with the TrxG factor FveATX1 and the PcG repressive complex 2 (PRC2) accessory protein FveEMF1. Transcriptome analysis revealed that several MADS-box genes, FveLFY and FveUFO were significantly up-regulated in fveult1 flower buds. The leaf development genes FveKNOXs, FveLFYa and SIMPLE LEAF1 were strongly induced in fveult1 leaves, and their promoter regions showed increased H3K4me3 levels and decreased H3K27me3 levels in fveult1 compared to WT. Taken together, our results demonstrate that FveULT1 is important for flower, fruit and leaf development and highlight the potential regulatory functions of histone methylation in strawberry.

Histone H3K4 methyltransferase DcATX1 promotes ethylene induced petal senescence in carnation

Petal senescence is controlled by a complex regulatory network. Epigenetic regulation like histone modification influences chromatin state and gene expression. However, the involvement of histone methylation in regulating petal senescence remains poorly understood. Here, we found that the trimethylation of histone H3 at Lysine 4 (H3K4me3) is increased during ethylene-induced petal senescence in carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.). H3K4me3 levels were positively associated with the expression of transcription factor DcWRKY75, ethylene biosynthetic genes 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase (DcACS1), and ACC oxidase (DcACO1), and senescence associated genes (SAGs) DcSAG12 and DcSAG29. Further, we identified that carnation ARABIDOPSIS HOMOLOG OF TRITHORAX1 (DcATX1) encodes a histone lysine methyltransferase which can methylate H3K4. Knockdown of DcATX1 delayed ethylene-induced petal senescence in carnation, which was associated with the down-regulated expression of DcWRKY75, DcACO1, and DcSAG12, whereas overexpression of DcATX1 exhibited the opposite effects. DcATX1 promoted the transcription of DcWRKY75, DcACO1, and DcSAG12 by elevating the H3K4me3 levels within their promoters. Overall, our results demonstrate that DcATX1 is a H3K4 methyltransferase that promotes the expression of DcWRKY75, DcACO1, DcSAG12 and potentially other downstream target genes by regulating H3K4me3 levels, thereby accelerating ethylene-induced petal senescence in carnation. This study further indicates that epigenetic regulation is important for plant senescence processes.

PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING FACTORS are involved in starch degradation adjustment via inhibition of the carbon metabolic regulator QUA-QUINE STARCH in Arabidopsis

As sessile organisms, plants encounter dynamic and challenging environments daily, including abiotic/biotic stresses. The regulation of carbon and nitrogen allocations for the synthesis of plant proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids is fundamental for plant growth and adaption to its surroundings. Light, one of the essential environmental signals, exerts a substantial impact on plant metabolism and resource partitioning (i.e., starch). However, it is not fully understood how light signaling affects carbohydrate production and allocation in plant growth and development. An orphan gene unique to Arabidopsis thaliana, named QUA-QUINE STARCH (QQS) is involved in the metabolic processes for partitioning of carbon and nitrogen among proteins and carbohydrates, thus influencing leaf, seed composition, and plant defense in Arabidopsis. In this study, we show that PHYTOCHROME-INTERACTING bHLH TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS (PIFs), including PIF4, are required to suppress QQS during the period at dawn, thus preventing overconsumption of starch reserves. QQS expression is significantly de-repressed in pif4 and pifQ, while repressed by overexpression of PIF4, suggesting that PIF4 and its close homologs (PIF1, PIF3, and PIF5) act as negative regulators of QQS expression. In addition, we show that the evening complex, including ELF3 is required for active expression of QQS, thus playing a positive role in starch catabolism during night-time. Furthermore, QQS is epigenetically suppressed by DNA methylation machinery, whereas histone H3 K4 methyltransferases (e.g., ATX1, ATX2, and ATXR7) and H3 acetyltransferases (e.g., HAC1 and HAC5) are involved in the expression of QQS. This study demonstrates that PIF light signaling factors help plants utilize optimal amounts of starch during the night and prevent overconsumption of starch before its biosynthesis during the upcoming day.

The noncoding RNA HIDDEN TREASURE 1 promotes phytochrome B-dependent seed germination by repressing abscisic acid biosynthesis

Light is a major environmental factor for seed germination. Red light-activated phytochrome B (phyB) promotes seed germination by modulating the dynamic balance of two phytohormones, gibberellic acid (GA) and abscisic acid (ABA). How phyB modulates ABA biosynthesis after perceiving a light signal is not yet well understood. Here, we identified the noncoding RNA HIDDEN TREASURE 1 (HID1) as a repressor of ABA biosynthesis acting downstream of phyB during Arabidopsis thaliana seed germination. Loss of HID1 function led to delayed phyB-dependent seed germination. Photoactivated phyB promoted the accumulation of HID1 in the radicle within 48 h of imbibition. Our transcriptomics analysis showed that HID1 and phyB co-regulate the transcription of a common set of genes involved in ABA and GA metabolism. Through a forward genetic screen, we identified three ABA biosynthesis genes, ABA DEFICIENT 1 (ABA1), ABA2, and ABA3, as suppressors of HID1. We further demonstrated that HID1 directly inhibits the transcription of 9-CIS-EPOXYCAROTENOID DIOXYGENASE (NCED9), a gene encoding a key rate-limiting enzyme of ABA biosynthesis. HID1 interacts with ARABIDOPSIS TRITHORAX-RELATED7 (ATXR7), an H3K4me3 methyltransferase, inhibiting its occupancy and H3K4me3 modification at the NCED9 locus. Our study reveals a nuclear mechanism of phyB signaling transmitted through HID1 to control the internal homeostasis of ABA and GA, which gradually optimizes the transcriptional network during seed germination.

Genetic and epigenetic control of the plant metabolome

Plant metabolites are mainly produced through chemical reactions catalysed by enzymes encoded in the genome. Mutations in enzyme-encoding or transcription factor-encoding genes can alter the metabolome by changing the enzyme's catalytic activity or abundance, respectively. Insertion of transposable elements into non-coding regions has also been reported to affect transcription and ultimately metabolite content. In addition to genetic mutations, transgenerational epigenetic variations have also been found to affect metabolic content by controlling the transcription of metabolism-related genes. However, the majority of cases reported so far, in which epigenetic mechanisms are associated with metabolism, are non-transgenerational, and are triggered by developmental signals or environmental stress. Although, accumulating research has provided evidence of strong genetic control of the metabolome, epigenetic control has been largely untouched. Here, we provide a review of the genetic and epigenetic control of metabolism with a focus on epigenetics. We discuss both transgenerational and non-transgenerational epigenetic marks regulating metabolism as well as prospects of the field of metabolic control where intricate interactions between genetics and epigenetics are involved.

Genome-wide screening and characterization of long noncoding RNAs involved in flowering/bolting of Lactuca sativa

BACKGROUND

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is considered the most important vegetable in the leafy vegetable group. However, bolting affects quality, gives it a bitter taste, and as a result makes it inedible. Bolting is an event induced by the coordinated effects of various environmental factors and endogenous genetic components. Although bolting/flowering responsive genes have been identified in most sensitive and non-sensitive species, non-coding RNA molecules like long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have not been investigated in lettuce. Hence, in this study, potential long non-coding RNAs that regulate flowering /bolting were investigated in two lettuce strains S24 (resistant strain) and S39 (susceptible strain) in different flowering times to better understand the regulation of lettuce bolting mechanism. For this purpose, we used two RNA-seq datasets to discover the lncRNA transcriptome profile during the transition from vegetative to reproductive phase.

RESULTS

For identifying unannotated transcripts in these datasets, a 7-step pipeline was employed to filter out these transcripts and terminate with 293 novel lncRNAs predicted by PLncPRO and CREMA. These transcripts were then utilized to predict cis and trans flowering-associated targets and Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analysis. Computational predictions of target gene function showed the involvement of putative flowering-related genes and enrichment of the floral regulators FLC, CO, FT, and SOC1 in both datasets. Finally, 17 and 18 lncRNAs were proposed as competing endogenous target mimics (eTMs) for novel and known lncRNA miRNAs, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Overall, this study provides new insights into lncRNAs that control the flowering time of plants known for bolting, such as lettuce, and opens new windows for further study.

A Green Light to Switch on Genes: Revisiting Trithorax on Plants

The Trithorax Group (TrxG) is a highly conserved multiprotein activation complex, initially defined by its antagonistic activity with the PcG repressor complex. TrxG regulates transcriptional activation by the deposition of H3K4me3 and H3K36me3 marks. According to the function and evolutionary origin, several proteins have been defined as TrxG in plants; nevertheless, little is known about their interactions and if they can form TrxG complexes. Recent evidence suggests the existence of new TrxG components as well as new interactions of some TrxG complexes that may be acting in specific tissues in plants. In this review, we bring together the latest research on the topic, exploring the interactions and roles of TrxG proteins at different developmental stages, required for the fine-tuned transcriptional activation of genes at the right time and place. Shedding light on the molecular mechanism by which TrxG is recruited and regulates transcription.

Arabidopsis Trithorax histone methyltransferases are redundant in regulating development and DNA methylation

Although the Trithorax histone methyltransferases ATX1-5 are known to regulate development and stress responses by catalyzing histone H3K4 methylation in Arabidopsis thaliana, it is unknown whether and how these histone methyltransferases affect DNA methylation. Here, we found that the redundant ATX1-5 proteins are not only required for plant development and viability but also for the regulation of DNA methylation. The expression and H3K4me3 levels of both RNA-directed DNA methylation (RdDM) genes (NRPE1, DCL3, IDN2, and IDP2) and active DNA demethylation genes (ROS1, DML2, and DML3) were downregulated in the atx1/2/4/5 mutant. Consistent with the facts that the active DNA demethylation pathway mediates DNA demethylation mainly at CG and CHG sites, and that the RdDM pathway mediates DNA methylation mainly at CHH sites, whole-genome DNA methylation analyses showed that hyper-CG and CHG DMRs in atx1/2/4/5 significantly overlapped with those in the DNA demethylation pathway mutant ros1 dml2 dml3 (rdd), and that hypo-CHH DMRs in atx1/2/4/5 significantly overlapped with those in the RdDM mutant nrpe1, suggesting that the ATX paralogues function redundantly to regulate DNA methylation by promoting H3K4me3 levels and expression levels of both RdDM genes and active DNA demethylation genes. Given that the ATX proteins function as catalytic subunits of COMPASS histone methyltransferase complexes, we also demonstrated that the COMPASS complex components function as a whole to regulate DNA methylation. This study reveals a previously uncharacterized mechanism underlying the regulation of DNA methylation.

Histone methyltransferases SDG33 and SDG34 regulate organ-specific nitrogen responses in tomato

Histone posttranslational modifications shape the chromatin landscape of the plant genome and affect gene expression in response to developmental and environmental cues. To date, the role of histone modifications in regulating plant responses to environmental nutrient availability, especially in agriculturally important species, remains largely unknown. We describe the functions of two histone lysine methyltransferases, SET Domain Group 33 (SDG33) and SDG34, in mediating nitrogen (N) responses of shoots and roots in tomato. By comparing the transcriptomes of CRISPR edited tomato lines sdg33 and sdg34 with wild-type plants under N-supplied and N-starved conditions, we uncovered that SDG33 and SDG34 regulate overlapping yet distinct downstream gene targets. In response to N level changes, both SDG33 and SDG34 mediate gene regulation in an organ-specific manner: in roots, SDG33 and SDG34 regulate a gene network including Nitrate Transporter 1.1 (NRT1.1) and Small Auxin Up-regulated RNA (SAUR) genes. In agreement with this, mutations in sdg33 or sdg34 abolish the root growth response triggered by an N-supply; In shoots, SDG33 and SDG34 affect the expression of photosynthesis genes and photosynthetic parameters in response to N. Our analysis thus revealed that SDG33 and SDG34 regulate N-responsive gene expression and physiological changes in an organ-specific manner, thus presenting previously unknown candidate genes as targets for selection and engineering to improve N uptake and usage in crop plants.

Transcription-coupled and epigenome-encoded mechanisms direct H3K4 methylation

Mono-, di-, and trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me1/2/3) are associated with transcription, yet it remains controversial whether H3K4me1/2/3 promote or result from transcription. Our previous characterizations of Arabidopsis H3K4 demethylases suggest roles for H3K4me1 in transcription. However, the control of H3K4me1 remains unexplored in Arabidopsis, in which no methyltransferase for H3K4me1 has been identified. Here, we identify three Arabidopsis methyltransferases that direct H3K4me1. Analyses of their genome-wide localization using ChIP-seq and machine learning reveal that one of the enzymes cooperates with the transcription machinery, while the other two are associated with specific histone modifications and DNA sequences. Importantly, these two types of localization patterns are also found for the other H3K4 methyltransferases in Arabidopsis and mice. These results suggest that H3K4me1/2/3 are established and maintained via interplay with transcription as well as inputs from other chromatin features, presumably enabling elaborate gene control.

H3K4me3 plays a key role in establishing permissive chromatin states during bud dormancy and bud break in apple

Bud dormancy helps woody perennials survive winter and activate robust plant development in the spring. For apple (Malus × domestica), short-term chilling induces bud dormancy in autumn, then prolonged chilling leads to dormancy release and a shift to a quiescent state in winter, with subsequent warm periods promoting bud break in spring. Epigenetic regulation contributes to seasonal responses such as vernalization. However, how histone modifications integrate seasonal cues and internal signals during bud dormancy in woody perennials remains largely unknown. Here, we show that H3K4me3 plays a key role in establishing permissive chromatin states during bud dormancy and bud break in apple. The global changes in gene expression strongly correlated with changes in H3K4me3, but not H3K27me3. High expression of DORMANCY-ASSOCIATED MADS-box (DAM) genes, key regulators of dormancy, in autumn was associated with high H3K4me3 levels. In addition, known DAM/SHORT VEGETATIVE PHASE (SVP) target genes significantly overlapped with H3K4me3-modified genes as bud dormancy progressed. These data suggest that H3K4me3 contributes to the central dormancy circuit, consisting of DAM/SVP and abscisic acid (ABA), in autumn. In winter, the lower expression and H3K4me3 levels at DAMs and gibberellin metabolism genes control chilling-induced release of dormancy. Warming conditions in spring facilitate the expression of genes related to phytohormones, the cell cycle, and cell wall modification by increasing H3K4me3 toward bud break. Our study also revealed that activation of auxin and repression of ABA sensitivity in spring are conditioned at least partly through temperature-mediated epigenetic regulation in winter.

PICKLE associates with histone deacetylase 9 to mediate vegetative phase change in Arabidopsis

The juvenile-to-adult vegetative phase change in flowering plants is mediated by a decrease in miR156 levels. Downregulation of MIR156A/MIR156C, the two major sources of miR156, is accompanied by a decrease in acetylation of histone 3 lysine 27 (H3K27ac) and an increase in trimethylation of H3K27 (H3K27me3) at MIR156A/MIR156C in Arabidopsis. Here, we show that histone deacetylase 9 (HDA9) is recruited to MIR156A/MIR156C during the juvenile phase and associates with the CHD3 chromatin remodeler PICKLE (PKL) to erase H3K27ac at MIR156A/MIR156C. H2Aub and H3K27me3 become enriched at MIR156A/MIR156C, and the recruitment of Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2) to MIR156A/MIR156C is partially dependent on the activities of PKL and HDA9. Our results suggest that PKL associates with histone deacetylases to erase H3K27ac and promote PRC1 and PRC2 activities to mediate vegetative phase change and maintain plants in the adult phase after the phase transition.

Characterization of an autonomous pathway complex that promotes flowering in Arabidopsis

Although previous studies have identified several autonomous pathway components that are required for the promotion of flowering, little is known about how these components cooperate. Here, we identified an autonomous pathway complex (AuPC) containing both known components (FLD, LD and SDG26) and previously unknown components (EFL2, EFL4 and APRF1). Loss-of-function mutations of all of these components result in increased FLC expression and delayed flowering. The delayed-flowering phenotype is independent of photoperiod and can be overcome by vernalization, confirming that the complex specifically functions in the autonomous pathway. Chromatin immunoprecipitation combined with sequencing indicated that, in the AuPC mutants, the histone modifications (H3Ac, H3K4me3 and H3K36me3) associated with transcriptional activation are increased, and the histone modification (H3K27me3) associated with transcriptional repression is reduced, suggesting that the AuPC suppresses FLC expression at least partially by regulating these histone modifications. Moreover, we found that the AuPC component SDG26 associates with FLC chromatin via a previously uncharacterized DNA-binding domain and regulates FLC expression and flowering time independently of its histone methyltransferase activity. Together, these results provide a framework for understanding the molecular mechanism by which the autonomous pathway regulates flowering time.

DELAY OF GERMINATION 1 (DOG1) regulates dormancy in dimorphic seeds of Xanthium strumarium

Seed dormancy ensures plant survival but many mechanisms remain unclear. A high-throughput RNA-seq analysis investigated the mechanisms involved in the establishment of dormancy in dimorphic seeds of Xanthium strumarium (L.) developing in one single burr. Results showed that DOG1 , the main dormancy gene in Arabidopsis thaliana L., was over-represented in the dormant seed leading to the formation of two seeds with different cell wall properties. Less expression of DME /EMB1649 , UBP26 , EMF2, MOM, SNL2, and AGO4 in the non-dormant seed was observed, which function in the chromatin remodelling of dormancy-associated genes through DNA methylation. However, higher levels of ATXR7 /SDG25, ELF6 , and JMJ16/PKDM7D in the non-dormant seed that act at the level of histone demethylation and activate germination were found. Dramatically lower expression in the splicing factors SUA, PWI , and FY in non-dormant seed may indicate that variation in RNA splicing for ABA sensitivity and transcriptional elongation control of DOG1 is of importance for inducing seed dormancy. Seed size and germination may be influenced by respiratory factors, and alterations in ABA content and auxin distribution and responses. TOR (a serine/threonine-protein kinase) is likely at the centre of a regulatory hub controlling seed metabolism, maturation, and germination. Over-representation of the respiration-associated genes (ACO3 , PEPC3 , and D2HGDH ) was detected in non-dormant seed, suggesting differential energy supplies in the two seeds. Degradation of ABA biosynthesis and/or proper auxin signalling in the large seed may control germinability, and suppression of endoreduplication in the small seed may be a mechanism for cell differentiation and cell size determination.

The diverse roles of histone 2B monoubiquitination in the life of plants

Covalent modification of histones is an important tool for gene transcriptional control in eukaryotes, which coordinates growth, development, and adaptation to environmental changes. In recent years, an important role for monoubiquitination of histone 2B (H2B) has emerged in plants, where it is associated with transcriptional activation. In this review, we discuss the dynamics of the H2B monoubiquitination system in plants and its role in regulating developmental processes including flowering, circadian rhythm, photomorphogenesis, and the response to abiotic and biotic stress including drought, salinity, and fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens. Furthermore, we highlight the crosstalk between H2B monoubiquitination and other histone modifications which fine-tunes transcription and ensures developmental plasticity. Finally, we put into perspective how this versatile regulatory mechanism can be developed as a useful tool for crop improvement.

Structure and mechanism of histone methylation dynamics in Arabidopsis

Histone methylation plays a central role in regulating chromatin state and gene expression in Arabidopsis and is involved in a variety of physiological and developmental processes. Dynamic regulation of histone methylation relies on both histone methyltransferase "writer" and histone demethylases "eraser" proteins. In this review, we focus on the four major histone methylation modifications in Arabidopsis H3, H3K4, H3K9, H3K27, and H3K36, and summarize current knowledge of the dynamic regulation of these modifications, with an emphasis on the biochemical and structural perspectives of histone methyltransferases and demethylases.

UvKmt2-Mediated H3K4 Trimethylation Is Required for Pathogenicity and Stress Response in Ustilaginoidea virens

Epigenetic modification is important for cellular functions. Trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4me3), which associates with transcriptional activation, is one of the important epigenetic modifications. In this study, the biological functions of UvKmt2-mediated H3K4me3 modification were characterized in Ustilaginoidea virens, which is the causal agent of the false smut disease, one of the most destructive diseases in rice. Phenotypic analyses of the ΔUvkmt2 mutant revealed that UvKMT2 is necessary for growth, conidiation, secondary spore formation, and virulence in U. virens. Immunoblotting and chromatin immunoprecipitation assay followed by sequencing (ChIP-seq) showed that UvKMT2 is required for the establishment of H3K4me3, which covers 1729 genes of the genome in U. virens. Further RNA-seq analysis demonstrated that UvKmt2-mediated H3K4me3 acts as an important role in transcriptional activation. In particular, H3K4me3 modification involves in the transcriptional regulation of conidiation-related and pathogenic genes, including two important mitogen-activated protein kinases UvHOG1 and UvPMK1. The down-regulation of UvHOG1 and UvPMK1 genes may be one of the main reasons for the reduced pathogenicity and stresses adaptability of the ∆Uvkmt2 mutant. Overall, H3K4me3, established by histone methyltransferase UvKMT2, contributes to fungal development, secondary spore formation, virulence, and various stress responses through transcriptional regulation in U. virens.

Unravelling the Role of Epigenetic Modifications in Development and Reproduction of Angiosperms: A Critical Appraisal

Epigenetics are the heritable changes in gene expression patterns which occur without altering DNA sequence. These changes are reversible and do not change the sequence of the DNA but can alter the way in which the DNA sequences are read. Epigenetic modifications are induced by DNA methylation, histone modification, and RNA-mediated mechanisms which alter the gene expression, primarily at the transcriptional level. Such alterations do control genome activity through transcriptional silencing of transposable elements thereby contributing toward genome stability. Plants being sessile in nature are highly susceptible to the extremes of changing environmental conditions. This increases the likelihood of epigenetic modifications within the composite network of genes that affect the developmental changes of a plant species. Genetic and epigenetic reprogramming enhances the growth and development, imparts phenotypic plasticity, and also ensures flowering under stress conditions without changing the genotype for several generations. Epigenetic modifications hold an immense significance during the development of male and female gametophytes, fertilization, embryogenesis, fruit formation, and seed germination. In this review, we focus on the mechanism of epigenetic modifications and their dynamic role in maintaining the genomic integrity during plant development and reproduction.

An efficient chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) protocol for studying histone modifications in peach reproductive tissues

BACKGROUND

Perennial fruit trees display a growth behaviour characterized by annual cycling between growth and dormancy, with complex physiological features. Rosaceae fruit trees represent excellent models for studying not only the fruit growth/patterning but also the progression of the reproductive cycle depending upon the impact of climate conditions. Additionally, current developments in high-throughput technologies have impacted Rosaceae tree research while investigating genome structure and function as well as (epi)genetic mechanisms involved in important developmental and environmental response processes during fruit tree growth. Among epigenetic mechanisms, chromatin remodelling mediated by histone modifications and other chromatin-related processes play a crucial role in gene modulation, controlling gene expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation is an effective technique to investigate chromatin dynamics in plants. This technique is generally applied for studies on chromatin states and enrichment of post-transcriptional modifications (PTMs) in histone proteins.

RESULTS

Peach is considered a model organism among climacteric fruits in the Rosaceae family for studies on bud formation, dormancy, and organ differentiation. In our work, we have primarily established specific protocols for chromatin extraction and immunoprecipitation in reproductive tissues of peach (Prunus persica). Subsequently, we focused our investigations on the role of two chromatin marks, namely the trimethylation of histone H3 at lysine in position 4 (H3K4me3) and trimethylation of histone H3 at lysine 27 (H3K27me3) in modulating specific gene expression. Bud dormancy and fruit growth were investigated in a nectarine genotype called Fantasia as our model system.

CONCLUSIONS

We present general strategies to optimize ChIP protocols for buds and mesocarp tissues of peach and analyze the correlation between gene expression and chromatin mark enrichment/depletion. The procedures proposed may be useful to evaluate any involvement of histone modifications in the regulation of gene expression during bud dormancy progression and core ripening in fruits.

Genome-Wide Identification and Characterization of SET Domain Family Genes in Brassica napus L

SET domain group encoding proteins function as histone lysine methyltransferases. These proteins are involved in various biological processes, including plant development and adaption to the environment by modifying the chromatin structures. So far, the SET domain genes (SDGs) have not been systematically investigated in Brassica napus (B. napus). In the current study, through genome-wide analysis, a total of 122 SDGs were identified in the B. napus genome. These BnSDGs were subdivided into seven (I-VII) classes based on phylogeny analysis, domain configurations, and motif distribution. Segmental duplication was involved in the evolution of this family, and the duplicated genes were under strong purifying selection. The promoter sequence of BnSDGs consisted of various growth, hormones, and stress-related cis-acting elements along with transcription factor binding sites (TFBSs) for 20 TF families in 59 of the 122 BnSDGs. The gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that BnSDGs were closely associated with histone and non-histone methylation and metal binding capacity localized mostly in the nucleus. The in silico expression analysis at four developmental stages in leaf, stem root, floral organ, silique, and seed tissues showed a broad range of tissue and stage-specific expression pattern. The expression analysis under four abiotic stresses (dehydration, cold, ABA, and salinity) also provided evidence for the importance of BnSDGs in stress environments. Based on expression analysis, we performed reverse transcription-quantitative PCR for 15 target BnSDGs in eight tissues (young leaf, mature leaf, root, stem, carpel, stamen, sepal, and petals). Our results were in accordance with the in silico expression data, suggesting the importance of these genes in plant development. In conclusion, this study lays a foundation for future functional studies on SDGs in B. napus.

Reprogramming of Histone H3 Lysine Methylation During Plant Sexual Reproduction

Plants undergo extensive reprogramming of chromatin status during sexual reproduction, a process vital to cell specification and pluri- or totipotency establishment. As a crucial way to regulate chromatin organization and transcriptional activity, histone modification can be reprogrammed during sporogenesis, gametogenesis, and embryogenesis in flowering plants. In this review, we first introduce enzymes required for writing, recognizing, and removing methylation marks on lysine residues in histone H3 tails, and describe their differential expression patterns in reproductive tissues, then we summarize their functions in the reprogramming of H3 lysine methylation and the corresponding chromatin re-organization during sexual reproduction in Arabidopsis, and finally we discuss the molecular significance of histone reprogramming in maintaining the pluri- or totipotency of gametes and the zygote, and in establishing novel cell fates throughout the plant life cycle. Despite rapid achievements in understanding the molecular mechanism and function of the reprogramming of chromatin status in plant development, the research in this area still remains a challenge. Technological breakthroughs in cell-specific epigenomic profiling in the future will ultimately provide a solution for this challenge.

Nonsense-mediated mRNA decay modulates Arabidopsis flowering time via the SET DOMAIN GROUP 40-FLOWERING LOCUS C module

The nonsense-mediated mRNA decay (NMD) surveillance system clears aberrant mRNAs from the cell, thus preventing the accumulation of truncated proteins. Although loss of the core NMD proteins UP-FRAMESHIFT1 (UPF1) and UPF3 leads to late flowering in Arabidopsis, the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Here, we showed that mutations in UPF1 and UPF3 cause temperature- and photoperiod-independent late flowering. Expression analyses revealed high FLOWERING LOCUS C (FLC) mRNA levels in upf mutants; in agreement with this, the flc mutation strongly suppressed the late flowering of upf mutants. Vernalization accelerated flowering of upf mutants in a temperature-independent manner. FLC transcript levels rose in wild-type plants upon NMD inhibition. In upf mutants, we observed increased enrichment of H3K4me3 and reduced enrichment of H3K27me3 in FLC chromatin. Transcriptome analyses showed that SET DOMAIN GROUP 40 (SDG40) mRNA levels increased in upf mutants, and the SDG40 transcript underwent NMD-coupled alternative splicing, suggesting that SDG40 affects flowering time in upf mutants. Furthermore, NMD directly regulated SDG40 transcript stability. The sdg40 mutants showed decreased H3K4me3 and increased H3K27me3 levels in FLC chromatin, flowered early, and rescued the late flowering of upf mutants. Taken together, these results suggest that NMD epigenetically regulates FLC through SDG40 to modulate flowering time in Arabidopsis.

Identification of grape H3K4 genes and their expression profiles during grape fruit ripening and postharvest ROS treatment

Fruit development is modified by different types of epigenetics. Histone methylation is an important way of epigenetic modification. Eight genes related to H3K4 methyltransferase, named VvH3K4s, were identified and isolated from the grape genome based on conserved domain analysis, which could be divided into 3 categories by the phylogenetic relationship. Transcriptome data showed that VvH3K4-5 was obviously up-regulated during fruit ripe, and its expression level was significantly different between 'Kyoho' and 'Fengzao'. The VvH3K4s promoters contains cis-acting elements of in response to stress, indicating that they may be involved in the metabolic pathways regulated by ROS signaling. The subcellular localization experiment and promoter activity analysis experiment on VvH3K4-5 showed that VvH3K4s may be regulated by H₂O₂. With H₂O₂ and Hypotaurine treatment, it was found that the expression pattern of most genes was opposite, and the expression level showed different expression trend with the extension of treatment time.

SDG712, a Putative H3K9-Specific Methyltransferase Encoding Gene, Delays Flowering through Repressing the Expression of Florigen Genes in Rice

SET domain group (SDG) proteins have been identified to be involved in histone modification and participate in diverse biological processes. Rice contains 41 SDG genes, however, most of which have not been functionally characterized. Here, we report the identification and functional investigation of rice SDG712 gene. Phylogenic analysis revealed that SDG712 belongs to the H3K9-specific SDG subclade. SDG712 is highly expressed in leaves during reproductive growth stage with obvious circadian rhythmic pattern. Mutation of SDG712 promotes rice flowering, while overexpression of SDG712 delays rice flowering. Gene expression analysis suggested that SDG712 acts downstream of Hd1, while acts upstream of Ehd1, Hd3a and RFT1. Subcellular localization assay demonstrated that SDG712 is localized in the nucleus. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay showed that the H3K9me2 levels at Hd3a and RFT1 loci were increased in SDG712 overexpression transgenic plants, indicating that SDG712 may mediate the H3K9 di-methylation on these loci to repress rice flowering. Taken together, our findings demonstrated that SDG712 is a negative flowering regulatory gene in rice, and it delays flowering through repressing key flowering regulator gene Ehd1 and the florigen genes Hd3a and RFT1.

Post-Embryonic Phase Transitions Mediated by Polycomb Repressive Complexes in Plants

Correct timing of developmental phase transitions is critical for the survival and fitness of plants. Developmental phase transitions in plants are partially promoted by controlling relevant genes into active or repressive status. Polycomb Repressive Complex1 (PRC1) and PRC2, originally identified in Drosophila, are essential in initiating and/or maintaining genes in repressive status to mediate developmental phase transitions. Our review summarizes mechanisms in which the embryo-to-seedling transition, the juvenile-to-adult transition, and vegetative-to-reproductive transition in plants are mediated by PRC1 and PRC2, and suggests that PRC1 could act either before or after PRC2, or that they could function independently of each other. Details of the exact components of PRC1 and PRC2 in each developmental phase transitions and how they are recruited or removed will need to be addressed in the future.

JMJ Histone Demethylases Balance H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 Levels at the HSP21 Locus during Heat Acclimation in Arabidopsis

Exposure to moderately high temperature enables plants to acquire thermotolerance to high temperatures that might otherwise be lethal. In Arabidopsis thaliana, histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3) at the heat shock protein 17.6C (HSP17.6C) and HSP22 loci is removed by Jumonji C domain-containing protein (JMJ) histone demethylases, thus allowing the plant to ‘remember’ the heat experience. Other heat memory genes, such as HSP21, are downregulated in acclimatized jmj quadruple mutants compared to the wild type, but how those genes are regulated remains uncharacterized. Here, we show that histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3) at HSP21 was maintained at high levels for at least three days in response to heat. This heat-dependent H3K4me3 accumulation was compromised in the acclimatized jmj quadruple mutant as compared to the acclimatized wild type. JMJ30 directly bound to the HSP21 locus in response to heat and coordinated H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 levels under standard and fluctuating conditions. Our results suggest that JMJs mediate the balance between H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 at the HSP21 locus through proper maintenance of H3K27me3 removal during heat acclimation.

Single-cell transcriptome profiling of buffelgrass (Cenchrus ciliaris) eggs unveils apomictic parthenogenesis signatures

Apomixis, a type of asexual reproduction in angiosperms, results in progenies that are genetically identical to the mother plant. It is a highly desirable trait in agriculture due to its potential to preserve heterosis of F₁ hybrids through subsequent generations. However, no major crops are apomictic. Deciphering mechanisms underlying apomixis becomes one of the alternatives to engineer self-reproducing capability into major crops. Parthenogenesis, a major component of apomixis, commonly described as the ability to initiate embryo formation from the egg cell without fertilization, also can be valuable in plant breeding for doubled haploid production. A deeper understanding of transcriptional differences between parthenogenetic and sexual or non-parthenogenetic eggs can assist with pathway engineering. By conducting laser capture microdissection-based RNA-seq on sexual and parthenogenetic egg cells on the day of anthesis, a de novo transcriptome for the Cenchrus ciliaris egg cells was created, transcriptional profiles that distinguish the parthenogenetic egg from its sexual counterpart were identified, and functional roles for a few transcription factors in promoting natural parthenogenesis were suggested. These transcriptome data expand upon previous gene expression studies and will be a resource for future research on the transcriptome of egg cells in parthenogenetic and sexual genotypes.

Histone H3K4 methyltransferases SDG25 and ATX1 maintain heat-stress gene expression during recovery in Arabidopsis

Plants have short-term stress memory that enables them to maintain the expression state of a substantial subset of heat-inducible genes during stress recovery after heat stress. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms controlling stress-responsive gene expression at the recovery stage in plants, however. In this article, we demonstrate that histone H3K4 methyltransferases SDG25 and ATX1 are required for heat-stress tolerance in Arabidopsis. SDG25 and ATX1 are not only important for stress-responsive gene expression during heat stress, but also for maintaining stress-responsive gene expression during stress recovery. A combination of whole-genome bisulfite sequencing, RNA-sequencing and ChIP-qPCR demonstrated that mutations of SDG25 and ATX1 decrease histone H3K4me3 levels, increase DNA cytosine methylation and inhibit the expression of a subset of heat stress-responsive genes during stress recovery in Arabidopsis. ChIP-qPCR results confirm that ATX1 binds to chromatins associated with these target genes. Our results reveal that histone H3K4me3 affects DNA methylation at regions in the loci associated with heat stress-responsive gene expression during stress recovery, providing insights into heat-stress transcriptional memory in plants.

The Polycomb group methyltransferase StE(z)2 and deposition of H3K27me3 and H3K4me3 regulate the expression of tuberization genes in potato

Polycomb repressive complex (PRC) group proteins regulate various developmental processes in plants by repressing target genes via H3K27 trimethylation, and they function antagonistically with H3K4 trimethylation mediated by Trithorax group proteins. Tuberization in potato has been widely studied, but the role of histone modifications in this process is unknown. Recently, we showed that overexpression of StMSI1, a PRC2 member, alters the expression of tuberization genes in potato. As MSI1 lacks histone-modification activity, we hypothesized that this altered expression could be caused by another PRC2 member, StE(z)2, a potential H3K27 methyltransferase in potato. Here, we demonstrate that a short-day photoperiod influences StE(z)2 expression in the leaves and stolons. StE(z)2 overexpression alters plant architecture and reduces tuber yield, whereas its knockdown enhances yield. ChIP-sequencing using stolons induced by short-days indicated that several genes related to tuberization and phytohormones, such as StBEL5/11/29, StSWEET11B, StGA2OX1, and StPIN1 carry H3K4me3 or H3K27me3 marks and/or are StE(z)2 targets. Interestingly, we observed that another important tuberization gene, StSP6A, is targeted by StE(z)2 in leaves and that it has increased deposition of H3K27me3 under long-day (non-induced) conditions compared to short days. Overall, our results show that StE(z)2 and deposition of H3K27me3 and/or H3K4me3 marks might regulate the expression of key tuberization genes in potato.

H3K4 trimethylation dynamics impact diverse developmental and environmental responses in plants

The H3K4me3 histone mark in plants functions in the regulation of gene expression and transcriptional memory, and influences numerous developmental processes and stress responses. Plants execute developmental programs and respond to changing environmental conditions via adjustments in gene expression, which are modulated in part by chromatin structure dynamics. Histone modifications alter chromatin in precise ways on a global scale, having the potential to influence the expression of numerous genes. Trimethylation of lysine 4 on histone H3 (H3K4me3) is a prominent histone modification that is dogmatically associated with gene activity, but more recently has also been linked to gene repression. As in other eukaryotes, the distribution of H3K4me3 in plant genomes suggests it plays a central role in gene expression regulation, however the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Transcript levels of many genes related to flowering, root, and shoot development are affected by dynamic H3K4me3 levels, as are those for a number of stress-responsive and stress memory-related genes. This review examines the current understanding of how H3K4me3 functions in modulating plant responses to developmental and environmental cues.

M, Shukla BN, Sharma M, Awasthi P, Mahtha SK, Yadav G, Laxmi A. Arabidopsis Target of Rapamycin Coordinates With Transcriptional and Epigenetic Machinery to Regulate Thermotolerance

Global warming exhibits profound effects on plant fitness and productivity. To withstand stress, plants sacrifice their growth and activate protective stress responses for ensuring survival. However, the switch between growth and stress is largely elusive. In the past decade, the role of the target of rapamycin (TOR) linking energy and stress signalling is emerging. Here, we have identified an important role of Glucose (Glc)-TOR signalling in plant adaptation to heat stress (HS). Glc via TOR governs the transcriptome reprogramming of a large number of genes involved in heat stress protection. Downstream to Glc-TOR, the E2Fa signalling module regulates the transcription of heat shock factors through direct recruitment of E2Fa onto their promoter regions. Also, Glc epigenetically regulates the transcription of core HS signalling genes in a TOR-dependent manner. TOR acts in concert with p300/CREB HISTONE ACETYLTRANSFERASE1 (HAC1) and dictates the epigenetic landscape of HS loci to regulate thermotolerance. Arabidopsis plants defective in TOR and HAC1 exhibited reduced thermotolerance with a decrease in the expression of core HS signalling genes. Together, our findings reveal a mechanistic framework in which Glc-TOR signalling through different modules integrates stress and energy signalling to regulate thermotolerance.

Gene expression changes occurring at bolting time are associated with leaf senescence in Arabidopsis

In plants, the vegetative to reproductive phase transition (termed bolting in Arabidopsis) generally precedes age-dependent leaf senescence (LS). Many studies describe a temporal link between bolting time and LS, as plants that bolt early, senesce early, and plants that bolt late, senesce late. The molecular mechanisms underlying this relationship are unknown and are potentially agriculturally important, as they may allow for the development of crops that can overcome early LS caused by stress-related early-phase transition. We hypothesized that leaf gene expression changes occurring in synchrony with bolting were regulating LS. ARABIDOPSIS TRITHORAX (ATX) enzymes are general methyltransferases that regulate the adult vegetative to reproductive phase transition. We generated an atx1, atx3, and atx4 (atx1,3,4) triple T-DNA insertion mutant that displays both early bolting and early LS. This mutant was used in an RNA-seq time-series experiment to identify gene expression changes in rosette leaves that are likely associated with bolting. By comparing the early bolting mutant to vegetative WT plants of the same age, we were able to generate a list of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) that change expression with bolting as the plants age. We trimmed the list by intersection with publicly available WT datasets, which removed genes from our DEG list that were atx1,3,4 specific. The resulting 398 bolting-associated genes (BAGs) are differentially expressed in a mature rosette leaf at bolting. The BAG list contains many well-characterized LS regulators (ORE1, WRKY45, NAP, WRKY28), and GO analysis revealed enrichment for LS and LS-related processes. These bolting-associated LS regulators may contribute to the temporal coupling of bolting time to LS.

Epigenetics and epigenomics: underlying mechanisms, relevance, and implications in crop improvement

Epigenetics is defined as changes in gene expression that are not associated with changes in DNA sequence but due to the result of methylation of DNA and post-translational modifications to the histones. These epigenetic modifications are known to regulate gene expression by bringing changes in the chromatin state, which underlies plant development and shapes phenotypic plasticity in responses to the environment and internal cues. This review articulates the role of histone modifications and DNA methylation in modulating biotic and abiotic stresses, as well as crop improvement. It also highlights the possibility of engineering epigenomes and epigenome-based predictive models for improving agronomic traits.

SEUSS integrates transcriptional and epigenetic control of root stem cell organizer specification

Proper regulation of homeotic gene expression is critical for stem cell fate in both plants and animals. In Arabidopsis thaliana, the WUSCHEL (WUS)-RELATED HOMEOBOX 5 (WOX5) gene is specifically expressed in a group of root stem cell organizer cells called the quiescent center (QC) and plays a central role in QC specification. Here, we report that the SEUSS (SEU) protein, homologous to the animal LIM-domain binding (LDB) proteins, assembles a functional transcriptional complex that regulates WOX5 expression and QC specification. SEU is physically recruited to the WOX5 promoter by the master transcription factor SCARECROW. Subsequently, SEU physically recruits the SET domain methyltransferase SDG4 to the WOX5 promoter, thus activating WOX5 expression. Thus, analogous to its animal counterparts, SEU acts as a multi-adaptor protein that integrates the actions of genetic and epigenetic regulators into a concerted transcriptional program to control root stem cell organizer specification.

The ubiquitin system affects agronomic plant traits

In a single vascular plant species, the ubiquitin system consists of thousands of different proteins involved in attaching ubiquitin to substrates, recognizing or processing ubiquitinated proteins, or constituting or regulating the 26S proteasome. The ubiquitin system affects plant health, reproduction, and responses to the environment, processes that impact important agronomic traits. Here we summarize three agronomic traits influenced by ubiquitination: induction of flowering, seed size, and pathogen responses. Specifically, we review how the ubiquitin system affects expression of genes or abundance of proteins important for determining when a plant flowers (focusing on FLOWERING LOCUS C, FRIGIDA, and CONSTANS), highlight some recent studies on how seed size is affected by the ubiquitin system, and discuss how the ubiquitin system affects proteins involved in pathogen or effector recognition with details of recent studies on FLAGELLIN SENSING 2 and SUPPRESSOR OF NPR CONSTITUTIVE 1, respectively, as examples. Finally, we discuss the effects of pathogen-derived proteins on plant host ubiquitin system proteins. Further understanding of the molecular basis of the above processes could identify possible genes for modification or selection for crop improvement.

A G(enomic)P(ositioning)S(ystem) for Plant RNAPII Transcription

Post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histone residues shape the landscape of gene expression by modulating the dynamic process of RNA polymerase II (RNAPII) transcription. The contribution of particular histone modifications to the definition of distinct RNAPII transcription stages remains poorly characterized in plants. Chromatin immunoprecipitation combined with next-generation sequencing (ChIP-seq) resolves the genomic distribution of histone modifications. Here, we review histone PTM ChIP-seq data in Arabidopsis thaliana and find support for a Genomic Positioning System (GPS) that guides RNAPII transcription. We review the roles of histone PTM 'readers', 'writers', and 'erasers', with a focus on the regulation of gene expression and biological functions in plants. The distinct functions of RNAPII transcription during the plant transcription cycle may rely, in part, on the characteristic histone PTM profiles that distinguish transcription stages.

Transcriptome and epigenome analyses of vernalization in Arabidopsis thaliana

Vernalization accelerates flowering after prolonged winter cold. Transcriptional and epigenetic changes are known to be involved in the regulation of the vernalization response. Despite intensive applications of next-generation sequencing in diverse aspects of plant research, genome-wide transcriptome and epigenome profiling during the vernalization response has not been conducted. In this work, to our knowledge, we present the first comprehensive analyses of transcriptomic and epigenomic dynamics during the vernalization process in Arabidopsis thaliana. Six major clusters of genes exhibiting distinctive features were identified. Temporary changes in histone H3K4me3 levels were observed that likely coordinate photosynthesis and prevent oxidative damage during cold exposure. In addition, vernalization induced a stable accumulation of H3K27me3 over genes encoding many development-related transcription factors, which resulted in either inhibition of transcription or a bivalent status of the genes. Lastly, FLC-like and VIN3-like genes were identified that appear to be novel components of the vernalization pathway.

CRISPR-Cas9 System for Plant Genome Editing: Current Approaches and Emerging Developments

Targeted genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9 has been widely adopted as a genetic engineering tool in various biological systems. This editing technology has been in the limelight due to its simplicity and versatility compared to other previously known genome editing platforms. Several modifications of this editing system have been established for adoption in a variety of plants, as well as for its improved efficiency and portability, bringing new opportunities for the development of transgene-free improved varieties of economically important crops. This review presents an overview of CRISPR-Cas9 and its application in plant genome editing. A catalog of the current and emerging approaches for the implementation of the system in plants is also presented with details on the existing gaps and limitations. Strategies for the establishment of the CRISPR-Cas9 molecular construct such as the selection of sgRNAs, PAM compatibility, choice of promoters, vector architecture, and multiplexing approaches are emphasized. Progress in the delivery and transgene detection methods, together with optimization approaches for improved on-target efficiency are also detailed in this review. The information laid out here will provide options useful for the effective and efficient exploitation of the system for plant genome editing and will serve as a baseline for further developments of the system. Future combinations and fine-tuning of the known parameters or factors that contribute to the editing efficiency, fidelity, and portability of CRISPR-Cas9 will indeed open avenues for new technological advancements of the system for targeted gene editing in plants.

Genetic and molecular basis of floral induction in Arabidopsis thaliana

Many plants synchronize their life cycles in response to changing seasons and initiate flowering under favourable environmental conditions to ensure reproductive success. To confer a robust seasonal response, plants use diverse genetic programmes that integrate environmental and endogenous cues and converge on central floral regulatory hubs. Technological advances have allowed us to understand these complex processes more completely. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of genetic and molecular mechanisms that control flowering in Arabidopsis thaliana.