Integrated network analysis identifies fight-club nodes as a class of hubs encompassing key putative switch genes that induce major transcriptome reprogramming during grapevine development

Berry shrivel in grapevine: a review considering multiple approaches

Grapevine berry shrivel, a ripening disorder, causes significant economic losses in the worldwide wine and table grape industries. An early interruption in ripening leads to this disorder, resulting in shriveling and reduced sugar accumulation affecting yield and fruit quality. Loss of sink strength associated with berry mesocarp cell death is an early symptom of this disorder; however, potential internal or external triggers are yet to be explored. No pathogens have been identified that might cause the ripening syndrome. Understanding the underlying causes and mechanisms contributing to berry shrivel is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies and finding solutions for other ripening disorders associated with climacteric and non-climacteric fruits. This review discusses alterations in the fruit ripening mechanism induced by berry shrivel disorder, focusing primarily on sugar transport and metabolism, cell wall modification and cell death, and changes in the phytohormone profile. The essential open questions are highlighted and analyzed, thus identifying the critical knowledge gaps and key challenges for future research.

NAC61 regulates late- and post-ripening osmotic, oxidative, and biotic stress responses in grapevine

During late- and post-ripening stages, grape berry undergoes profound biochemical and physiological changes whose molecular control is poorly understood. Here, we report the role of NAC61, a grapevine NAC transcription factor, in regulating different processes involved in berry ripening progression. NAC61 is highly expressed during post-harvest berry dehydration and its expression pattern is closely related to sugar concentration. The ectopic expression of NAC61 in Nicotiana benthamiana leaves resulted in low stomatal conductance, high leaf temperature, tissue collapse and a higher relative water content. Transcriptome analysis of grapevine leaves transiently overexpressing NAC61 and DNA affinity purification and sequencing analyses allowed us to narrow down a list of NAC61-regulated genes. Direct regulation of the stilbene synthase regulator MYB14, the osmotic stress-related gene DHN1b, the Botrytis cinerea susceptibility gene WRKY52, and NAC61 itself was validated. We also demonstrate that NAC61 interacts with NAC60, a proposed master regulator of grapevine organ maturation, in the activation of MYB14 and NAC61 expression. Overall, our findings establish NAC61 as a key player in a regulatory network that governs stilbenoid metabolism and osmotic, oxidative, and biotic stress responses that are the hallmark of late- and post-ripening grape stages.

Integrated Analysis of Transcriptome and Metabolome to Unveil Impact on Enhancing Grape Aroma Quality with Synthetic Auxin: Spotlight the Mediation of ABA in Crosstalk with Auxin

It is widely accepted that prevéraison application of naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) can delay the ripening of grapes and improve their quality. However, how NAA impacts grape aroma compound concentrations remains unclear. This study incorporated the analyses of aroma metabolome, phytohormones, and transcriptome of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon grapes cultivated in continental arid/semiarid regions of western China. The analyses demonstrated that NAA application increased β-damascenone and 1,1,6-trimethyl-1,2-dihydronaphthalene (TDN) in the harvested grapes by delaying véraison and upregulating VvPSY1 and VvCCD4b expressions. Additionally, NAA treatment decreased 2-isobutyl-3-methoxypyrazine (IBMP) at the same phenological stage. Notably, abscisic acid (ABA) levels increased in NAA-treated grapes during véraison, which triggered further changes in norisoprenoid metabolisms. The ABA-responsive factor VvABF2 was potentially involved in VvPSY1 positive modulation, while the auxin response factor VvARF10 may play a role in VvCCD4b upregulation and VvOMT2 downregulation during NAA induction. VvARF10 possibly acts as a crosstalk node between the ABA and auxin signaling pathways following NAA treatment in regulating aroma biosynthesis.

ATL Protein Family: Novel Regulators in Plant Response to Environmental Stresses

Plants actively develop intricate regulatory mechanisms to counteract the harmful effects of environmental stresses. The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway, a crucial mechanism, employs E3 ligases (E3s) to facilitate the conjugation of ubiquitin to specific target substrates, effectively marking them for proteolytic degradation. E3s play critical roles in many biological processes, including phytohormonal signaling and adaptation to environmental stresses. Arabidopsis Toxicosa en Levadura (ATL) proteins, belonging to a subfamily of RING-H2 E3s, actively modulate diverse physiological processes and plant responses to environmental stresses. Despite studies on the functions of certain ATL family members in rice and Arabidopsis, most ATLs still need more comprehensive study. This review presents an overview of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), specifically focusing on the pivotal role of E3s and associated enzymes in plant development and environmental adaptation. Our study seeks to unveil the active modulation of plant responses to environmental stresses by E3s and ATLs, emphasizing the significance of ATLs within this intricate process. By emphasizing the importance of studying the roles of E3s and ATLs, our review contributes to developing more resilient plant varieties and promoting sustainable agricultural practices while establishing a research roadmap for the future.

Molecular regulation of apple and grape ripening: exploring common and distinct transcriptional aspects of representative climacteric and non-climacteric fruits

Fleshy fruits of angiosperms are organs specialized for promoting seed dispersal by attracting herbivores and enticing them to consume the organ and the seeds it contains. Ripening can be broadly defined as the processes serving as a plant strategy to make the fleshy fruit appealing to animals, consisting of a coordinated series of changes in color, texture, aroma, and flavor that result from an intricate interplay of genetically and epigenetically programmed events. The ripening of fruits can be categorized into two types: climacteric, which is characterized by a rapid increase in respiration rate typically accompanied by a burst of ethylene production, and non-climacteric, in which this pronounced peak in respiration is absent. Here we review current knowledge of transcriptomic changes taking place in apple (Malus × domestica, climacteric) and grapevine (Vitis vinifera, non-climacteric) fruit during ripening, with the aim of highlighting specific and common hormonal and molecular events governing the process in the two species. With this perspective, we found that specific NAC transcription factor members participate in ripening initiation in grape and are involved in restoring normal physiological ripening progression in impaired fruit ripening in apple. These elements suggest the existence of a common regulatory mechanism operated by NAC transcription factors and auxin in the two species.

Genetic diversity and signature of divergence in the genome of grapevine clones of Southern Italy varieties

Sexual reproduction has contributed to a significant degree of variability in cultivated grapevine populations. However, the additional influence of spontaneous somatic mutations has played a pivotal role in shaping the diverse landscape of grapevine agrobiodiversity. These naturally occurring selections, termed 'clones,' represent a vast reservoir of potentially valuable traits and alleles that hold promise for enhancing grape quality and bolstering plant resilience against environmental and biotic challenges. Despite their potential, many of these clones remain largely untapped.In light of this context, this study aims to delve into the population structure, genetic diversity, and distinctive genetic loci within a collection of 138 clones derived from six Campanian and Apulian grapevine varieties, known for their desirable attributes in viticulture and winemaking. Employing two reduced representation sequencing methods, we extracted Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) markers. Population structure analysis and fixation index (FST) calculations were conducted both between populations and at individual loci. Notably, varieties originating from the same geographical region exhibited pronounced genetic similarity.The resulting SNP dataset facilitated the identification of approximately two hundred loci featuring divergent markers (FST ≥ 0.80) within annotated exons. Several of these loci exhibited associations with essential traits like phenotypic adaptability and environmental responsiveness, offering compelling opportunities for grapevine breeding initiatives. By shedding light on the genetic variability inherent in these treasured traditional grapevines, our study contributes to the broader understanding of their potential. Importantly, it underscores the urgency of preserving and characterizing these valuable genetic resources to safeguard their intra-varietal diversity and foster future advancements in grapevine cultivation.

Genome-wide association study of soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) germplasm for dissecting the quantitative trait nucleotides and candidate genes underlying yield-related traits

Soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) is one of the most significant crops in the world in terms of oil and protein. Owing to the rising demand for soybean products, there is an increasing need for improved varieties for more productive farming. However, complex correlation patterns among quantitative traits along with genetic interactions pose a challenge for soybean breeding. Association studies play an important role in the identification of accession with useful alleles by locating genomic sites associated with the phenotype in germplasm collections. In the present study, a genome-wide association study was carried out for seven agronomic and yield-related traits. A field experiment was conducted in 2015/2016 at two locations that include 155 diverse soybean germplasm. These germplasms were genotyped using SoySNP50K Illumina Infinium Bead-Chip. A total of 51 markers were identified for node number, plant height, pods per plant, seeds per plant, seed weight per plant, hundred-grain weight, and total yield using a multi-locus linear mixed model (MLMM) in FarmCPU. Among these significant SNPs, 18 were putative novel QTNs, while 33 co-localized with previously reported QTLs. A total of 2,356 genes were found in 250 kb upstream and downstream of significant SNPs, of which 17 genes were functional and the rest were hypothetical proteins. These 17 candidate genes were located in the region of 14 QTNs, of which ss715580365, ss715608427, ss715632502, and ss715620131 are novel QTNs for PH, PPP, SDPP, and TY respectively. Four candidate genes, Glyma.01g199200, Glyma.10g065700, Glyma.18g297900, and Glyma.14g009900, were identified in the vicinity of these novel QTNs, which encode lsd one like 1, Ergosterol biosynthesis ERG4/ERG24 family, HEAT repeat-containing protein, and RbcX2, respectively. Although further experimental validation of these candidate genes is required, several appear to be involved in growth and developmental processes related to the respective agronomic traits when compared with their homologs in Arabidopsis thaliana. This study supports the usefulness of association studies and provides valuable data for functional markers and investigating candidate genes within a diverse germplasm collection in future breeding programs.

Soybean gene co-expression network analysis identifies two co-regulated gene modules associated with nodule formation and development

Gene co-expression network analysis is an efficient systems biology approach for the discovery of novel gene functions and trait-associated gene modules. To identify clusters of functionally related genes involved in soybean nodule formation and development, we performed a weighted gene co-expression network analysis. Two nodule-specific modules (NSM-1 and NSM-2, containing 304 and 203 genes, respectively) were identified. The NSM-1 gene promoters were significantly enriched in cis-binding elements for ERF, MYB, and C2H2-type zinc transcription factors, whereas NSM-2 gene promoters were enriched in cis-binding elements for TCP, bZIP, and bHLH transcription factors, suggesting a role of these regulatory factors in the transcriptional activation of nodule co-expressed genes. The co-expressed gene modules included genes with potential novel roles in nodulation, including those involved in xylem development, transmembrane transport, the ethylene signalling pathway, cytoskeleton organization, cytokinesis and regulation of the cell cycle, regulation of meristem initiation and growth, transcriptional regulation, DNA methylation, and histone modifications. Functional analysis of two co-expressed genes using TILLING mutants provided novel insight into the involvement of unsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis and folate metabolism in nodule formation and development. The identified gene co-expression modules provide valuable resources for further functional genomics studies to dissect the genetic basis of nodule formation and development in soybean.

Dissecting the effect of soil on plant phenology and berry transcriptional plasticity in two Italian grapevine varieties (Vitis vinifera L.)

Grapevine embodies a fascinating species as regards phenotypic plasticity and genotype-per-environment interactions. The terroir, namely the set of agri-environmental factors to which a variety is subjected, can influence the phenotype at the physiological, molecular, and biochemical level, representing an important phenomenon connected to the typicality of productions. We investigated the determinants of plasticity by conducting a field-experiment where all terroir variables, except soil, were kept as constant as possible. We isolated the effect of soils collected from different areas, on phenology, physiology, and transcriptional responses of skin and flesh of a red and a white variety of great economic value: Corvina and Glera. Molecular results, together with physio-phenological parameters, suggest a specific effect of soil on grapevine plastic response, highlighting a higher transcriptional plasticity of Glera in respect to Corvina and a marked response of skin compared to flesh. Using a novel statistical approach, we identified clusters of plastic genes subjected to the specific influence of soil. These findings could represent an issue of applicative value, posing the basis for targeted agricultural practices to enhance the desired characteristics for any soil/cultivar combination, to improve vineyards management for a better resource usage and to valorize vineyards uniqueness maximizing the terroir-effect.

Dissection of the Pearl of Csaba pedigree identifies key genomic segments related to early ripening in grape

Pearl of Csaba (PC) is a valuable backbone parent for early-ripening grapevine (Vitis vinifera) breeding, from which many excellent early ripening varieties have been bred. However, the genetic basis of the stable inheritance of its early ripening trait remains largely unknown. Here, the pedigree, consisting of 40 varieties derived from PC, was re-sequenced for an average depth of ∼30×. Combined with the resequencing data of 24 other late-ripening varieties, 5,795,881 high-quality single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified following a strict filtering pipeline. The population genetic analysis showed that these varieties could be distinguished clearly, and the pedigree was characterized by lower nucleotide diversity and stronger linkage disequilibrium than the non-pedigree varieties. The conserved haplotypes (CHs) transmitted in the pedigree were obtained via identity-by-descent analysis. Subsequently, the key genomic segments were identified based on the combination analysis of haplotypes, selective signatures, known ripening-related quantitative trait loci (QTLs), and transcriptomic data. The results demonstrated that varieties with a superior haplotype, H1, significantly (one-way ANOVA, P < 0.001) exhibited early grapevine berry development. Further analyses indicated that H1 encompassed VIT_16s0039g00720 encoding a folate/biopterin transporter protein (VvFBT) with a missense mutation. VvFBT was specifically and highly expressed during grapevine berry development, particularly at veraison. Exogenous folate treatment advanced the veraison of "Kyoho". This work uncovered core haplotypes and genomic segments related to the early ripening trait of PC and provided an important reference for the molecular breeding of early-ripening grapevine varieties.

A Network of MicroRNAs and mRNAs Involved in Melanosome Maturation and Trafficking Defines the Lower Response of Pigmentable Melanoma Cells to Targeted Therapy

BACKGROUND

The ability to increase their degree of pigmentation is an adaptive response that confers pigmentable melanoma cells higher resistance to BRAF inhibitors (BRAFi) compared to non-pigmentable melanoma cells.

METHODS

Here, we compared the miRNome and the transcriptome profile of pigmentable 501Mel and SK-Mel-5 melanoma cells vs. non-pigmentable A375 melanoma cells, following treatment with the BRAFi vemurafenib (vem). In depth bioinformatic analyses (clusterProfiler, WGCNA and SWIMmeR) allowed us to identify the miRNAs, mRNAs and biological processes (BPs) that specifically characterize the response of pigmentable melanoma cells to the drug. Such BPs were studied using appropriate assays in vitro and in vivo (xenograft in zebrafish embryos).

RESULTS

Upon vem treatment, miR-192-5p, miR-211-5p, miR-374a-5p, miR-486-5p, miR-582-5p, miR-1260a and miR-7977, as well as GPR143, OCA2, RAB27A, RAB32 and TYRP1 mRNAs, are differentially expressed only in pigmentable cells. These miRNAs and mRNAs belong to BPs related to pigmentation, specifically melanosome maturation and trafficking. In fact, an increase in the number of intracellular melanosomes-due to increased maturation and/or trafficking-confers resistance to vem.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrated that the ability of pigmentable cells to increase the number of intracellular melanosomes fully accounts for their higher resistance to vem compared to non-pigmentable cells. In addition, we identified a network of miRNAs and mRNAs that are involved in melanosome maturation and/or trafficking. Finally, we provide the rationale for testing BRAFi in combination with inhibitors of these biological processes, so that pigmentable melanoma cells can be turned into more sensitive non-pigmentable cells.

The transcription factor VviNAC60 regulates senescence- and ripening-related processes in grapevine

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most widely cultivated fruit crops because the winemaking industry has huge economic relevance worldwide. Uncovering the molecular mechanisms controlling the developmental progression of plant organs will prove essential for maintaining high-quality grapes, expressly in the context of climate change, which impairs the ripening process. Through a deep inspection of transcriptomic data, we identified VviNAC60, a member of the NAC transcription factor family, as a putative regulator of grapevine organ maturation. We explored VviNAC60 binding landscapes through DNA affinity purification followed by sequencing and compared bound genes with transcriptomics datasets from grapevine plants stably and transiently overexpressing VviNAC60 to define a set of high-confidence targets. Among these, we identified key molecular markers associated with organ senescence and fruit ripening. Physiological, metabolic, and promoter activation analyses showed that VviNAC60 induces chlorophyll degradation and anthocyanin accumulation through the up-regulation of STAY-GREEN PROTEIN 1 (VviSGR1) and VviMYBA1, respectively, with the latter being up-regulated through a VviNAC60-VviNAC03 regulatory complex. Despite sharing a closer phylogenetic relationship with senescence-related homologues to the NAC transcription factor AtNAP, VviNAC60 complemented the non-ripening(nor) mutant phenotype in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), suggesting a dual role as an orchestrator of both ripening- and senescence-related processes. Our data support VviNAC60 as a regulator of processes initiated in the grapevine vegetative- to mature-phase organ transition and therefore as a potential target for enhancing the environmental resilience of grapevine by fine-tuning the duration of the vegetative phase.

Transcriptional profiling of two muscadine grape cultivars "Carlos" and "Noble" to reveal new genes, gene regulatory networks, and pathways that involved in grape berry ripening

In commercial fruit production, synchronized ripening and stable shelf life are important properties. The loosely clustered or non-bunching muscadine grape has unrealized potential as a disease-resistant cash crop, but requires repeated hand harvesting due to its unsynchronized or long or heterogeneous maturation period. Genomic research can be used to identify the developmental and environmental factors that control fruit ripening and postharvest quality. This study coupled the morphological, biochemical, and genetic variations between "Carlos" and "Noble" muscadine grape cultivars with RNA-sequencing analysis during berry maturation. The levels of antioxidants, anthocyanins, and titratable acids varied between the two cultivars during the ripening process. We also identified new genes, pathways, and regulatory networks that modulated berry ripening in muscadine grape. These findings may help develop a large-scale database of the genetic factors of muscadine grape ripening and postharvest profiles and allow the discovery of the factors underlying the ripeness heterogeneity at harvest. These genetic resources may allow us to combine applied and basic research methods in breeding to improve table and wine grape ripening uniformity, quality, stress tolerance, and postharvest handling and storage.

Developmental Regulation of Transcription in Touriga Nacional Berries under Deficit Irrigation

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) is one of the most economically important crops worldwide, especially due to the economic relevance of wine production. Abiotic stress, such as drought, may contribute to low yield, shifts in quality, and important economic loss. The predicted climate change phenomena point to warmer and dryer Mediterranean environmental conditions; as such, it is paramount to study the effects of abiotic stress on grapevine performance. Deficit irrigation systems are applied to optimize water use efficiency without compromising berry quality. In this research, the effect of two deficit irrigation strategies, sustained deficit irrigation (SDI) and regulated deficit irrigation (RDI), in the grape berry were assessed. The effects of different levels of drought were monitored in Touriga Nacional at key stages of berry development (pea size, véraison, and full maturation) through RNA-Seq transcriptome analysis and by specific differentially expressed genes (DEGs) monitoring through RT-qPCR. Handy datasets were obtained by bioinformatics analysis of raw RNA-Seq results. The dominant proportion of transcripts was mostly regulated by development, with véraison showing more upregulated transcripts. Results showed that primary metabolism is the functional category more severely affected under water stress. Almost all DEGs selected for RT-qPCR were significantly upregulated in full maturation and showed the highest variability at véraison and the lowest gene expression values in the pea size stage.

Kinase-dead mutation: A novel strategy for improving soybean resistance to soybean cyst nematode Heterodera glycines

Protein kinases phosphorylate proteins for functional changes and are involved in nearly all cellular processes, thereby regulating almost all aspects of plant growth and development, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. We generated two independent co-expression networks of soybean genes using control and stress response gene expression data and identified 392 differentially highly interconnected kinase hub genes among the two networks. Of these 392 kinases, 90 genes were identified as "syncytium highly connected hubs", potentially essential for activating kinase signalling pathways in the nematode feeding site. Overexpression of wild-type coding sequences of five syncytium highly connected kinase hub genes using transgenic soybean hairy roots enhanced plant susceptibility to soybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines) Hg Type 0 (race 3). In contrast, overexpression of kinase-dead variants of these five syncytium kinase hub genes significantly enhanced soybean resistance to SCN. Additionally, three of the five tested kinase hub genes enhanced soybean resistance to SCN Hg Type 1.2.5.7 (race 2), highlighting the potential of the kinase-dead approach to generate effective and durable resistance against a wide range of SCN Hg types. Subcellular localization analysis revealed that kinase-dead mutations do not alter protein cellular localization, confirming the structure-function of the kinase-inactive variants in producing loss-of-function phenotypes causing significant decrease in nematode susceptibility. Because many protein kinases are highly conserved and are involved in plant responses to various biotic and abiotic stresses, our approach of identifying kinase hub genes and their inactivation using kinase-dead mutation could be translated for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance.

In silico recognition of a prognostic signature in basal-like breast cancer patients

Background

Triple-negative breast cancers (TNBCs) display poor prognosis, have a high risk of tumour recurrence, and exhibit high resistance to drug treatments. Based on their gene expression profiles, the majority of TNBCs are classified as basal-like breast cancers. Currently, there are not available widely-accepted prognostic markers to predict outcomes in basal-like subtype, so the selection of new prognostic indicators for this BC phenotype represents an unmet clinical challenge.

Results

Here, we attempted to address this challenging issue by exploiting a bioinformatics pipeline able to integrate transcriptomic, genomic, epigenomic, and clinical data freely accessible from public repositories. This pipeline starts from the application of the well-established network-based SWIM methodology on the transcriptomic data to unveil important (switch) genes in relation with a complex disease of interest. Then, survival and linear regression analyses are performed to associate the gene expression profiles of the switch genes with both the patients’ clinical outcome and the disease aggressiveness. This allows us to identify a prognostic gene signature that in turn is fed to the last step of the pipeline consisting of an analysis at DNA level, to investigate whether variations in the expression of identified prognostic switch genes could be related to genetic (copy number variations) or epigenetic (DNA methylation differences) alterations in their gene loci, or to the activities of transcription factors binding to their promoter regions. Finally, changes in the protein expression levels corresponding to the so far identified prognostic switch genes are evaluated by immunohistochemical staining results taking advantage of the Human Protein Atlas.

Conclusion

The application of the proposed pipeline on the dataset of The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-Breast Invasive Carcinoma (BRCA) patients affected by basal-like subtype led to an in silico recognition of a basal-like specific gene signature composed of 11 potential prognostic biomarkers to be further investigated.

SWIMmeR: an R-based software to unveiling crucial nodes in complex biological networks

SUMMARY

We present SWIMmeR, an open-source version of its predecessor SWIM (SWitchMiner) that is a network-based tool for mining key (switch) genes that are associated with intriguing patterns of molecular co-abundance and may play a crucial role in phenotypic transitions in various biological settings. SWIM was originally written in MATLAB®, a proprietary programming language that requires the purchase of a license to install, manipulate, operate and run the software. Over the last years, SWIM has sparked a widespread interest within the scientific community thanks to the promising results obtained through its application in a broad range of phenotype-specific scenarios, spanning from complex diseases to grapevine berry maturation. This success has created the call for it to be distributed in a freely accessible, open-source, runtime environment, such as R, aimed at a general audience of non-expert users that cannot afford the leading proprietary solution. SWIMmeR is provided as a comprehensive collection of R functions and it also includes several additional features that make it less intensive in terms of computer time and more efficient in terms of usability and further implementation and extension.

AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION

The SWIMmeR source code is freely available at https://github.com/sportingCode/SWIMmeR.git, along with a practical user guide, including a usage example of its application on breast cancer dataset.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Multi-dimensional leaf phenotypes reflect root system genotype in grafted grapevine over the growing season

BACKGROUND

Modern biological approaches generate volumes of multi-dimensional data, offering unprecedented opportunities to address biological questions previously beyond reach owing to small or subtle effects. A fundamental question in plant biology is the extent to which below-ground activity in the root system influences above-ground phenotypes expressed in the shoot system. Grafting, an ancient horticultural practice that fuses the root system of one individual (the rootstock) with the shoot system of a second, genetically distinct individual (the scion), is a powerful experimental system to understand below-ground effects on above-ground phenotypes. Previous studies on grafted grapevines have detected rootstock influence on scion phenotypes including physiology and berry chemistry. However, the extent of the rootstock's influence on leaves, the photosynthetic engines of the vine, and how those effects change over the course of a growing season, are still largely unknown.

RESULTS

Here, we investigate associations between rootstock genotype and shoot system phenotypes using 5 multi-dimensional leaf phenotyping modalities measured in a common grafted scion: ionomics, metabolomics, transcriptomics, morphometrics, and physiology. Rootstock influence is ubiquitous but subtle across modalities, with the strongest signature of rootstock observed in the leaf ionome. Moreover, we find that the extent of rootstock influence on scion phenotypes and patterns of phenomic covariation are highly dynamic across the season.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings substantially expand previously identified patterns to demonstrate that rootstock influence on scion phenotypes is complex and dynamic and underscore that broad understanding necessitates volumes of multi-dimensional data previously unmet.

Transcripts switched off at the stop of phloem unloading highlight the energy efficiency of sugar import in the ripening V. vinifera fruit

Transcriptomic changes at the cessation of sugar accumulation in the pericarp of Vitis vinifera were addressed on single berries re-synchronised according to their individual growth patterns. The net rates of water, sugars and K⁺ accumulation inferred from individual growth and solute concentration confirmed that these inflows stopped simultaneously in the ripe berry, while the small amount of malic acid remaining at this stage was still being oxidised at low rate. Re-synchronised individual berries displayed negligible variations in gene expression among triplicates. RNA-seq studies revealed sharp reprogramming of cell-wall enzymes and structural proteins at the stop of phloem unloading, associated with an 80% repression of multiple sugar transporters and aquaporins on the plasma or tonoplast membranes, with the noticeable exception of H⁺/sugar symporters, which were rather weakly and constitutively expressed. This was verified in three genotypes placed in contrasted thermo-hydric conditions. The prevalence of SWEET suggests that electrogenic transporters would play a minor role on the plasma membranes of SE/CC complex and the one of the flesh, while sucrose/H⁺ exchangers dominate on its tonoplast. Cis-regulatory elements present in their promoters allowed to sort these transporters in different groups, also including specific TIPs and PIPs paralogs, and cohorts of cell wall-related genes. Together with simple thermodynamic considerations, these results lead to propose that H⁺/sugar exchangers at the tonoplast, associated with a considerably acidic vacuolar pH, may exhaust cytosolic sugars in the flesh and alleviate the need for supplementary energisation of sugar transport at the plasma membrane.

The grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) floral transcriptome in Pinot noir variety: identification of tissue-related gene networks and whorl-specific markers in pre- and post-anthesis phases

The comprehension of molecular processes underlying the development and progression of flowering in plants is a hot topic, not only because that often the products of interest for human and animal nutrition are linked to the development of fruits or seeds, but also because the processes of gametes formation occurring in sexual organs are at the basis of recombination and genetic variability which constitutes the matter on which evolution acts, whether understood as natural or human driven. In the present study, we used an NGS approach to produce a grapevine flower transcriptome snapshot in different whorls and tissues including calyx, calyptra, filament, anther, stigma, ovary, and embryo in both pre- and post-anthesis phases. Our investigation aimed at identifying hub genes that unequivocally distinguish the different tissues providing insights into the molecular mechanisms that are at the basis of floral whorls and tissue development. To this end we have used different analytical approaches, some now consolidated in transcriptomic studies on plants, such as pairwise comparison and weighted-gene coexpression network analysis, others used mainly in studies on animals or human's genomics, such as the tau (τ) analysis aimed at isolating highly and absolutely tissue-specific genes. The intersection of data obtained by these analyses allowed us to gradually narrow the field, providing evidence about the molecular mechanisms occurring in those whorls directly involved in reproductive processes, such as anther and stigma, and giving insights into the role of other whorls not directly related to reproduction, such as calyptra and calyx. We believe this work could represent an important genomic resource for functional analyses of grapevine floral organ growth and fruit development shading light on molecular networks underlying grapevine reproductive organ determination.

The role of FOSL1 in stem-like cell reprogramming processes

Cancer stem-like cells (CSCs) have self-renewal abilities responsible for cancer progression, therapy resistance, and metastatic growth. The glioblastoma stem-like cells are the most studied among CSC populations. A recent study identified four transcription factors (SOX2, SALL2, OLIG2, and POU3F2) as the minimal core sufficient to reprogram differentiated glioblastoma (GBM) cells into stem-like cells. Transcriptomic data of GBM tissues and cell lines from two different datasets were then analyzed by the SWItch Miner (SWIM), a network-based software, and FOSL1 was identified as a putative regulator of the previously identified minimal core. Herein, we selected NTERA-2 and HEK293T cells to perform an in vitro study to investigate the role of FOSL1 in the reprogramming mechanisms. We transfected the two cell lines with a constitutive FOSL1 cDNA plasmid. We demonstrated that FOSL1 directly regulates the four transcription factors binding their promoter regions, is involved in the deregulation of several stemness markers, and reduces the cells' ability to generate aggregates increasing the extracellular matrix component FN1. Although further experiments are necessary, our data suggest that FOSL1 reprograms the stemness by regulating the core of the four transcription factors.

Transcriptomic analysis of temporal shifts in berry development between two grapevine cultivars of the Pinot family reveals potential genes controlling ripening time

BACKGROUND

Grapevine cultivars of the Pinot family represent clonally propagated mutants with major phenotypic and physiological differences, such as different colour or shifted ripening time, as well as changes in important viticultural traits. Specifically, the cultivars 'Pinot Noir' (PN) and 'Pinot Noir Precoce' (PNP, early ripening) flower at the same time, but vary in the beginning of berry ripening (veraison) and, consequently, harvest time. In addition to genotype, seasonal climatic conditions (i.e. high temperatures) also affect ripening times. To reveal possible regulatory genes that affect the timing of veraison onset, we investigated differences in gene expression profiles between PN and PNP throughout berry development with a closely meshed time series and over two separate years.

RESULTS

The difference in the duration of berry formation between PN and PNP was quantified to be approximately two weeks under the growth conditions applied, using plant material with a proven PN and PNP clonal relationship. Clusters of co-expressed genes and differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were detected which reflect the shift in the timing of veraison onset. Functional annotation of these DEGs fit to observed phenotypic and physiological changes during berry development. In total, we observed 3,342 DEGs in 2014 and 2,745 DEGs in 2017 between PN and PNP, with 1,923 DEGs across both years. Among these, 388 DEGs were identified as veraison-specific and 12 were considered as berry ripening time regulatory candidates. The expression profiles revealed two candidate genes for ripening time control which we designated VviRTIC1 and VviRTIC2 (VIT_210s0071g01145 and VIT_200s0366g00020, respectively). These genes likely contribute the phenotypic differences observed between PN and PNP.

CONCLUSIONS

Many of the 1,923 DEGs show highly similar expression profiles in both cultivars if the patterns are aligned according to developmental stage. In our work, putative genes differentially expressed between PNP and PN which could control ripening time as well as veraison-specific genes were identified. We point out connections of these genes to molecular events during berry development and discuss potential candidate genes which may control ripening time. Two of these candidates were observed to be differentially expressed in the early berry development phase. Several down-regulated genes during berry ripening are annotated as auxin response factors / ARFs. Conceivably, general changes in auxin signaling may cause the earlier ripening phenotype of PNP.

VviNAC33 promotes organ de-greening and represses vegetative growth during the vegetative-to-mature phase transition in grapevine

Plants undergo several developmental transitions during their life cycle. In grapevine, a perennial woody fruit crop, the transition from vegetative/green-to-mature/woody growth involves transcriptomic reprogramming orchestrated by a small group of genes encoding regulators, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are not fully understood. We investigated the function of the transcriptional regulator VviNAC33 by generating and characterizing transgenic overexpressing grapevine lines and a chimeric repressor, and by exploring its putative targets through a DNA affinity purification sequencing (DAP-seq) approach combined with transcriptomic data. We demonstrated that VviNAC33 induces leaf de-greening, inhibits organ growth and directly activates the expression of STAY-GREEN PROTEIN 1 (SGR1), which is involved in Chl and photosystem degradation, and AUTOPHAGY 8f (ATG8f), which is involved in the maturation of autophagosomes. Furthermore, we show that VviNAC33 directly inhibits AUXIN EFFLUX FACILITATOR PIN1, RopGEF1 and ATP SYNTHASE GAMMA CHAIN 1T (ATPC1), which are involved in photosystem II integrity and activity. Our results show that VviNAC33 plays a major role in terminating photosynthetic activity and organ growth as part of a regulatory network governing the vegetative-to-mature phase transition.

Gene network analysis using SWIM reveals interplay between the transcription factor-encoding genes HMGA1, FOXM1, and MYBL2 in triple-negative breast cancer

Among breast cancer subtypes, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive with the worst prognosis and the highest rates of metastatic disease. To identify TNBC gene signatures, we applied the network-based methodology implemented by the SWIM software to gene expression data of TNBC patients in The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database. SWIM enables to predict key (switch) genes within the co-expression network, whose perturbations in expression pattern and abundance may contribute to the (patho)biological phenotype. Here, SWIM analysis revealed an interesting interplay between the genes encoding the transcription factors HMGA1, FOXM1, and MYBL2, suggesting a potential cooperation among these three switch genes in TNBC development. The correlative nature of this interplay in TNBC was assessed by in vitro experiments, demonstrating how they may actually modulate the expression of each other.

Molecular Tools for Adapting Viticulture to Climate Change

Adaptation of viticulture to climate change includes exploration of new geographical areas, new training systems, new management practices, or new varieties, both for rootstocks and scions. Molecular tools can be defined as molecular approaches used to study DNAs, RNAs, and proteins in all living organisms. We present here the current knowledge about molecular tools and their potential usefulness in three aspects of grapevine adaptation to the ongoing climate change. (i) Molecular tools for understanding grapevine response to environmental stresses. A fine description of the regulation of gene expression is a powerful tool to understand the physiological mechanisms set up by the grapevine to respond to abiotic stress such as high temperatures or drought. The current knowledge on gene expression is continuously evolving with increasing evidence of the role of alternative splicing, small RNAs, long non-coding RNAs, DNA methylation, or chromatin activity. (ii) Genetics and genomics of grapevine stress tolerance. The description of the grapevine genome is more and more precise. The genetic variations among genotypes are now revealed with new technologies with the sequencing of very long DNA molecules. High throughput technologies for DNA sequencing also allow now the genetic characterization at the same time of hundreds of genotypes for thousands of points in the genome, which provides unprecedented datasets for genotype-phenotype associations studies. We review the current knowledge on the genetic determinism of traits for the adaptation to climate change. We focus on quantitative trait loci and molecular markers available for developmental stages, tolerance to water stress/water use efficiency, sugar content, acidity, and secondary metabolism of the berries. (iii) Controlling the genome and its expression to allow breeding of better-adapted genotypes. High-density DNA genotyping can be used to select genotypes with specific interesting alleles but genomic selection is also a powerful method able to take into account the genetic information along the whole genome to predict a phenotype. Modern technologies are also able to generate mutations that are possibly interesting for generating new phenotypes but the most promising one is the direct editing of the genome at a precise location.

Combined Metabolite and Transcriptome Profiling Reveals the Norisoprenoid Responses in Grape Berries to Abscisic Acid and Synthetic Auxin

The abscisic acid (ABA) increase and auxin decline are both indicators of ripening initiation in grape berry, and norisoprenoid accumulation also starts at around the onset of ripening. However, the relationship between ABA, auxin, and norisoprenoids remains largely unknown, especially at the transcriptome level. To investigate the transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulation of the ABA and synthetic auxin 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) on norisoprenoid production, we performed time-series GC-MS and RNA-seq analyses on Vitis vinifera L. cv. Cabernet Sauvignon grape berries from pre-veraison to ripening. Higher levels of free norisoprenoids were found in ABA-treated mature berries in two consecutive seasons, and both free and total norisoprenoids were significantly increased by NAA in one season. The expression pattern of known norisoprenoid-associated genes in all samples and the up-regulation of specific alternative splicing isoforms of VviDXS and VviCRTISO in NAA-treated berries were predicted to contribute to the norisoprenoid accumulation in ABA and NAA-treated berries. Combined weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) and DNA affinity purification sequencing (DAP-seq) analysis suggested that VviGATA26, and the previously identified switch genes of myb RADIALIS (VIT_207s0005g02730) and MAD-box (VIT_213s0158g00100) could be potential regulators of norisoprenoid accumulation. The positive effects of ABA on free norisoprenoids and NAA on total norisoprenoid accumulation were revealed in the commercially ripening berries. Since the endogenous ABA and auxin are sensitive to environmental factors, this finding provides new insights to develop viticultural practices for managing norisoprenoids in vineyards in response to changing climates.

Gene co-expression in the interactome: moving from correlation toward causation via an integrated approach to disease module discovery

In this study, we integrate the outcomes of co-expression network analysis with the human interactome network to predict novel putative disease genes and modules. We first apply the SWItch Miner (SWIM) methodology, which predicts important (switch) genes within the co-expression network that regulate disease state transitions, then map them to the human protein-protein interaction network (PPI, or interactome) to predict novel disease-disease relationships (i.e., a SWIM-informed diseasome). Although the relevance of switch genes to an observed phenotype has been recently assessed, their performance at the system or network level constitutes a new, potentially fascinating territory yet to be explored. Quantifying the interplay between switch genes and human diseases in the interactome network, we found that switch genes associated with specific disorders are closer to each other than to other nodes in the network, and tend to form localized connected subnetworks. These subnetworks overlap between similar diseases and are situated in different neighborhoods for pathologically distinct phenotypes, consistent with the well-known topological proximity property of disease genes. These findings allow us to demonstrate how SWIM-based correlation network analysis can serve as a useful tool for efficient screening of potentially new disease gene associations. When integrated with an interactome-based network analysis, it not only identifies novel candidate disease genes, but also may offer testable hypotheses by which to elucidate the molecular underpinnings of human disease and reveal commonalities between seemingly unrelated diseases.

Transcriptome Profiling During Muscadine Berry Development Reveals the Dynamic of Polyphenols Metabolism

Muscadine grapes accumulate higher amounts of bioactive phenolics compared with other grape species. To identify the molecular events associated with polyphenolic accumulation that influence antioxidant capacity, two contrasting muscadine genotypes (C5 and C6) with varied phenolic/flavonoid content and antioxidant activity were investigated via RNA-sequencing during berry development. The results showed that berry development is concomitant with transcriptome profile changes, which was more pronounced at the véraison (V) stage. Despite that the downregulation pattern of gene expression dominated the upregulation through berry development, the C5 genotype maintained higher expression levels. Comparative transcript profiling allowed the identification of 94 differentially expressed genes with potential relevance in regulating fruit secondary metabolism, including 18 transcription factors and 76 structural genes. The genes underlying the critical enzymes in the modification reactions of polyphenolics biosynthetic pathway, including hydroxylation, methylation, and glycosylation were more pronounced during the immature stages of prevéraison (PrV), V, and postvéraison (PoV) in the C5 genotype, resulting in more accumulation of biologically active phenolic/flavonoid derivatives. The results suggested that muscadine grapes, as in bunch grapes (Vitis sp.); possess a similar mechanism that organizes polyphenolics accumulation; however, the set of total flavonoids (TFs) and structural genes coordinating the pathway varies between the two species.

Comparative phenotypic and transcriptomic analysis of Victoria and flame seedless grape cultivars during berry ripening

Grape berry development is a highly coordinated and intricate process. Herein, we analyzed the phenotypic and transcriptomic patterns of Victoria (VT) and Flame Seedless (FS) grape varieties during berry development. Physiological analysis and transcriptomic sequencing were performed at four berry developmental phases. VT berry size was comparatively larger to the FS variety. At maturity, 80 days postanthesis (DPA), the FS soluble solids were 61.8% higher than VT. Further, 4889 and 2802 differentially expressed genes were identified from VT and FS 40 DPA to 80 DPA development stages, respectively. VvSWEET15, VvHXK, and MYB44 genes were up‐regulated during the postanthesis period, while bHLH14, linked to glucose metabolism, was gradually down‐regulated during berry development. These genes may have significant roles in berry development, ripening, and sugar accumulation.

The New Paradigm of Network Medicine to Analyze Breast Cancer Phenotypes

Breast cancer (BC) is a heterogeneous and complex disease as witnessed by the existence of different subtypes and clinical characteristics that poses significant challenges in disease management. The complexity of this tumor may rely on the highly interconnected nature of the various biological processes as stated by the new paradigm of Network Medicine. We explored The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)-BRCA data set, by applying the network-based algorithm named SWItch Miner, and mapping the findings on the human interactome to capture the molecular interconnections associated with the disease modules. To characterize BC phenotypes, we constructed protein-protein interaction modules based on "hub genes", called switch genes, both common and specific to the four tumor subtypes. Transcriptomic profiles of patients were stratified according to both clinical (immunohistochemistry) and genetic (PAM50) classifications. 266 and 372 switch genes were identified from immunohistochemistry and PAM50 classifications, respectively. Moreover, the identified switch genes were functionally characterized to select an interconnected pathway of disease genes. By intersecting the common switch genes of the two classifications, we selected a unique signature of 28 disease genes that were BC subtype-independent and classification subtype-independent. Data were validated both in vitro (10 BC cell lines) and ex vivo (66 BC tissues) experiments. Results showed that four of these hub proteins (AURKA, CDC45, ESPL1, and RAD54L) were over-expressed in all tumor subtypes. Moreover, the inhibition of one of the identified switch genes (AURKA) similarly affected all BC subtypes. In conclusion, using a network-based approach, we identified a common BC disease module which might reflect its pathological signature, suggesting a new vision to face with the disease heterogeneity.

Identification of quantitative trait nucleotides and candidate genes for soybean seed weight by multiple models of genome-wide association study

BACKGROUND

Seed weight is a complex yield-related trait with a lot of quantitative trait loci (QTL) reported through linkage mapping studies. Integration of QTL from linkage mapping into breeding program is challenging due to numerous limitations, therefore, Genome-wide association study (GWAS) provides more precise location of QTL due to higher resolution and diverse genetic diversity in un-related individuals.

RESULTS

The present study utilized 573 breeding lines population with 61,166 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) to identify quantitative trait nucleotides (QTNs) and candidate genes for seed weight in Chinese summer-sowing soybean. GWAS was conducted with two single-locus models (SLMs) and six multi-locus models (MLMs). Thirty-nine SNPs were detected by the two SLMs while 209 SNPs were detected by the six MLMs. In all, two hundred and thirty-one QTNs were found to be associated with seed weight in YHSBLP with various effects. Out of these, seventy SNPs were concurrently detected by both SLMs and MLMs on 8 chromosomes. Ninety-four QTNs co-localized with previously reported QTL/QTN by linkage/association mapping studies. A total of 36 candidate genes were predicted. Out of these candidate genes, four hub genes (Glyma06g44510, Glyma08g06420, Glyma12g33280 and Glyma19g28070) were identified by the integration of co-expression network. Among them, three were relatively expressed higher in the high HSW genotypes at R5 stage compared with low HSW genotypes except Glyma12g33280. Our results show that using more models especially MLMs are effective to find important QTNs, and the identified HSW QTNs/genes could be utilized in molecular breeding work for soybean seed weight and yield.

CONCLUSION

Application of two single-locus plus six multi-locus models of GWAS identified 231 QTNs. Four hub genes (Glyma06g44510, Glyma08g06420, Glyma12g33280 & Glyma19g28070) detected via integration of co-expression network among the predicted candidate genes.

Network aggregation improves gene function prediction of grapevine gene co-expression networks

Aggregation across multiple networks highlights robust co-expression interactions and improves the functional connectivity of grapevine gene co-expression networks. In recent years, the rapid accumulation of transcriptome datasets from diverse experimental conditions has enabled the widespread use of gene co-expression network (GCN) analysis in plants. In grapevine, GCN analysis has shown great promise for gene function prediction, however, measurable progress is currently lacking. Using accumulated microarray datasets from the grapevine whole-genome array (33 experiments, 1359 samples), we explored how meta-analysis through aggregation influences the functional connectivity (performance) of derived networks using guilt-by-association neighbor voting. Two annotation schemes, i.e. MapMan BIN and Pfam, at two sparsity thresholds, i.e. top 100 (stringent) and 300 (relaxed) ranked genes were evaluated. We observed that aggregating across multiple networks improves performance dramatically, with the aggregate outperforming the majority of functional terms across individual networks. Network sparsity and size (i.e. the number of samples and aggregates) were key factors influencing performance while the choice of annotation scheme had little. Systematic comparison with various state-of-the-art microarray and RNA-seq networks was also performed, however, none outperformed the aggregate microarray network despite having good predictive performance. Repeating these series of tests using a functional enrichment-based performance metric also showed remarkably consistent findings with guilt-by-association neighbor voting. To demonstrate its functionality, we explore the function and transcriptional regulation of grapevine EXPANSIN genes. We envisage that network aggregation will offer new and unique opportunities for gene function prediction in future grapevine functional genomics studies. To this end, we make the aggregate networks and associated metadata publicly available at VTC-Agg (https://sites.google.com/view/vtc-agg).

Drought stress modulates cuticular wax composition of the grape berry

Drought events are a major challenge for many horticultural crops, including grapes, which are often cultivated in dry and warm climates. It is not understood how the cuticle contributes to the grape berry response to water deficit (WD); furthermore, the cuticular waxes and the related biosynthetic pathways are poorly characterized in this fruit. In this study, we identified candidate wax-related genes from the grapevine genome by phylogenetic and transcriptomic analyses. Developmental and stress response expression patterns of these candidates were characterized across pre-existing RNA sequencing data sets and confirmed a high responsiveness of the pathway to environmental stresses. We then characterized the developmental and WD-induced changes in berry cuticular wax composition, and quantified differences in berry transpiration. Cuticular aliphatic wax content was modulated during development and an increase was observed under WD, with wax esters being strongly up-regulated. These compositional changes were related to up-regulated candidate genes of the aliphatic wax biosynthetic pathway, including CER10, CER2, CER3, CER1, CER4, and WSD1. The effect of WD on berry transpiration was not significant. This study indicates that changes in cuticular wax amount and composition are part of the metabolic response of the grape berry to WD, but these changes do not reduce berry transpiration.

Phytohormone profiles are strongly altered during induction and symptom development of the physiological ripening disorder berry shrivel in grapevine

The process of grape berry ripening follows three phases with distinct metabolic processes and complex regulations via phytohormones. The physiological ripening disorder berry shrivel (BS) is characterized by reduced sugar accumulation, low anthocyanin contents, and high acidity in affected berries. The processes leading to BS induction are unknown, but recent transcriptional data on reduced expression of switch genes hint towards a disturbed ripening onset. Herein we investigated the phytohormone composition throughout grape berry ripening in healthy and BS berries in Vitis vinifera L. cultivar Blauer Zweigelt. Thereby we hypothesize that phytohormones are key players for BS induction and suppress the expression of switch genes at veraison. The presented metabolomics and RNAseq data describe two distinct phytohormone profiles in BS berries, differing between pre- and post-veraison with a clear ethylene precursor (aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid, ACC) peak before veraison. Exogenous application of ACC led to BS symptoms, while ethephone application led to berry abscission. During post-veraison, we observed high ABA-glucose ester (ABA-GE) and low indole-3-acetate aspartate (IAA-Asp) and isopentenyladenine (iP) contents in BS berries and the transcriptional induction of several phytohormone pathways. The presented descriptive data provide valuable knowledge to further decipher the role of phytohormones in BS induction and BS symptom development.

Grape-RNA: A Database for the Collection, Evaluation, Treatment, and Data Sharing of Grape RNA-Seq Datasets

Since its inception, RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) has become the most effective way to study gene expression. After more than a decade of development, numerous RNA-seq datasets have been created, and the full utilization of these datasets has emerged as a major issue. In this study, we built a comprehensive database named Grape-RNA, which is focused on the collection, evaluation, treatment, and data sharing of grape RNA-seq datasets. This database contains 1529 RNA-seq samples, 112 microRNA samples from the public platform, and 485 RNA-seq in-house datasets sequenced by our lab. We classified these data into 25 conditions and provide the sample information, cleaned raw data, expression level, assembled unigenes, useful tools, and other relevant information to the users. Thus, this study provides data and tools that should be beneficial for researchers by allowing them to easily use the RNA-seq. The provided information can greatly contribute to grape breeding and genomic and biological research. This study may improve the usage of RNA-seq.

Gene duplication and transposition of mobile elements drive evolution of the Rpv3 resistance locus in grapevine

A wild grape haplotype (Rpv3-1) confers resistance to Plasmopara viticola. We mapped the causal factor for resistance to an interval containing a TIR-NB-LRR (TNL) gene pair that originated 1.6-2.6 million years ago by a tandem segmental duplication. Transient coexpression of the TNL pair in Vitis vinifera leaves activated pathogen-induced necrosis and reduced sporulation compared with control leaves. Even though transcripts of the TNL pair from the wild haplotype appear to be partially subject to nonsense-mediated mRNA decay, mature mRNA levels in a homozygous resistant genotype were individually higher than the mRNA trace levels observed for the orthologous single-copy TNL in sensitive genotypes. Allelic expression imbalance in a resistant heterozygote confirmed that cis-acting regulatory variation promotes expression in the wild haplotype. The movement of transposable elements had a major impact on the generation of haplotype diversity, altering the DNA context around similar TNL coding sequences and the GC-content in their proximal 5'-intergenic regions. The wild and domesticated haplotypes also diverged in conserved single-copy intergenic DNA, but the highest divergence was observed in intraspecific and not in interspecific comparisons. In this case, introgression breeding did not transgress the genetic boundaries of the domesticated species, because haplotypes present in modern varieties sometimes predate speciation events between wild and cultivated species.

Identification of key genes involved in the biosynthesis of triterpenic acids in the mint family

Triterpenic acids (TAs), a large group of natural compounds with diverse biological activity, are produced by several plant taxa. Betulinic, oleanolic, and ursolic acids are the most medicinally important TAs and are mainly found in plants of the mint family. Metabolic engineering is strongly dependent on identifying the key genes in biosynthetic pathways toward the products of interest. In this study, gene expression tracking was performed by transcriptome mining, co-expression network analysis, and tissue-specific metabolite-expression analysis in order to identify possible key genes involved in TAs biosynthetic pathways. To this end, taxa-specific degenerate primers of six important genes were designed using an effective method based on the MEME algorithm in a phylogenetically related group of sequences and successfully applied in three members of the Lamiaceae (Rosmarinus officinalis, Salvia officinalis, and Thymus persicus). Based on the results of in-depth data analysis, genes encoding squalene epoxidase and oxido squalene cyclases are proposed as targets for boosting triterpene production. The results emphasize the importance of identifying key genes in triterpene biosynthesis, which may facilitate genetic manipulation or overexpression of target genes.

Selection of candidate genes controlling veraison time in grapevine through integration of meta-QTL and transcriptomic data

BACKGROUND

High temperature during grape berry ripening impairs the quality of fruits and wines. Veraison time, which marks ripening onset, is a key factor for determining climatic conditions during berry ripening. Understanding its genetic control is crucial to successfully breed varieties more adapted to a changing climate. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) studies attempting to elucidate the genetic determinism of developmental stages in grapevine have identified wide genomic regions. Broad scale transcriptomic studies, by identifying sets of genes modulated during berry development and ripening, also highlighted a huge number of putative candidates.

RESULTS

With the final aim of providing an overview about available information on the genetic control of grapevine veraison time, and prioritizing candidates, we applied a meta-QTL analysis for grapevine phenology-related traits and checked for co-localization of transcriptomic candidates. A consensus genetic map including 3130 markers anchored to the grapevine genome assembly was compiled starting from 39 genetic maps. Two thousand ninety-three QTLs from 47 QTL studies were projected onto the consensus map, providing a comprehensive overview about distribution of available QTLs and revealing extensive co-localization especially across phenology related traits. From 141 phenology related QTLs we generated 4 veraison meta-QTLs located on linkage group (LG) 1 and 2, and 13 additional meta-QTLs connected to the veraison time genetic control, among which the most relevant were located on LG 14, 16 and 18. Functional candidates in these intervals were inspected. Lastly, taking advantage of available transcriptomic datasets, expression data along berry development were integrated, in order to pinpoint among positional candidates, those differentially expressed across the veraison transition.

CONCLUSION

Integration of meta-QTLs analysis on available phenology related QTLs and data from transcriptomic dataset allowed to strongly reduce the number of candidate genes for the genetic control of the veraison transition, prioritizing a list of 272 genes, among which 78 involved in regulation of gene expression, signal transduction or development.

Computational identification of key genes that may regulate gene expression reprogramming in Alzheimer's patients

The dementia epidemic is likely to expand worldwide as the aging population continues to grow. A better understanding of the molecular mechanisms that lead to dementia is expected to reveal potentially modifiable risk factors that could contribute to the development of prevention strategies. Alzheimer's disease is the most prevalent form of dementia. Currently we only partially understand some of the pathophysiological mechanisms that lead to development of the disease in aging individuals. In this study, Switch Miner software was used to identify key switch genes in the brain whose expression may lead to the development of Alzheimer's disease. The results indicate that switch genes are enriched in pathways involved in the proteasome, oxidative phosphorylation, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease and metabolism in the hippocampus and posterior cingulate cortex. Network analysis identified the krupel like factor 9 (KLF9), potassium channel tetramerization domain 2 (KCTD2), Sp1 transcription factor (SP1) and chromodomain helicase DNA binding protein 1 (CHD1) as key transcriptional regulators of switch genes in the brain of AD patients. These transcriptions factors have been implicated in conditions associated with Alzheimer's disease, including diabetes, glucocorticoid signaling, stroke, and sleep disorders. The specific pathways affected reveal potential modifiable risk factors by lifestyle changes.

A paradigm shift in medicine: A comprehensive review of network-based approaches

Network medicine is a rapidly evolving new field of medical research, which combines principles and approaches of systems biology and network science, holding the promise to uncovering the causes and to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatments of human diseases. This new paradigm reflects the fact that human diseases are not caused by single molecular defects, but driven by complex interactions among a variety of molecular mediators. The complexity of these interactions embraces different types of information: from the cellular-molecular level of protein-protein interactions to correlational studies of gene expression and regulation, to metabolic and disease pathways up to drug-disease relationships. The analysis of these complex networks can reveal new disease genes and/or disease pathways and identify possible targets for new drug development, as well as new uses for existing drugs. In this review, we offer a comprehensive overview of network types and algorithms used in the framework of network medicine. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Transcriptional Profiles and Regulatory Gene Networks edited by Dr. Dr. Federico Manuel Giorgi and Dr. Shaun Mahony.

QTL mapping for maize starch content and candidate gene prediction combined with co-expression network analysis

A major QTL Qsta9.1 was identified on chromosome 9, combined with GWAS, and co-expression network analysis showed that GRMZM2G110929 and GRMZM5G852704 are the potential candidates for association with maize kernel starch content. Increasing maize kernel starch content may not only lead to higher maize kernel yields and qualities, but also help meet industry demands. By using the intermated B73 × Mo17 population, QTLs were mapped for starch content in this study. A major QTL Qsta9.1 was detected in a 1.7 Mb interval on chromosome 9 and validated by allele frequency analysis in extreme tails of a newly constructed segregating population. According to genome-wide association study (GWAS) based on genotyping of a natural population, we identified a significant SNP for starch content within the ORF region of GRMZM5G852704_T01 colocalized with QTL Qsta9.1. Co-expression network analysis was also conducted, and 28 modules were constructed during six seed developmental stages. Functional enrichment was performed for each module, and one module showed the most possibility for the association with carbohydrate-related processes. In this module, one transcripts GRMZM2G110929_T01 located in the Qsta9.1 assigned 1.7 Mb interval encoding GLABRA2 expression modulator. Its expression level in B73 was lower than that in Mo17 across all seed developmental stages, implying the possibility for the candidate gene of Qsta9.1. Our studies combined GWAS, mRNA profiling, and traditional QTL analyses to identify a major locus for controlling seed starch content in maize.

Transcriptomics of the grape berry shrivel ripening disorder

The lower expression at veraison of several ripening master regulators "switch genes" can play a central role in the induction of the berry shrivel ripening physiological disorder in grapevine. Berry shrivel (BS) is a ripening physiological disorder affecting grape berry with visible symptoms appearing after veraison. Berry shrivel leads to shrinking berries with a reduced weight and a lower content of sugars and anthocyanins. In this study, for the first time a transcriptomic analysis coupled with selected metabolites quantification was undertaken to understand the metabolic modifications induced by the disorder. Different stages of berry development were considered including pre- and symptomatic berries. No metabolic alterations in the berry transcriptome and in the metabolite content was observed in pre-symptomatic and pre-veraison samples. Interestingly, at veraison, with still not visible symptoms appearing on the berry, a subset of genes, called switch genes previously suggested as master regulators of the ripening onset in grape berries, were strongly lower expressed in BS. Later during the ripening phase and with visible symptoms of the disorder, more than 3000 genes were differentially expressed. The genes up-regulated were related to hormone biosynthesis, response to stress and the phenylpropanoid pathway, while the genes down-regulated during ripening belonged mainly to the flavonoid pathway, and the sugar metabolism. In agreement, BS berries showed lower content of sugars and anthocyanins from the onset of veraison onward, while the amount of acids was not significantly affected. In conclusion, these results highlight a pivotal role of the switch genes in grapevine ripening, as well as their possible contribution to induce the ripening disorder berry shrivel, although it remains unclear whether this is part of the cause or consequences of the BS disorder.

Transcript analyses reveal a comprehensive role of abscisic acid in modulating fruit ripening in Chinese jujube

BACKGROUND

Chinese jujube (Ziziphus jujuba Mill.) is a non-climacteric fruit; however, the underlying mechanism of ripening and the role of abscisic acid involved in this process are not yet understood for this species.

RESULTS

In the present study, a positive correlation between dynamic changes in endogenous ABA and the onset of jujube ripening was determined. Transcript analyses suggested that the expression balance among genes encoding nine-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (ZjNCED3), ABA-8'-hydroxylase (ZjCYP707A2), and beta-glucosidase (ZjBG4, ZjBG5, ZjBG8, and ZjBG9) has an important role in maintaining ABA accumulation, while the expression of a receptor (ZjPYL8), protein phosphatase 2C (ZjPP2C4-8), and sucrose nonfermenting 1-related protein kinase 2 (ZjSnRK2-2 and ZjSnRK2-5) is important in regulating fruit sensitivity to ABA applications. In addition, white mature 'Dongzao' fruit were harvested and treated with 50 mg L- 1 ABA or 50 mg L- 1 nordihydroguaiaretic acid (NDGA) to explore the role of ABA in jujube fruit ripening. By comparative transcriptome analyses, 1103 and 505 genes were differentially expressed in response to ABA and NDGA applications on the 1st day after treatment, respectively. These DEGs were associated with photosynthesis, secondary, lipid, cell wall, and starch and sugar metabolic processes, suggesting the involvement of ABA in modulating jujube fruit ripening. Moreover, ABA also exhibited crosstalk with other phytohormones and transcription factors, indicating a regulatory network for jujube fruit ripening.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study further elucidated ABA-associated metabolic and regulatory processes. These findings are helpful for improving strategies for jujube fruit storage and for gaining insights into understand complex non-climacteric fruit ripening processes.

BRAFV600E-mutant cancers display a variety of networks by SWIM analysis: prediction of vemurafenib clinical response

PURPOSE

Several studies have shown that different tumour types sharing a driver gene mutation do not respond uniformly to the same targeted agent. Our aim was to use an unbiased network-based approach to investigate this fundamental issue using BRAF^V600E mutant tumours and the BRAF inhibitor vemurafenib.

METHODS

We applied SWIM, a software able to identify putative regulatory (switch) genes involved in drastic changes to the cell phenotype, to gene expression profiles of different BRAF^V600E mutant cancers and their normal counterparts in order to identify the switch genes that could potentially explain the heterogeneity of these tumours' responses to vemurafenib.

RESULTS

We identified lung adenocarcinoma as the tumour with the highest number of switch genes (298) compared to its normal counterpart. By looking for switch genes encoding for kinases with homology sequences similar to known vemurafenib targets, we found that thyroid cancer and lung adenocarcinoma have a similar number of putative targetable switch gene kinases (5 and 6, respectively) whereas colorectal cancer has just one.

CONCLUSIONS

We are persuaded that our network analysis may aid in the comprehension of molecular mechanisms underlying the different responses to vemurafenib in BRAF^V600E mutant tumours.

The VvBAP1 gene is identified as a potential inhibitor of cell death in grape berries

Cell death (CD) in Vitis vinifera L grape berries, exemplified in Shiraz, occurs late in ripening influencing yield, berry and wine quality. Here we isolated and functionally characterised a BON1-associated gene, VvBAP1 from Shiraz berries, encoding a small protein with a C2 domain. VvBAP1 transcript increased during fruit development from veraison to harvest, and was significantly inhibited by drought stress 92 days after flowering when CD normally begins. This was correlated with high CD in Shiraz berries. The agrobacterium-mediated transient expression of VvBAP1 in tobacco leaves led to a decrease in electrolyte leakage and downregulated a marker gene (Hsr203J) for cell death. Expressing VvBAP1 in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) also alleviated cell death induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Overexpression of VvBAP1 in Arabidopsis increased resistance to H2O2 and reduced CD due to higher expression of genes involved in anti-oxidative responses. Arabidopsis overexpressing VvBAP1 displayed higher tolerance to drought accompanied by upregulation of antioxidant-related gene expression. VvBAP1 complemented an Arabidopsis bap1 knockout by abolishing its CD phenotypes. These results indicate that VvBAP1 may play a role in alleviating CD in grape berries and its downregulation under drought stress may be responsible for the generally observed increase in CD within the berry.

Iso-Seq Allows Genome-Independent Transcriptome Profiling of Grape Berry Development

Transcriptomics has been widely applied to study grape berry development. With few exceptions, transcriptomic studies in grape are performed using the available genome sequence, PN40024, as reference. However, differences in gene content among grape accessions, which contribute to phenotypic differences among cultivars, suggest that a single reference genome does not represent the species' entire gene space. Though whole genome assembly and annotation can reveal the relatively unique or "private" gene space of any particular cultivar, transcriptome reconstruction is a more rapid, less costly, and less computationally intensive strategy to accomplish the same goal. In this study, we used single molecule-real time sequencing (SMRT) to sequence full-length cDNA (Iso-Seq) and reconstruct the transcriptome of Cabernet Sauvignon berries during berry ripening. In addition, short reads from ripening berries were used to error-correct low-expression isoforms and to profile isoform expression. By comparing the annotated gene space of Cabernet Sauvignon to other grape cultivars, we demonstrate that the transcriptome reference built with Iso-Seq data represents most of the expressed genes in the grape berries and includes 1,501 cultivar-specific genes. Iso-Seq produced transcriptome profiles similar to those obtained after mapping on a complete genome reference. Together, these results justify the application of Iso-Seq to identify cultivar-specific genes and build a comprehensive reference for transcriptional profiling that circumvents the necessity of a genome reference with its associated costs and computational weight.

Identification of Disease-miRNA Networks Across Different Cancer Types Using SWIM

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) involved in several biological processes and diseases. MiRNAs regulate gene expression at the posttranscriptional level, mostly downregulating their targets by binding specific regions of transcripts through imperfect sequence complementarity. Prediction of miRNA-binding sites is challenging, and target prediction algorithms are usually based on sequence complementarity. In the last years, it has been shown that by adding miRNA and protein coding gene expression, we are able to build tissue-, cell line-, or disease-specific networks improving our understanding of complex biological scenarios. In this chapter, we present an application of a recently published software named SWIM, that allows to identify key genes in a network of interactions by defining appropriate "roles" of genes according to their local/global positioning in the overall network. Furthermore, we show how the SWIM software can be used to build miRNA-disease networks, by applying the approach to tumor data obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA).

SWIM tool application to expression data of glioblastoma stem-like cell lines, corresponding primary tumors and conventional glioma cell lines

BACKGROUND

It is well-known that glioblastoma contains self-renewing, stem-like subpopulation with the ability to sustain tumor growth. These cells - called cancer stem-like cells - share certain phenotypic characteristics with untransformed stem cells and are resistant to many conventional cancer therapies, which might explain the limitations in curing human malignancies. Thus, the identification of genes controlling the differentiation of these stem-like cells is becoming a successful therapeutic strategy, owing to the promise of novel targets for treating malignancies.

METHODS

Recently, we developed SWIM, a software able to unveil a small pool of genes - called switch genes - critically associated with drastic changes in cell phenotype. Here, we applied SWIM to the expression profiling of glioblastoma stem-like cells and conventional glioma cell lines, in order to identify switch genes related to stem-like phenotype.

RESULTS

SWIM identifies 171 switch genes that are all down-regulated in glioblastoma stem-like cells. This list encompasses genes like CAV1, COL5A1, COL6A3, FLNB, HMMR, ITGA3, ITGA5, MET, SDC1, THBS1, and VEGFC, involved in "ECM-receptor interaction" and "focal adhesion" pathways. The inhibition of switch genes highly correlates with the activation of genes related to neural development and differentiation, such as the 4-core OLIG2, POU3F2, SALL2, SOX2, whose induction has been shown to be sufficient to reprogram differentiated glioblastoma into stem-like cells. Among switch genes, the transcription factor FOSL1 appears as the brightest star since: it is down-regulated in stem-like cells; it highly negatively correlates with the 4-core genes that are all up-regulated in stem-like cells; the promoter regions of the 4-core genes harbor a consensus binding motif for FOSL1.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest that the inhibition of switch genes in stem-like cells could induce the deregulation of cell communication pathways, contributing to neoplastic progression and tumor invasiveness. Conversely, their activation could restore the physiological equilibrium between cell adhesion and migration, hampering the progression of cancer. Moreover, we posit FOSL1 as promising candidate to orchestrate the differentiation of cancer stem-like cells by repressing the 4-core genes' expression, which severely halts cancer growth and might affect the therapeutic outcome. We suggest FOSL1 as novel putative therapeutic and prognostic biomarker, worthy of further investigation.

MicroRNA profiling analysis of developing berries for 'Kyoho' and its early-ripening mutant during berry ripening

BACKGROUND

'Fengzao' is an early-ripening bud mutant of 'Kyoho', which matures nearly 30 days earlier than 'Kyoho'. To gain a better understanding of the regulatory role of miRNAs in early-ripening of grape berry, high-throughput sequencing approach and quantitative RT-PCR validation were employed to identify miRNAs at the genome-wide level and profile the expression patterns of the miRNAs during berry development in 'Kyho' and 'Fengzao', respectively.

RESULTS

Nine independent small RNA libraries were constructed and sequenced in two varieties from key berry development stages. A total of 108 known miRNAs and 61 novel miRNAs were identified. Among that, 159 miRNAs identified in 'Fengzao' all completely expressed in 'Kyoho' and there were 10 miRNAs specifically expressed in 'Kyoho'. The expression profiles of known and novel miRNAs were quite similar between two varieties. As the major differentially expressed miRNAs, novel_144, vvi-miR3626-3p and vvi-miR3626-5p only expressed in 'Kyoho', vvi-miR399b and vvi-miR399e were down-regulated in 'Fengzao', while vvi-miR477b-3p up-regulated in 'Fengzao'. According to the expression analysis and previous reports, miR169-NF-Y subunit, miR398-CSD, miR3626-RNA helicase, miR399- phosphate transporter and miR477-GRAS transcription factor were selected as the candidates for further investigations of miRNA regulation role in the early-ripening of grape. The qRT-PCR analyses validated the contrasting expression patterns for these miRNAs and their target genes.

CONCLUSIONS

The miRNAome of the grape berry development of 'Kyoho', and its early-ripening bud mutant, 'Fengzao' were compared by high-throughput sequencing. The expression pattern of several key miRNAs and their target genes during grape berry development and ripening stages was examined. Our results provide valuable basis towards understanding the regulatory mechanisms of early-ripening of grape berry.

Timing and Order of the Molecular Events Marking the Onset of Berry Ripening in Grapevine

Grapevine (Vitis vinifera) is a model for the investigation of physiological and biochemical changes during the formation and ripening of nonclimacteric fleshy fruits. However, the order and complexity of the molecular events during fruit development remain poorly understood. To identify the key molecular events controlling berry formation and ripening, we created a highly detailed transcriptomic and metabolomic map of berry development, based on samples collected every week from fruit set to maturity in two grapevine genotypes for three consecutive years, resulting in 219 samples. Major transcriptomic changes were represented by coordinated waves of gene expression associated with early development, veraison (onset of ripening)/midripening, and late-ripening and were consistent across vintages. The two genotypes were clearly distinguished by metabolite profiles and transcriptional changes occurring primarily at the veraison/midripening phase. Coexpression analysis identified a core network of transcripts as well as variations in the within-module connections representing varietal differences. By focusing on transcriptome rearrangements close to veraison, we identified two rapid and successive shared transitions involving genes whose expression profiles precisely locate the timing of the molecular reprogramming of berry development. Functional analyses of two transcription factors, markers of the first transition, suggested that they participate in a hierarchical cascade of gene activation at the onset of ripening. This study defined the initial transcriptional events that mark and trigger the onset of ripening and the molecular network that characterizes the whole process of berry development, providing a framework to model fruit development and maturation in grapevine.