Autophagy contributes to leaf starch degradation

Phloretin inhibits the growth of Arabidopsis shoots by inducing chloroplast damage and programmed cell death

Phloretin is a key secondary metabolite produced by apple trees. Known for its strong antioxidant properties, this dihydrochalcone has been extensively studied in animals but less so in plants. Recently, we identified phloretin as a phytotoxic allelochemical that inhibits growth in the model plant Arabidopsis by disrupting auxin metabolism and distribution in the roots. In this study, we found that phloretin significantly hinders the growth of Arabidopsis seedlings' aerial parts after a short-term treatment (10 days) and causes their decay after long-term exposure (28 days). These effects result from ultrastructural damage in the mesophyll cells of the leaves, including chloroplast displacement and swelling, lesions, and alterations in thylakoid and cell wall organization. Interestingly, phloretin-treated plants showed a decrease in malondialdehyde levels and antioxidant enzyme activities, while hydrogen peroxide and proline levels remained unchanged. This suggests that phloretin-induced chlorosis and seedling decay are not due to oxidative stress but rather to severe chloroplast structural damage, leading to inefficient photosynthesis, starch degradation, starvation, and activation of micro- and macroautophagic processes for self-preservation. Ultimately, these processes result in programmed cell death. These new insights into the phytotoxic effects of phloretin on Arabidopsis shoots could pave the way for future research into phloretin as a potential multitarget bioherbicide and enhance our understanding of autoallelopathy in apple trees.

The lowdown on breakdown: Open questions in plant proteolysis

Proteolysis, including post-translational proteolytic processing as well as protein degradation and amino acid recycling, is an essential component of the growth and development of living organisms. In this article, experts in plant proteolysis pose and discuss compelling open questions in their areas of research. Topics covered include the role of proteolysis in the cell cycle, DNA damage response, mitochondrial function, the generation of N-terminal signals (degrons) that mark many proteins for degradation (N-terminal acetylation, the Arg/N-degron pathway, and the chloroplast N-degron pathway), developmental and metabolic signaling (photomorphogenesis, abscisic acid and strigolactone signaling, sugar metabolism, and postharvest regulation), plant responses to environmental signals (endoplasmic-reticulum-associated degradation, chloroplast-associated degradation, drought tolerance, and the growth-defense trade-off), and the functional diversification of peptidases. We hope these thought-provoking discussions help to stimulate further research.

Vacuolar degradation of plant organelles

Plants continuously remodel and degrade their organelles due to damage from their metabolic activities and environmental stressors, as well as an integral part of their cell differentiation programs. Whereas certain organelles use local hydrolytic enzymes for limited remodeling, most of the pathways that control the partial or complete dismantling of organelles rely on vacuolar degradation. Specifically, selective autophagic pathways play a crucial role in recognizing and sorting plant organelle cargo for vacuolar clearance, especially under cellular stress conditions induced by factors like heat, drought, and damaging light. In these short reviews, we discuss the mechanisms that control the vacuolar degradation of chloroplasts, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi, and peroxisomes, with an emphasis on autophagy, recently discovered selective autophagy receptors for plant organelles, and crosstalk with other catabolic pathways.

Full-length transcriptome sequencing of Arabidopsis plants provided new insights into the autophagic regulation of photosynthesis

Autophagy is a highly conserved eukaryotic pathway and plays a crucial role in cell survival under stress conditions. Here, we applied a full-length transcriptome approach to study an Arabidopsis autophagy mutant (atg5-1) subjected to nitrogen-starvation, using Oxford Nanopore Technologies. A total of 39,033 transcripts were identified, including 11,356 new transcripts. In addition, alternative splicing (AS) events and lncRNAs were also detected between Col-0 (WT) and atg5-1. Differentially expressed transcript enrichment showed that autophagy upregulates the expression of many stress-responsive genes and inhibits the transcription of photosynthesis-associated genes. The qRT-PCR results showed that the expression patterns of photosynthesis-related genes in the atg5-1 differed under the conditions of nitrogen starvation and carbon starvation. Under nitrogen starvation treatment, many genes related to photosynthesis also exhibited AS. Chlorophyll fluorescence images revealed that the Fv/Fm and ΦPSII of old atg5-1 leaves were significantly reduced after nitrogen starvation treatment, but the Y(NPQ) indices were significantly increased compared to those of the WT plants. The results of qRT-PCR suggest that autophagy appears to be involved in the degradation of genes related to photodamage repair in PSII. Taken together, the full-length transcriptiome sequencing provide new insights into how new transcripts, lncRNAs and alternative splicing (AS) are involved in plant autophagy through full-length transcriptome sequencing and suggest a new potential link between autophagy and photosynthesis.

Plant virology in the 21st century in China: Recent advances and future directions

Plant viruses are a group of intracellular pathogens that persistently threaten global food security. Significant advances in plant virology have been achieved by Chinese scientists over the last 20 years, including basic research and technologies for preventing and controlling plant viral diseases. Here, we review these milestones and advances, including the identification of new crop-infecting viruses, dissection of pathogenic mechanisms of multiple viruses, examination of multilayered interactions among viruses, their host plants, and virus-transmitting arthropod vectors, and in-depth interrogation of plant-encoded resistance and susceptibility determinants. Notably, various plant virus-based vectors have also been successfully developed for gene function studies and target gene expression in plants. We also recommend future plant virology studies in China.

Glycine-serine-rich effector PstGSRE4 in Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici targets and stabilizes TaGAPDH2 that promotes stripe rust disease

Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici (Pst) secretes effector proteins that enter plant cells and manipulate host processes. In a previous study, we identified a glycine-serine-rich effector PstGSRE4, which was proven to regulate the reactive oxygen species (ROS) pathway by interacting with TaCZSOD2. In this study, we further demonstrated that PstGSRE4 interacts with wheat glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase TaGAPDH2, which is related to ROS signalling. In wheat, silencing of TaGAPDH2 by virus-induced gene silencing increased the accumulation of ROS induced by the Pst virulent race CYR31. Overexpression of TaGAPDH2 decreased the accumulation of ROS induced by the avirulent Pst race CYR23. In addition, TaGAPDH2 suppressed Pst candidate elicitor Pst322-triggered cell death by decreasing ROS accumulation in Nicotiana benthamiana. Knocking down TaGAPDH2 expression attenuated Pst infection, whereas overexpression of TaGAPDH2 promoted Pst infection, indicating that TaGAPDH2 is a negative regulator of plant defence. In N. benthamiana, PstGSRE4 stabilized TaGAPDH2 through inhibition of the 26S proteasome-mediated destabilization. Overall, these results suggest that TaGAPDH2 is hijacked by the Pst effector as a negative regulator of plant immunity to promote Pst infection in wheat.

Subversion of selective autophagy for the biogenesis of tombusvirus replication organelles inhibits autophagy

Elaborate viral replication organelles (VROs) are formed to support positive-strand RNA virus replication in infected cells. VRO formation requires subversion of intracellular membranes by viral replication proteins. Here, we showed that the key ATG8f autophagy protein and NBR1 selective autophagy receptor were co-opted by Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV) and the closely-related carnation Italian ringspot virus. Knockdown of ATG8f or NBR1 in plants led to reduced tombusvirus replication, suggesting pro-viral function for selective autophagy. BiFC and proximity-labeling experiments showed that the TBSV p33 replication protein interacted with ATG8f and NBR1 to recruit them to VROs. In addition, we observed that several core autophagy proteins, such as ATG1a, ATG4, ATG5, ATG101 and the plant-specific SH3P2 autophagy adaptor proteins were also re-localized to TBSV VROs, suggesting that TBSV hijacks the autophagy machinery in plant cells. We demonstrated that subversion of autophagy components facilitated the recruitment of VPS34 PI3 kinase and enrichment of phospholipids, such as phosphatidylethanolamine and PI3P phosphoinositide in the VRO membranes. Hijacking of autophagy components into TBSV VROs led to inhibition of autophagic flux. We also found that a fraction of the subverted ATG8f and NBR1 was sequestered in biomolecular condensates associated with VROs. We propose that the VRO-associated condensates trap those autophagy proteins, taking them away from the autophagy pathway. Overall, tombusviruses hijack selective autophagy to provide phospholipid-rich membranes for replication and to regulate the antiviral autophagic flux.

NnSnRK1-NnATG1-mediated autophagic cell death governs flower bud abortion in shaded lotus

Many plants can terminate their flowering process in response to unfavourable environments, but the mechanisms underlying this response are poorly understood. In this study, we observed that the lotus flower buds were susceptible to abortion under shaded conditions. The primary cause of abortion was excessive autophagic cell death (ACD) in flower buds. Blockade of autophagic flux in lotus flower buds consistently resulted in low levels of ACD and improved flowering ability under shaded conditions. Further evidence highlights the importance of the NnSnRK1-NnATG1 signalling axis in inducing ACD in lotus flower buds and culminating in their timely abortion. Under shaded conditions, elevated levels of NnSnRK1 activated NnATG1, which subsequently led to the formation of numerous autophagosome structures in lotus flower bud cells. Excessive autophagy levels led to the bulk degradation of cellular material, which triggered ACD and the abortion of flower buds. NnSnRK1 does not act directly on NnATG1. Other components, including TOR (target of rapamycin), PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase) and three previously unidentified genes, appeared to be pivotal for the interaction between NnSnRK1 and NnATG1. This study reveals the role of autophagy in regulating the abortion of lotus flower buds, which could improve reproductive success and act as an energy-efficient measure in plants.

Picky eaters: selective autophagy in plant cells

Autophagy, a fundamental cellular process, plays a vital role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by degrading damaged or unnecessary components. While selective autophagy has been extensively studied in animal cells, its significance in plant cells has only recently gained attention. In this review, we delve into the intriguing realm selective autophagy in plants, with specific focus on its involvement in nutrient recycling, organelle turnover, and stress response. Moreover, recent studies have unveiled the interesting interplay between selective autophagy and epigenetic mechanisms in plants, elucidating the significance of epigenetic regulation in modulating autophagy-related gene expression and finely tuning the selective autophagy process in plants. By synthesizing existing knowledge, this review highlights the emerging field of selective autophagy in plant cells, emphasizing its pivotal role in maintaining nutrient homeostasis, facilitating cellular adaptation, and shedding light on the epigenetic regulation that governs these processes. Our comprehensive study provides the way for a deeper understanding of the dynamic control of cellular responses to nutrient availability and stress conditions, opening new avenues for future research in this field of autophagy in plant physiology.

MdHB7-like positively modulates apple salt tolerance by promoting autophagic activity and Na+ efflux

Salt stress adversely affects the yield and quality of crops and limits their geographical distribution. Studying the functions and regulatory mechanisms of key genes in the salt stress response is important for breeding crops with enhanced stress resistance. Autophagy plays an important role in modulating the tolerance of plants to various types of abiotic stressors. However, the mechanisms underlying salt-induced autophagy are largely unknown. Cation/Ca2+ exchanger proteins enhance apple salt tolerance by inhibiting Na+ accumulation but the mechanism underlying the response to salt stress remains unclear. Here, we show that the autophagy-related gene MdATG18a modulated apple salt tolerance. Under salt stress, the autophagic activity, proline content, and antioxidant enzyme activities were higher and Na+ accumulation was lower in MdATG18a-overexpressing transgenic plants than in control plants. The use of an autophagy inhibitor during the salt treatment demonstrated that the regulatory function of MdATG18a depended on autophagy. The yeast-one-hybrid assay revealed that the homeodomain-leucine zipper (HD-Zip) transcription factor MdHB7-like directly bound to the MdATG18a promoter. Transcriptional regulation and genetic analyses showed that MdHB7-like enhanced salt-induced autophagic activity by promoting MdATG18a expression. The analysis of Na+ efflux rate in transgenic yeast indicated that MdCCX1 expression significantly promoted Na+ efflux. Promoter binding, transcriptional regulation, and genetic analyses showed that MdHB7-like promoted Na+ efflux and apple salt tolerance by directly promoting MdCCX1 expression, which was independent of the autophagy pathway. Overall, our findings provide insight into the mechanism underlying MdHB7-like-mediated salt tolerance in apple through the MdHB7-like-MdATG18a and MdHB7-like-MdCCX1 modules. These results will aid future studies on the mechanisms underlying stress-induced autophagy and the regulation of stress tolerance in plants.

Stress-induced endocytosis from chloroplast inner envelope membrane is mediated by CHLOROPLAST VESICULATION but inhibited by GAPC

Clathrin-mediated vesicular formation and trafficking are responsible for molecular cargo transport and signal transduction among organelles. Our previous study shows that CHLOROPLAST VESICULATION (CV)-containing vesicles (CVVs) are generated from chloroplasts for chloroplast degradation under abiotic stress. Here, we show that CV interacts with the clathrin heavy chain (CHC) and induces vesicle budding toward the cytosol from the chloroplast inner envelope membrane. In the defective mutants of CHC2 and the dynamin-encoding DRP1A, CVV budding and releasing from chloroplast are impeded. The mutations of CHC2 inhibit CV-induced chloroplast degradation and hypersensitivity to water stress. Moreover, CV-CHC2 interaction is impaired by the oxidized GLYCERALDEHYDE-3-PHOSPHATE DEHYDROGENASE (GAPC). GAPC1 overexpression suppresses CV-mediated chloroplast degradation and hypersensitivity to water stress, while CV silencing alleviates the hypersensitivity of the gapc1gapc2 plant to water stress. Together, our work identifies a pathway of clathrin-assisted CVV budding outward from chloroplast, which is involved in chloroplast degradation and stress response.

Integrated Multi-Omics Analyses Reveal That Autophagy-Mediated Cellular Metabolism Is Required for the Initiation of Pollen Germination

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved mechanism for degrading and recycling various cellular components, functioning in both normal development and stress conditions. This process is tightly regulated by a set of autophagy-related (ATG) proteins, including ATG2 in the ATG9 cycling system and ATG5 in the ATG12 conjugation system. Our recent research demonstrated that autophagy-mediated compartmental cytoplasmic deletion is essential for pollen germination. However, the precise mechanisms through which autophagy regulates pollen germination, ensuring its fertility, remain largely unknown. Here, we applied multi-omics analyses, including transcriptomic and metabolomic approaches, to investigate the downstream pathways of autophagy in the process of pollen germination. Although ATG2 and ATG5 play similar roles in regulating pollen germination, high-throughput transcriptomic analysis reveals that silencing ATG5 has a greater impact on the transcriptome than silencing ATG2. Cross-comparisons of transcriptome and proteome analysis reveal that gene expression at the mRNA level and protein level is differentially affected by autophagy. Furthermore, high-throughput metabolomics analysis demonstrates that pathways related to amino acid metabolism and aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis were affected by both ATG2 and ATG5 silencing. Collectively, our multi-omics analyses reveal the central role of autophagy in cellular metabolism, which is critical for initiating pollen germination and ensuring pollen fertility.

'Candidatus Liberibacter asiaticus' secretory protein SDE3 inhibits host autophagy to promote Huanglongbing disease in citrus

Antimicrobial acroautophagy/autophagy plays a vital role in degrading intracellular pathogens or microbial molecules in host-microbe interactions. However, microbes evolved various mechanisms to hijack or modulate autophagy to escape elimination. Vector-transmitted phloem-limited bacteria, Candidatus Liberibacter (Ca. Liberibacter) species, cause Huanglongbing (HLB), one of the most catastrophic citrus diseases worldwide, yet contributions of autophagy to HLB disease proliferation remain poorly defined. Here, we report the identification of a virulence effector in "Ca. Liberibacter asiaticus" (Las), SDE3, which is highly conserved among the "Ca. Liberibacter". SDE3 expression not only promotes the disease development of HLB and canker in sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) plants but also facilitates Phytophthora and viral infections in Arabidopsis, and Nicotiana benthamiana (N. benthamiana). SDE3 directly associates with citrus cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenases (CsGAPCs), which negatively regulates plant immunity. Overexpression of CsGAPCs and SDE3 significantly inhibits autophagy in citrus, Arabidopsis, and N. benthamiana. Intriguingly, SDE3 undermines autophagy-mediated immunity by the specific degradation of CsATG8 family proteins in a CsGAPC1-dependent manner. CsATG8 degradation is largely rescued by treatment with an inhibitor of the late autophagic pathway, E64d. Furthermore, ectopic expression of CsATG8s enhances Phytophthora resistance. Collectively, these results suggest that SDE3-CsGAPC interactions modulate CsATG8-mediated autophagy to enhance Las progression in citrus.Abbreviations: ACP: asian citrus psyllid; ACD2: ACCELERATED CELL DEATH 2; ATG: autophagy related; Ca. Liberibacter: Candidatus Liberibacter; CaMV: cauliflower mosaic virus; CMV: cucumber mosaic virus; Cs: Citrus sinensis; EV: empty vector; GAPC: cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase; HLB: huanglongbing; H2O2: hydrogen peroxide; Las: liberibacter asiaticus; Laf: liberibacter africanus; Lam: liberibacter americanus; Pst: Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato; PVX: potato virus X; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SDE3: sec-delivered effector 3; TEM: transmission electron microscopy; VIVE : virus-induced virulence effector; WT: wild-type; Xcc: Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri.

Cotton leaf curl Multan virus C4 protein suppresses autophagy to facilitate viral infection

Autophagy plays an important role in plant antiviral defense. Several plant viruses are reported to encode viral suppressor of autophagy (VSA) to prevent autophagy for effective virus infection. However, whether and how other viruses, in particular DNA viruses, also encode VSAs to affect viral infection in plants is unknown. Here, we report that the C4 protein encoded by Cotton leaf curl Multan geminivirus (CLCuMuV) inhibits autophagy by binding to the autophagy negative regulator eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4A (eIF4A) to enhance the eIF4A-Autophagy-related protein 5 (ATG5) interaction. By contrast, the R54A or R54K mutation in C4 abolishes its capacity to interact with eIF4A, and neither C4R54A nor C4R54K can suppress autophagy. However, the R54 residue is not essential for C4 to interfere with transcriptional gene silencing or post-transcriptional gene silencing. Moreover, plants infected with mutated CLCuMuV-C4R54K develop less severe symptoms with decreased levels of viral DNA. These findings reveal a molecular mechanism underlying how the DNA virus CLCuMuV deploys a VSA to subdue host cellular antiviral autophagy defense and uphold viral infection in plants.

Alfalfa MsATG13 Confers Cold Stress Tolerance to Plants by Promoting Autophagy

Autophagy is a conserved cellular process that functions in the maintenance of physiological and metabolic balance. It has previously been demonstrated to improve plant tolerance to abiotic stress. Numerous autophagy-related genes (ATGs) that regulate abiotic stress have been identified, but there have been few functional studies showing how ATGs confer cold stress tolerance. The cold transcriptome data of the crown buds that experienced overwintering of the alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) showed that MsATG13 is upregulated in response to cold stress. In the present study, we found that MsATG13 transgenic tobacco enhanced cold tolerance compared to wild-type (WT) plants. Transmission electron microscopy demonstrated that transgenic tobacco overexpressing MsATG13 formed more autophagosomes than WT plants in response to cold stress conditions. The transgenic tobacco increased autophagy levels due to upregulation of other ATGs that were necessary for autophagosome production under cold stress conditions. MsATG13 transgenic tobacco also increased the proline contents and antioxidant enzyme activities, enhancing the antioxidant defense capabilities under cold stress conditions. Furthermore, MsATG13 overexpression decreased levels of superoxide anion radicals and hydrogen peroxide under cold stress conditions. These findings demonstrate the role of MsATG13 in enhancing plant cold tolerance through modulation of autophagy and antioxidant levels.

Barley yellow dwarf Virus-GAV movement protein activating wheat TaATG6-Mediated antiviral autophagy pathway

Barley yellow dwarf virus-GAV (BYDV-GAV) is a highly destructive virus that is transmitted by aphids and can cause substantial yield losses in crops such as wheat (Triticum aestivum), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and oat (Avena sativa). Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved degradation process that eliminates damaged or harmful intracellular substances during stress conditions or specific developmental processes. However, the mechanism of autophagy involved in disease resistance in wheat remains unknown. In this study, we demonstrate that BYDV-GAV infection could induces the upregulation of genes related to the autophagy pathway in wheat, accompanied by the production of autophagosomes. Furthermore, we confirmed the direct interaction between the viral movement protein (MP) and wheat autophagy-related gene 6 (TaATG6) both in vivo and in vitro. Through yeast function complementation experiments, we determined that TaATG6 can restore the autophagy function in a yeast mutant, atg6. Additionally, we identified the interaction between TaATG6 and TaATG8, core factors of the autophagic pathway, using the yeast two-hybrid system. TaATG6 and TaATG8-silenced wheat plants exhibited a high viral content. Overall, our findings suggest that wheat can recognize BYDV-GAV infection and activate the MP-TaATG6-TaATG8 regulatory network of defense responses through the induction of the autophagy pathway.

Regulation of chloroplast protein degradation

Chloroplasts are unique organelles that not only provide sites for photosynthesis and many metabolic processes, but also are sensitive to various environmental stresses. Chloroplast proteins are encoded by genes from both nuclear and chloroplast genomes. During chloroplast development and responses to stresses, the robust protein quality control systems are essential for regulation of protein homeostasis and the integrity of chloroplast proteome. In this review, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of chloroplast protein degradation refer to protease system, ubiquitin-proteasome system, and the chloroplast autophagy. These mechanisms symbiotically play a vital role in chloroplast development and photosynthesis under both normal or stress conditions.

Autophagy regulates plastid reorganization during spermatogenesis in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha

Autophagy is a highly conserved system that delivers cytoplasmic components to lysosomes/vacuoles. Plastids are also degraded through autophagy for nutrient recycling and quality control; however, the involvement of autophagic degradation of plastids in plant cellular differentiation remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether spermiogenesis, the differentiation of spermatids into spermatozoids, in the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha involves autophagic degradation of plastids. Spermatozoids of M. polymorpha possess one cylindrical plastid at the posterior end of the cell body. By fluorescently labeling and visualizing plastids, we detected dynamic morphological changes during spermiogenesis. We found that a portion of the plastid was degraded in the vacuole in an autophagy-dependent manner during spermiogenesis, and impaired autophagy resulted in defective morphological transformation and starch accumulation in the plastid. Furthermore, we found that autophagy was dispensable for the reduction in plastid number and plastid DNA elimination. These results demonstrate a critical but selective role of autophagy in plastid reorganization during spermiogenesis in M. polymorpha.

Autophagic degradation of membrane-bound organelles in plants

Eukaryotic cells have evolved membrane-bound organelles, including the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi, mitochondria, peroxisomes, chloroplasts (in plants and green algae) and lysosomes/vacuoles, for specialized functions. Organelle quality control and their proper interactions are crucial both for normal cell homeostasis and function and for environmental adaption. Dynamic turnover of organelles is tightly controlled, with autophagy playing an essential role. Autophagy is a programmed process for efficient clearing of unwanted or damaged macromolecules or organelles, transporting them to vacuoles for degradation and recycling and thereby enhancing plant environmental plasticity. The specific autophagic engulfment of organelles requires activation of a selective autophagy pathway, recognition of the organelle by a receptor, and selective incorporation of the organelle into autophagosomes. While some of the autophagy machinery and mechanisms for autophagic removal of organelles is conserved across eukaryotes, plants have also developed unique mechanisms and machinery for these pathways. In this review, we discuss recent progress in understanding autophagy regulation in plants, with a focus on autophagic degradation of membrane-bound organelles. We also raise some important outstanding questions to be addressed in the future.

Genome-wide association analysis for grain moisture content and dehydration rate on maize hybrids

For mechanized maize production, a low grain water content (GWC) at harvest is necessary. However, as a complex quantitative trait, understand the genetic mechanism of GWC remains a large gap, especially in hybrids. In this study, a hybrid population through two environments including 442 F1 was used for genome-wide association analysis of GWC and the grain dehydration rate (GDR), using the area under the dry down curve (AUDDC) as the index. Then, we identified 19 and 17 associated SNPs for GWC and AUDDC, including 10 co-localized SNPs, along with 64 and 77 pairs of epistatic SNPs for GWC and AUDDC, respectively. These loci could explain 11.39-68.2% of the total phenotypic variation for GWC and 41.07-67.02% for AUDDC at different stages, whose major effect was the additive and epistatic effect. By exploring the candidate genes around the significant sites, a total of 398 and 457 possible protein-coding genes were screened, including autophagy pathway and auxin regulation-related genes, and five inbred lines with the potential to reduce GWC in the combined F1 hybrid were identified. Our research not only provides a certain reference for the genetic mechanism analysis of GWC in hybrids but also provides an added reference for breeding low-GWC materials.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11032-022-01349-x.

Autophagy modulates growth and development in the moss Physcomitrium patens

Physcomitrium patens apical growing protonemal cells have the singularity that they continue to undergo cell divisions as the plant develops. This feature provides a valuable tool to study autophagy in the context of a multicellular apical growing tissue coupled to development. Herein, we showed that the core autophagy machinery is present in the moss P. patens, and characterized the 2D and 3D growth and development of atg5 and atg7 loss-of-function mutants under optimal and nutrient-deprived conditions. Our results showed that 2D growth of the different morphological and functional protonemata apical growing cells, chloronema and caulonema, is differentially modulated by this process. These differences depend on the protonema cell type and position along the protonemal filament, and growth condition. As a global plant response, the absence of autophagy favors the spread of the colony through protonemata growth at the expense of a reduction of the 3D growth, such as the buds and gametophore development, and thus the adult gametophytic and reproductive phases. Altogether this study provides valuable information suggesting that autophagy has roles during apical growth with differential responses within the cell types of the same tissue and contributes to life cycle progression and thus the growth and development of the 2D and 3D tissues of P. patens.

A viral protein disrupts vacuolar acidification to facilitate virus infection in plants

Vacuolar acidification is essential for vacuoles in diverse physiological functions. However, its role in plant defense, and whether and how pathogens affect vacuolar acidification to promote infection remain unknown. Here, we show that Barley stripe mosaic virus (BSMV) replicase γa, but not its mutant γaR569A , directly blocks acidification of vacuolar lumen and suppresses autophagic degradation to promote viral infection in plants. These were achieved via molecular interaction between γa and V-ATPase catalytic subunit B2 (VHA-B2), leading to disruption of the interaction between VHA-B2 and V-ATPase catalytic subunit E (VHA-E), which impairs the membrane localization of VHA-B2 and suppresses V-ATPase activity. Furthermore, a mutant virus BSMVR569A with the R569A point mutation possesses less viral pathogenicity. Interestingly, multiple viral infections block vacuolar acidification. These findings reveal that functional vacuolar acidification is required for plant antiviral defense and disruption of vacuolar acidification could be a general viral counter-defense strategy employed by multiple viruses.

Plant UVRAG interacts with ATG14 to regulate autophagosome maturation and geminivirus infection

Autophagy is an essential degradation pathway that assists eukaryote survival under multiple stress conditions. Autophagosomes engulfing cargoes accomplish degradation only when they have matured through fusing with lysosomes or vacuoles. However, the molecular machinery mediating autophagosome maturation in plants remains unknown. Using the combined approaches of mass spectrometry, biochemistry, reverse genetics and microscopy, we uncover that UVRAG, a subunit of the class III phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase complexes in Nicotiana benthamiana, plays an essential role in autophagsome maturation via ATG14-assisted recruitment to autophagosomes and by facilitating RAB7 activation. An interaction between N. benthamiana UVRAG and ATG14 was observed in vitro and in vivo, which strikingly differed from their mutually exclusive appearance in different PI3KC3 complexes in yeast and mammals. This interaction increased the localisation of UVRAG on autophagosomes and enabled the convergence of autophagic and late endosomal structures, where they contributed to fusions between these two types of organelles by recruiting the essential membrane fusion factors RAB7 GTPase and the homotypic fusion and protein sorting (HOPS) complex. In addition, we uncovered a joint contribution of ATG14 and UVRAG to geminiviral infection, beyond autophagy. Our study provides insights into the mechanisms of autophagosome maturation in plants and expands the understanding of organisations and roles of the PI3KC3 complexes.

Functions of autophagy in chloroplast protein degradation and homeostasis

Chloroplasts are defining organelles in plant and algae, which carried out various critical metabolic processes, including photosynthesis. Roles of chloroplast protein homeostasis in plant development and stress adaptation were clearly demonstrated in previous studies, and its maintenance requires internal proteases originated from the prokaryotic ancestor. Recently, increasing evidence revealed that eukaryotic proteolytic pathways, ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) and autophagy, are also involved in the turnover of chloroplast proteins, in response to developmental and environmental cues. Notably, chloroplasts can be regulated via the selective degradation of chloroplast materials in a process called chlorophagy. Yet, understandings of the mechanism of chlorophagy are still rudimentary, particularly regarding its initiation and operation. Here we provide an updated overview of autophagy pathways for chloroplast protein degradation and discuss their importance for plant physiology. In addition, recent advance in analogous mitophagy in yeast and mammals will also be discussed, which provides clues for further elucidating the mechanism of chlorophagy.

Methylation of a MITE insertion in the MdRFNR1-1 promoter is positively associated with its allelic expression in apple in response to drought stress

Miniature inverted-repeat transposable elements (MITEs) are widely distributed in the plant genome and can be methylated. However, whether DNA methylation of MITEs is associated with induced allelic expression and drought tolerance is unclear. Here, we identified the drought-inducible MdRFNR1 (root-type ferredoxin-NADP+ oxidoreductase) gene in apple (Malus domestica). MdRFNR1 plays a positive role in drought tolerance by regulating the redox system, including increasing NADP+ accumulation and catalase and peroxidase activities and decreasing NADPH levels. Sequence analysis identified a MITE insertion (MITE-MdRF1) in the promoter of MdRFNR1-1 but not the MdRFNR1-2 allele. MdRFNR1-1 but not MdRFNR1-2 expression was significantly induced by drought stress, which was positively associated with the MITE-MdRF1 insertion and its DNA methylation. The methylated MITE-MdRF1 is recognized by the transcriptional anti-silencing factors MdSUVH1 and MdSUVH3, which recruit the DNAJ domain-containing proteins MdDNAJ1, MdDNAJ2, and MdDNAJ5, thereby activating MdRFNR1-1 expression under drought stress. Finally, we showed that MdSUVH1 and MdDNAJ1 are positive regulators of drought tolerance. These findings illustrate the molecular roles of methylated MITE-MdRF1 (which is recognized by the MdSUVH-MdDNAJ complex) in induced MdRFNR1-1 expression as well as the drought response of apple and shed light on the molecular mechanisms of natural variation in perennial trees.

The plant TOR kinase tunes autophagy and meristem activity for nutrient stress-induced developmental plasticity

Plants, unlike animals, respond to environmental challenges with comprehensive developmental transitions that allow them to cope with these stresses. Here we discovered that antagonistic activation of the Target of Rapamycin (TOR) kinase in Arabidopsis thaliana roots and shoots is essential for the nutrient deprivation-induced increase in the root-to-shoot ratio to improve foraging for mineral ions. We demonstrate that sulfate limitation-induced downregulation of TOR in shoots activates autophagy, resulting in enhanced carbon allocation to the root. The allocation of carbon to the roots is facilitated by the specific upregulation of the sucrose-transporter genes SWEET11/12 in shoots. SWEET11/12 activation is indispensable for enabling sucrose to act as a carbon source for growth and as a signal for tuning root apical meristem activity via glucose-TOR signaling. The sugar-stimulated TOR activity in the root suppresses autophagy and maintains root apical meristem activity to support root growth to enhance mining for new sulfate resources in the soil. We provide direct evidence that the organ-specific regulation of autophagy is essential for the increased root-to-shoot ratio in response to sulfur limitation. These findings uncover how sulfur limitation controls the central sensor kinase TOR to enable nutrient recycling for stress-induced morphological adaptation of the plant body.

TraB family proteins are components of ER-mitochondrial contact sites and regulate ER-mitochondrial interactions and mitophagy

ER-mitochondrial contact sites (EMCSs) are important for mitochondrial function. Here, we have identified a EMCS complex, comprising a family of uncharacterised mitochondrial outer membrane proteins, TRB1, TRB2, and the ER protein, VAP27-1. In Arabidopsis, there are three TraB family isoforms and the trb1/trb2 double mutant exhibits abnormal mitochondrial morphology, strong starch accumulation, and impaired energy metabolism, indicating that these proteins are essential for normal mitochondrial function. Moreover, TRB1 and TRB2 proteins also interact with ATG8 in order to regulate mitochondrial degradation (mitophagy). The turnover of depolarised mitochondria is significantly reduced in both trb1/trb2 and VAP27 mutants (vap27-1,3,4,6) under mitochondrial stress conditions, with an increased population of dysfunctional mitochondria present in the cytoplasm. Consequently, plant recovery after stress is significantly perturbed, suggesting that TRB1-regulated mitophagy and ER-mitochondrial interaction are two closely related processes. Taken together, we ascribe a dual role to TraB family proteins which are component of the EMCS complex in eukaryotes, regulating both interaction of the mitochondria to the ER and mitophagy.

Amino Acids Supplied through the Autophagy/Endocytosis Pathway Promote Starch Synthesis in Physcomitrella Protonemal Cells

The physiological implications of autophagy in plant cells have not been fully elucidated. Therefore, we investigated the consequences of autophagy in the moss Physcomitrella by measuring biochemical parameters (fresh and dry weights; starch, amino acid, carbohydrate, and NH3 content) in wild-type (WT) and autophagy-deficient atg5 Physcomitrella cells. We found higher starch levels and a higher net starch synthesis rate in WT cells than in atg5 cells cultured in a glucose-containing culture medium, whereas net starch degradation was similar in the two strains cultured in a glucose-deficient culture medium. Additionally, the treatment of cells with the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine suppressed starch synthesis. Loading bovine serum albumin into atg5 cells through endocytosis, i.e., supplying proteins to vacuoles in the same way as through autophagy, accelerated starch synthesis, whereas loading glutamine through the plasma membrane had no such effect, suggesting that Physcomitrella cells distinguish between different amino acid supply pathways. After net starch synthesis, NH3 levels increased in WT cells, although the change in total amino acid content did not differ between WT and atg5 cells, indicating that autophagy-produced amino acids are oxidized rapidly. We conclude that autophagy promotes starch synthesis in Physcomitrella by supplying the energy obtained by oxidizing autophagy-produced amino acids.

Carbohydrate Repartitioning in the Rice Starch Branching Enzyme IIb Mutant Stimulates Higher Resistant Starch Content and Lower Seed Weight Revealed by Multiomics Analysis

The starch branching enzyme IIb mutant (be2b) in rice significantly increases the resistant starch (RS) content and leads to reduced seed weight. However, the underlying metabolic mechanisms remain unclear. Proteomic analysis indicated that upregulation of starch synthase IIa (SSIIa) and SSIIIa and downregulation of BEI and SSI were possibly responsible for the decreased short amylopectin chains (DP 6-15) and increased longer chains (DP > 16) of be2b starch. The upregulation of granule-bound starch synthase led to increased amylose content (AC). These changes in the amylopectin structure and AC accounted for the increased RS content. α-Amylase 2A showed the strongest upregulation (up to 8.45-fold), indicating that the loss of BEIIb activity enhanced starch degradation. Upregulation of glycolysis-related proteins stimulated carbohydrate repartitioning through glycerate-3-phosphate and promoted the accumulation of tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates, amino acids, and fatty acids. The unexpected carbohydrate partitioning and enhanced starch degradation resulted in the reduced seed weight in the be2b mutant.

Coat protein of Chinese wheat mosaic virus upregulates and interacts with cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, a negative regulator of plant autophagy, to promote virus infection

Autophagy is an intracellular degradation mechanism involved in antiviral defense, but the strategies employed by plant viruses to counteract autophagy-related defense remain unknown for the majority of the viruses. Herein, we describe how the Chinese wheat mosaic virus (CWMV, genus Furovirus) interferes with autophagy and enhances its infection in Nicotiana benthamiana. Yeast two-hybrid screening and in vivo/in vitro assays revealed that the 19 kDa coat protein (CP19K) of CWMV interacts with cytosolic glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenases (GAPCs), negative regulators of autophagy, which bind autophagy-related protein 3 (ATG3), a key factor in autophagy. CP19K also directly interacts with ATG3, possibly leading to the formation of a CP19K-GAPC-ATG3 complex. CP19K-GAPC interaction appeared to intensify CP19K-ATG3 binding. Moreover, CP19K expression upregulated GAPC gene transcripts and reduced autophagic activities. Accordingly, the silencing of GAPC genes in transgenic N. benthamiana reduced CWMV accumulation, whereas CP19K overexpression enhanced it. Overall, our results suggest that CWMV CP19K interferes with autophagy through the promotion and utilization of the GAPC role as a negative regulator of autophagy.

Chloroplasts Protein Quality Control and Turnover: A Multitude of Mechanisms

As the organelle of photosynthesis and other important metabolic pathways, chloroplasts contain up to 70% of leaf proteins with uniquely complex processes in synthesis, import, assembly, and turnover. Maintaining functional protein homeostasis in chloroplasts is vitally important for the fitness and survival of plants. Research over the past several decades has revealed a multitude of mechanisms that play important roles in chloroplast protein quality control and turnover under normal and stress conditions. These mechanisms include: (i) endosymbiotically-derived proteases and associated proteins that play a vital role in maintaining protein homeostasis inside the chloroplasts, (ii) the ubiquitin-dependent turnover of unimported chloroplast precursor proteins to prevent their accumulation in the cytosol, (iii) chloroplast-associated degradation of the chloroplast outer-membrane translocon proteins for the regulation of chloroplast protein import, (iv) chloroplast unfolded protein response triggered by accumulated unfolded and misfolded proteins inside the chloroplasts, and (v) vesicle-mediated degradation of chloroplast components in the vacuole. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of these diverse mechanisms of chloroplast protein quality control and turnover and discuss important questions that remain to be addressed in order to better understand and improve important chloroplast functions.

Autophagy targets Hd1 for vacuolar degradation to regulate rice flowering

Flowering time (heading date) is a critical agronomic trait that determines the yield and regional adaptability of crops. Heading date 1 (Hd1) is a central regulator of photoperiodic flowering in rice (Oryza sativa). However, how the homeostasis of Hd1 protein is achieved is poorly understood. Here, we report that the nuclear autophagy pathway mediates Hd1 degradation in the dark to regulate flowering. Loss of autophagy function results in an accumulation of Hd1 and delays flowering under both short-day and long-day conditions. In the dark, nucleus-localized Hd1 is recognized as a substrate for autophagy and is subjected to vacuolar degradation via the autophagy protein OsATG8. The Hd1-OsATG8 interaction is required for autophagic degradation of Hd1 in the dark. Our study reveals a new mechanism by which Hd1 protein homeostasis is regulated by autophagy to control rice flowering. Our study also indicates that the regulation of flowering by autophagic degradation of Hd1 orthologs may have arisen over the course of mesangiosperm evolution, which would have increased their flexibility and adaptability to the environment by modulating flowering time.

Whole-Transcriptome Analysis Reveals Autophagy Is Involved in Early Senescence of zj-es Mutant Rice

Senescence is a necessary stage of plant growth and development, and the early senescence of rice will lead to yield reduction and quality decline. However, the mechanisms of rice senescence remain obscure. In this study, we characterized an early-senescence rice mutant, designated zj-es (ZheJing-early senescence), which was derived from the japonica rice cultivar Zhejing22. The mutant zj-es exhibited obvious early-senescence phenotype, such as collapsed chloroplast, lesions in leaves, declined fertility, plant dwarf, and decreased agronomic traits. The ZJ-ES gene was mapped in a 458 kb-interval between the molecular markers RM5992 and RM5813 on Chromosome 3, and analysis suggested that ZJ-ES is a novel gene controlling rice early senescence. Subsequently, whole-transcriptome RNA sequencing was performed on zj-es and its wild-type rice to dissect the underlying molecular mechanism for early senescence. Totally, 10,085 differentially expressed mRNAs (DEmRNAs), 1,253 differentially expressed lncRNAs (DElncRNAs), and 614 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEmiRNAs) were identified, respectively, in different comparison groups. Based on the weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA), the co-expression turquoise module was found to be the key for the occurrence of rice early senescence. Furthermore, analysis on the competing endogenous RNA (CeRNA) network revealed that 14 lncRNAs possibly regulated 16 co-expressed mRNAs through 8 miRNAs, and enrichment analysis showed that most of the DEmRNAs and the targets of DElncRNAs and DEmiRNAs were involved in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-triggered autophagy-related pathways. Further analysis showed that, in zj-es, ROS-related enzyme activities were markedly changed, ROS were largely accumulated, autophagosomes were obviously observed, cell death was significantly detected, and lesions were notably appeared in leaves. Totally, combining our results here and the remaining research, we infer that ROS-triggered autophagy induces the programmed cell death (PCD) and its coupled early senescence in zj-es mutant rice.

Potassium regulates diel leaf growth of Brassica napus by coordinating the rhythmic carbon supply and water balance

Carbon and water are two main factors limiting leaf expansion. Restriction of leaf growth by low availability of carbon or water is among the earliest visible effects of potassium (K) deficiency. It is not known how K is involved in regulating the rhythmic supply of these two substrates, which differ remarkably across the day-night cycle, affecting leaf expansion. We investigated the effects of different K regimes on the time courses of leaf expansion, carbon assimilation, carbohydrates, and hydraulic properties of Brassica napus. Potassium supply increased leaf area, predominantly by promoting night-time leaf expansion (>60%), which was mainly associated with increased availability of carbohydrates from photosynthetic carbon fixation and import from old leaves rather than improvement of leaf hydraulics. However, sufficient K improved leaf hydraulic conductance to balance diurnal evaporative water loss and increase the osmotic contribution of water-soluble carbohydrates, thereby maintaining leaf turgor and increasing the daytime expansion rate. The results also indicated an ontogenetic role of K in modifying the amplitude of circadian expansion; almost 80% of the increase in leaf area occurred before the area reached 66.9% of the mature size. Our data provide mechanistic insight into K-mediated diel coordination of rhythmic carbon supply and water balance in leaf expansion.

Mechanistic insights into an atypical interaction between ATG8 and SH3P2 in Arabidopsis thaliana

In selective macroautophagy/autophagy, cargo receptors are recruited to the forming autophagosome by interacting with Atg8 (autophagy-related 8)-family proteins and facilitate the selective sequestration of specific cargoes for autophagic degradation. In addition, Atg8 interacts with a number of adaptors essential for autophagosome biogenesis, including ATG and non-ATG proteins. The majority of these adaptors and receptors are characterized by an Atg8-family interacting motif (AIM) for binding to Atg8. However, the molecular basis for the interaction mode between ATG8 and regulators or cargo receptors in plants remains largely unclear. In this study, we unveiled an atypical interaction mode for Arabidopsis ATG8f with a plant unique adaptor protein, SH3P2 (SH3 domain-containing protein 2), but not with the other two SH3 proteins. By structure analysis of the unbound form of ATG8f, we identified the unique conformational changes in ATG8f upon binding to the AIM sequence of a plant known autophagic receptor, NBR1. To compare the binding affinity of SH3P2-ATG8f with that of ATG8f-NBR1, we performed a gel filtration assay to show that ubiquitin-associated domain of NBR1 outcompetes the SH3 domain of SH3P2 for ATG8f interaction. Biochemical and cellular analysis revealed that distinct interfaces were employed by ATG8f to interact with NBR1 and SH3P2. Further subcellular analysis showed that the AIM-like motif of SH3P2 is essential for its recruitment to the phagophore membrane but is dispensable for its trafficking in endocytosis. Taken together, our study provides an insightful structural basis for the ATG8 binding specificity toward a plant-specific autophagic adaptor and a conserved autophagic receptor.Abbreviations: ATG, autophagy-related; AIM, Atg8-family interacting motif; BAR, Bin-Amphiphysin-Rvs; BFA, brefeldin A; BTH, benzo-(1,2,3)-thiadiazole-7-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester; CCV, clathrin-coated-vesicle; CLC2, clathrin light chain 2; Conc A, concanamycin A; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; LDS, LIR docking site; MAP1LC3/LC3, microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; LIR, LC3-interacting region; PE, phosphatidylethanolamine; SH3P2, SH3 domain containing protein 2; SH3, Src-Homology-3; UBA, ubiquitin-associated; UIM, ubiquitin-interacting motif.

A molecular link between autophagy and circadian rhythm in plants

Extremely high or low autophagy levels disrupt plant survival under nutrient starvation. Recently, autophagy has been reported to display rhythms in animals. However, the mechanism of circadian regulation of autophagy is still unclear. Here, we observed that autophagy has a robust rhythm and that various autophagy-related genes (ATGs) are rhythmically expressed in Arabidopsis. Chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) and dual-luciferase (LUC) analyses showed that the core oscillator gene TIMING OF CAB EXPRESSION 1 (TOC1) directly binds to the promoters of ATG (ATG1a, ATG2, and ATG8d) and negatively regulates autophagy activities under nutritional stress. Furthermore, autophagy defects might affect endogenous rhythms by reducing the rhythm amplitude of TOC1 and shortening the rhythm period of CIRCADIAN CLOCK-ASSOCIATED 1 (CCA1). Autophagy is essential for the circadian clock pattern in seedling development and plant sensitivity to nutritional deficiencies. Taken together, our studies reveal a plant strategy in which the TOC1-ATG axis involved in autophagy-rhythm crosstalk to fine-tune the intensity of autophagy.

Linking Autophagy to Potential Agronomic Trait Improvement in Crops

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic process in eukaryotic cells, by which the superfluous or damaged cytoplasmic components can be delivered into vacuoles or lysosomes for degradation and recycling. Two decades of autophagy research in plants uncovers the important roles of autophagy during diverse biological processes, including development, metabolism, and various stress responses. Additionally, molecular machineries contributing to plant autophagy onset and regulation have also gradually come into people’s sights. With the advancement of our knowledge of autophagy from model plants, autophagy research has expanded to include crops in recent years, for a better understanding of autophagy engagement in crop biology and its potentials in improving agricultural performance. In this review, we summarize the current research progress of autophagy in crops and discuss the autophagy-related approaches for potential agronomic trait improvement in crop plants.

Metabolism and autophagy in plants - A perfect match

Autophagy is a eukaryotic cellular transport mechanism that delivers intracellular macromolecules, proteins, and even organelles to a lytic organelle (vacuole in yeast and plants/lysosome in animals) for degradation and nutrient recycling. The process is mediated by highly conserved Autophagy-Related (ATG) proteins. In plants, autophagy maintains cellular homeostasis under favorable conditions, guaranteeing normal plant growth and fitness. Severe stress such as nutrient starvation and plant senescence further induce it, thus ensuring plant survival under unfavorable conditions by providing nutrients through the removal of damaged or aged proteins, or organelles. In this article, we examine the interplay between metabolism and autophagy, focusing on the different aspects of this reciprocal relationship. We show that autophagy has a strong influence on a range of metabolic processes, whereas, at the same time, even single metabolites can activate autophagy. We highlight the involvement of ATG genes in metabolism, examine the role of the macronutrients carbon and nitrogen, as well as various micronutrients, and take a closer look at how the interaction between autophagy and metabolism impacts on plant phenotypes and yield.

Melatonin delays dark-induced leaf senescence by inducing miR171b expression in tomato

Melatonin functions in multiple aspects of plant growth, development, and stress response. Nonetheless, the mechanism of melatonin in plant carbon metabolism remains largely unknown. In this study, we investigated the influence of melatonin on the degradation of starch in tomato leaves. Results showed that exogenous melatonin attenuated carbon starvation-induced chlorophyll degradation and leaf senescence. In addition, melatonin delayed leaf starch degradation and inhibited the transcription of starch-degrading enzymes after sunset. Interestingly, melatonin-alleviated symptoms of leaf senescence and starch degradation were compromised when the first key gene for starch degradation, α-glucan water dikinase (GWD), was overexpressed. Furthermore, exogenous melatonin significantly upregulated the transcript levels of several microRNAs, including miR171b. Crucially, the GWD gene was identified as a target of miR171b, and the overexpression of miR171b ameliorated the carbon starvation-induced degradation of chlorophyll and starch, and inhibited the expression of the GWD gene. Taken together, these results demonstrate that melatonin promotes plant tolerance against carbon starvation by upregulating the expression of miR171b, which can directly inhibit GWD expression in tomato leaves.

Singlet Oxygen Leads to Structural Changes to Chloroplasts during their Degradation in the Arabidopsis thaliana plastid ferrochelatase two Mutant

During stress, chloroplasts produce large amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Chloroplasts also contain many nutrients, including 80% of a leaf's nitrogen supply. Therefore, to protect cells from photo-oxidative damage and to redistribute nutrients to sink tissues, chloroplasts are prime targets for degradation. Multiple chloroplast degradation pathways are induced by photo-oxidative stress or nutrient starvation, but the mechanisms by which damaged or senescing chloroplasts are identified, transported to the central vacuole and degraded are poorly defined. Here, we investigated the structures involved with degrading chloroplasts induced by the ROS singlet oxygen (1O2) in the Arabidopsis thaliana plastid ferrochelatase two (fc2) mutant. Under mild 1O2 stress, most fc2 chloroplasts appeared normal, but had reduced starch content. A subset of chloroplasts was degrading, and some protruded into the central vacuole via 'blebbing' structures. A 3D electron microscopy analysis demonstrated that up to 35% of degrading chloroplasts contained such structures. While the location of a chloroplast within a cell did not affect the likelihood of its degradation, chloroplasts in spongy mesophyll cells were degraded at a higher rate than those in palisade mesophyll cells. To determine if degrading chloroplasts have unique structural characteristics, allowing them to be distinguished from healthy chloroplasts, we analyzed fc2 seedlings grown under different levels of photo-oxidative stress. A correlation was observed among chloroplast swelling, 1O2 signaling and the state of degradation. Finally, plastoglobule (PG) enzymes involved in chloroplast disassembly were upregulated while PGs increased their association with the thylakoid grana, implicating an interaction between 1O2-induced chloroplast degradation and senescence pathways.

Autophagic degradation of the chloroplastic 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase TaPGLP1 in wheat

KEY MESSAGE

TaPGLP1, a chloroplast stromal 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase of wheat, is an ATG8-interacting protein and undergoes autophagic degradation in starvation-treated wheat mesophyll protoplasts. Selective autophagy in plants has been shown to target diverse cellular cargoes including whole chloroplasts (Chlorophagy) and several chloroplast components (Piecemeal chlorophagy). Most cargoes of selective autophagy are captured by the autophagic machinery through their direct or indirect interactions with the autophagy-essential factor ATG8. Here, we reported a new ATG8-interacting cargo of piecemeal chlorophagy, the wheat photorespiratory 2-phosphoglycolate phosphatase TaPGLP1. The TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions expressed in wheat protoplasts located in the chloroplast stroma. Strikingly, these fusions are translocated into newly formed chloroplast surface protrusions after a long time incubation of protoplasts in a nutrition-free solution. Visualization of co-expressed TaPGLP1-mCherry and the autophagy marker GFP-TaATG8a revealed physical associations of TaPGLP1-mCherry-accumulating chloroplast protrusions with autophagic structures, implying the delivery of TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions from chloroplasts to the autophagic machinery. TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions were also detected in the GFP-TaATG8a-labelled autophagic bodies undergoing degradation in the vacuoles, which suggested the autophagic degradation of TaPGLP1. This autophagic degradation of TaPGLP1 was further demonstrated by the enhanced stability of TaPGLP1-mCherry in protoplasts with impaired autophagy. Expression of TaPGLP1-mCherry in protoplasts stimulated an enhanced autophagy level probably adopted by cells to degrade the over-produced TaPGLP1-mCherry fusions. Results from gene silencing assays showed the requirement of ATG2s and ATG7s in the autophagic degradation of TaPGLP1. Additionally, TaPGLP1 was shown to interact with ATG8 family members. Collectively, our data suggest that autophagy mediates the degradation of the chloroplast stromal protein TaPGLP1 in starvation-treated mesophyll protoplasts.

Autophagy in sexual plant reproduction: new insights

Autophagy is a mechanism by which damaged or unwanted cells are degraded and their constituents recycled. Over the past decades, research focused on autophagy has expanded from yeast to mammals and plants, and the core machinery regulating autophagy appears to be conserved. In plants, autophagy has essential roles in responses to stressful conditions and also contributes to normal development, especially in the context of reproduction. Here, based on recent efforts to understand the roles and molecular mechanisms underlying autophagy, we highlight the specific roles of autophagy in plant reproduction and provide new insights for further studies.

An Overview of the Molecular Mechanisms and Functions of Autophagic Pathways in Plants

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved pathway for the degradation of damaged or toxic components. Under normal conditions, autophagy maintains cellular homeostasis. It can be triggered by senescence and various stresses. In the process of autophagy, autophagy-related (ATG) proteins not only function as central signal regulators but also participate in the development of complex survival mechanisms when plants suffer from adverse environments. Therefore, ATGs play significant roles in metabolism, development and stress tolerance. In the past decade, both the molecular mechanisms of autophagy and a large number of components involved in the assembly of autophagic vesicles have been identified. In recent studies, an increasing number of components, mechanisms, and receptors have appeared in the autophagy pathway. In this paper, we mainly review the recent progress of research on the molecular mechanisms of plant autophagy, as well as its function under biotic stress and abiotic stress.

Genome-wide analysis of autophagy-related genes in Medicago truncatula highlights their roles in seed development and response to drought stress

Autophagy is a highly conserved process of degradation of cytoplasmic constituents in eukaryotes. It is involved in the growth and development of plants, as well as in biotic and abiotic stress response. Although autophagy-related (ATG) genes have been identified and characterized in many plant species, little is known about this process in Medicago truncatula. In this study, 39 ATGs were identified, and their gene structures and conserved domains were systematically characterized in M. truncatula. Many cis-elements, related to hormone and stress responsiveness, were identified in the promoters of MtATGs. Phylogenetic and interaction network analyses suggested that the function of MtATGs is evolutionarily conserved in Arabidopsis and M. truncatula. The expression of MtATGs, at varied levels, was detected in all examined tissues. In addition, most of the MtATGs were highly induced during seed development and drought stress, which indicates that autophagy plays an important role in seed development and responses to drought stress in M. truncatula. In conclusion, this study gives a comprehensive overview of MtATGs and provides important clues for further functional analysis of autophagy in M. truncatula.

GFS9 Affects Piecemeal Autophagy of Plastids in Young Seedlings of Arabidopsis thaliana

Chloroplasts, and plastids in general, contain abundant protein pools that can be major sources of carbon and nitrogen for recycling. We have previously shown that chloroplasts are partially and sequentially degraded by piecemeal autophagy via the Rubisco-containing body. This degradation occurs during plant development and in response to the environment; however, little is known about the fundamental underlying mechanisms. To discover the mechanisms of piecemeal autophagy of chloroplasts/plastids, we conducted a forward-genetics screen following ethyl-methanesulfonate mutagenesis of an Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) transgenic line expressing chloroplast-targeted green fluorescent protein (CT-GFP). This screen allowed us to isolate a mutant, gfs9-5, which hyperaccumulated cytoplasmic bodies labeled with CT-GFP of up to 1.0 μm in diameter in the young seedlings. We termed these structures plastid bodies (PBs). The mutant was defective in a membrane-trafficking factor, green fluorescent seed 9 (GFS9), and PB accumulation in gfs9-5 was promoted by darkness and nutrient deficiency. Transmission electron microscopy indicated that gfs9-5 hyperaccumulated structures corresponding to autophagosomes and PBs. gfs9-5 hyperaccumulated membrane-bound endogenous ATG8 proteins, transgenic yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)-ATG8e proteins and autophagosome-like structures labeled with YFP-ATG8e. The YFP-ATG8e signal was associated with the surface of plastids and their protrusions in gfs9-5. Double mutants of gfs9 and autophagy-defective 5 did not accumulate PBs. In gfs9-5, the YFP-ATG8e proteins and PBs could be delivered to the vacuole and autophagic flux was increased. We discuss a possible connection between GFS9 and autophagy and propose a potential use of gfs9-5 as a new tool to study piecemeal plastid autophagy.

MdATG5a induces drought tolerance by improving the antioxidant defenses and promoting starch degradation in apple

Drought occurrence seriously affects the productivity and quality of apple crop worldwide. Autophagy, a conserved process for the degradation and recycling of unwanted cellular components, is considered to positively regulate the tolerance of various abiotic stresses in plants. In the current study, we isolated two ATG5 homologs genes, namely, MdATG5a and MdATG5b, from apple, demonstrating their responsiveness to drought and oxidative stresses. In addition to having the same cellular localization in the nucleus and cytoplasm, both MdATG5a and MdATG5b could interact with MdATG12. Transgenic apple plants overexpressing MdATG5a exhibited an improved drought tolerance, as indicated by less drought-related damage and higher photosynthetic capacities compared to wild-type (WT) plants under drought stress. The overexpression of MdATG5a improved antioxidant defenses in apple when exposed to drought via elevating both antioxidant enzyme activities and the levels of beneficial antioxidants. Furthermore, under drought stress, the overexpression of MdATG5a promoted the mobilization of starch to accumulate greater levels of soluble sugars, contributing to osmotic adjustments and supporting carbon skeletons for proline synthesis. Such changes in physiological responses may be associated with increased autophagic activities in the transgenic plants upon exposure to drought. Our results demonstrate that MdATG5a-mediated autophagy enhances drought tolerance of apple plants via improving antioxidant defenses and metabolic adjustments.

Autophagy Inhibits Intercellular Transport of Citrus Leaf Blotch Virus by Targeting Viral Movement Protein

Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved cellular-degradation mechanism implicated in antiviral defense in plants. Studies have shown that autophagy suppresses virus accumulation in cells; however, it has not been reported to specifically inhibit viral spread in plants. This study demonstrated that infection with citrus leaf blotch virus (CLBV; genus Citrivirus, family Betaflexiviridae) activated autophagy in Nicotiana benthamiana plants as indicated by the increase of autophagosome formation. Impairment of autophagy through silencing of N. benthamiana autophagy-related gene 5 (NbATG5) and NbATG7 enhanced cell-to-cell and systemic movement of CLBV; however, it did not affect CLBV accumulation when the systemic infection had been fully established. Treatment using an autophagy inhibitor or silencing of NbATG5 and NbATG7 revealed that transiently expressed movement protein (MP), but not coat protein, of CLBV was targeted by selective autophagy for degradation. Moreover, we identified that CLBV MP directly interacted with NbATG8C1 and NbATG8i, the isoforms of autophagy-related protein 8 (ATG8), which are key factors that usually bind cargo receptors for selective autophagy. Our results present a novel example in which autophagy specifically targets a viral MP to limit the intercellular spread of the virus in plants.

BLB8, an antiviral protein from Brevibacillus laterosporus strain B8, inhibits Tobacco mosaic virus infection by triggering immune response in tobacco

BACKGROUND

Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is one of destructive plant viruses, causing serious economic losses in the world. Using antiviral proteins or elicitors to inhibit viral infection or promote plant immunity is one of the efficient strategies against TMV. Our previous study identified that the fermentation broth of Brevibacillus laterosporus strain B8 showed strong antiviral activity against TMV. However, the active antiviral ingredient is still unclear.

RESULTS

Here, BLB8 (B. laterosporus strain B8 protein, BLB8), an antiviral protein from B. laterosporus strain B8 was isolated and characterized. BLB8 showed protective, inactive and curative effects against TMV, and the inhibition rate reached up to 63%, 83% and 55%, respectively. BLB8 infiltrated around the infection site of the recombinant virus TMV-GFP inhibited the systemic extend and movement of TMV. Pretreatment of the bottom leaves with BLB8 inhibited the spread and accumulation of TMV in upper systemic leaves. Furthermore, BLB8 caused hypersensitive response (HR) in a dose-dependent way, promoted H2 O2 accumulation, and induced the expression of defense-relative genes in Nicotiana benthamiana.

CONCLUSION

The antiviral protein BLB8 from B. laterosporus strain B8 effectively inhibits TMV infection in inactivation, protective and curative effects through triggering plant immunity in tobacco. Therefore, the present study provides a new antiviral agent for prevention and control of viral disease. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.