Preparation and characterization of carvacrol loaded polyhydroxybutyrate nanoparticles by nanoprecipitation and dialysis methods

Pioglitazone-Loaded Cartilage-Targeted Nanomicelles (Pio@C-HA-DOs) for Osteoarthritis Treatment

Background

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a popular biological material for osteoarthritis (OA) treatment. Pioglitazone, a PPAR-γ agonist, has been found to inhibit OA, but its use is limited because achieving the desired local drug concentration after administration is challenging.

Purpose

Herein, we constructed HA-based cartilage-targeted nanomicelles (C-HA-DOs) to deliver pioglitazone in a sustained manner and evaluated their efficacy in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

C-HA-DOs were chemically synthesized with HA and the WYRGRL peptide and dodecylamine. The products were characterized by FT-IR, 1H NMR, zeta potential and TEM. The drug loading rate and cumulative, sustained drug release from Pio@C-HA-DOs were determined, and their biocompatibility and effect on oxidative stress in chondrocytes were evaluated. The uptake of C-HA-DOs by chondrocytes and their effect on OA-related genes were examined in vitro. The nanomicelle distribution in the joint cavity was observed by in vivo small animal fluorescence imaging (IVIS). The therapeutic effects of C-HA-DOs and Pio@C-HA-DOs in OA rats were analysed histologically.

Results

The C-HA-DOs had a particle size of 198.4±2.431 nm, a surface charge of -8.290±0.308 mV, and a critical micelle concentration of 25.66 mg/Land were stable in solution. The cumulative drug release from the Pio@C-HA-DOs was approximately 40% at pH 7.4 over 24 hours and approximately 50% at pH 6.4 over 4 hours. Chondrocytes rapidly take up C-HA-DOs, and the uptake efficiency is higher under oxidative stress. In chondrocytes, C-HA-DOs, and Pio@C-HA-DOs inhibited H2O2-induced death, reduced intracellular ROS levels, and restored the mitochondrial membrane potential. The IVIS images confirmed that the micelles target cartilage. Pio@C-HA-DOs reduced the degradation of collagen II and proteoglycans by inhibiting the expression of MMP and ADAMTS, ultimately delaying OA progression in vitro and in vivo.

Conclusion

Herein, C-HA-DOs provided targeted drug delivery to articular cartilage and improved the role of pioglitazone in the treatment of OA.

Polymeric Nanotechnologies for the Treatment of Periodontitis: A Chronological Review

Periodontitis is a chronic infectious and inflammatory disease of periodontal tissues estimated to affect 70 - 80 % of all adults. At the same time, periodontium, the site of periodontal pathologies, is an extraordinarily complex plexus of soft and hard tissues, the regeneration of which using even the most advanced forms of tissue engineering continues to be a challenge. Nanotechnologies, meanwhile, have provided exquisite tools for producing biomaterials and pharmaceutical formulations capable of elevating the efficacies of standard pharmacotherapies and surgical approaches to whole new levels. A bibliographic analysis provided here demonstrates a continuously increasing research output of studies on the use of nanotechnologies in the management of periodontal disease, even when they are normalized to the total output of studies on periodontitis. The great majority of biomaterials used to tackle periodontitis, including those that pioneered this interesting field, have been polymeric. In this article, a chronological review of polymeric nanotechnologies for the treatment of periodontitis is provided, focusing on the major conceptual innovations since the late 1990s, when the first nanostructures for the treatment of periodontal diseases were fabricated. In the opening sections, the etiology and pathogenesis of periodontitis and the anatomical and histological characteristics of the periodontium are being described, along with the general clinical manifestations of the disease and the standard means of its therapy. The most prospective chemistries in the design of polymers for these applications are also elaborated. It is concluded that the amount of innovation in this field is on the rise, despite the fact that most studies are focused on the refinement of already established paradigms in tissue engineering rather than on the development of revolutionary new concepts.

Exploring Various Techniques for the Chemical and Biological Synthesis of Polymeric Nanoparticles

Nanoparticles (NPs) have remarkable properties for delivering therapeutic drugs to the body's targeted cells. NPs have shown to be significantly more efficient as drug delivery carriers than micron-sized particles, which are quickly eliminated by the immune system. Biopolymer-based polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) are colloidal systems composed of either natural or synthetic polymers and can be synthesized by the direct polymerization of monomers (e.g., emulsion polymerization, surfactant-free emulsion polymerization, mini-emulsion polymerization, micro-emulsion polymerization, and microbial polymerization) or by the dispersion of preformed polymers (e.g., nanoprecipitation, emulsification solvent evaporation, emulsification solvent diffusion, and salting-out). The desired characteristics of NPs and their target applications are determining factors in the choice of method used for their production. This review article aims to shed light on the different methods employed for the production of PNPs and to discuss the effect of experimental parameters on the physicochemical properties of PNPs. Thus, this review highlights specific properties of PNPs that can be tailored to be employed as drug carriers, especially in hospitals for point-of-care diagnostics for targeted therapies.

Antifungal Carvacrol Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles

The increased prevalence and incidence of fungal infections, of which Candida albicans represents one of the most life-threatening organisms, is prompting the scientific community to develop novel antifungal molecules. Many essential oils components are attracting attention for their interesting antifungal activities. Given the chemical and physical characteristics of these compounds, the use of appropriate nanodelivery systems is becoming increasingly widespread. In this study, chitosan nanoparticles were prepared using an ionic gelation procedure and loaded with the phenolic monoterpene carvacrol. After a bioassay guided optimization, the best nanoparticle formulation was structurally characterized by means of different spectroscopic (UV, FTIR and DLS) and microscopy techniques (SEM) and described for their functional features (encapsulation efficiency, loading capacity and release kinetics). The antifungal activity of this formulation was assayed with different Candida spp., both in planktonic and biofilm forms. From these studies, it emerged that the carvacrol loaded nanoparticles were particularly active against planktonic forms and that the antibiofilm activity was highly dependent on the species tested, with the C. tropicalis and C. krusei strains resulting as the most susceptible.

The Synthesis, Characterization and Applications of Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) and PHA-Based Nanoparticles

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) are storage granules found in bacteria that are essentially hydroxy fatty acid polyesters. PHA molecules appear in variety of structures, and amongst all types of PHAs, polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is used in versatile fields as it is a biodegradable, biocompatible, and ecologically safe thermoplastic. The unique physicochemical characteristics of these PHAs have made them applicable in nanotechnology, tissue engineering, and other biomedical applications. In this review, the optimization, extraction, and characterization of PHAs are described. Their production and application in nanotechnology are also portrayed in this review, and the precise and various production methods of PHA-based nanoparticles, such as emulsion solvent diffusion, nanoprecipitation, and dialysis are discussed. The characterization techniques such as UV-Vis, FTIR, SEM, Zeta Potential, and XRD are also elaborated.

Crucial Role of PLGA Nanoparticles in Mitigating the Amiodarone-Induced Pulmonary Toxicity

BACKGROUND

Amiodarone (AMD) is a widely used anti-arrhythmic drug, but its administration could be associated with varying degrees of pulmonary toxicity. In attempting to circumvent this issue, AMD-loaded polymeric nanoparticles (AMD-loaded NPs) had been designed.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AMD was loaded in NPs by the nanoprecipitation method using two stabilizers: bovine serum albumin and Kolliphor® P 188. The physicochemical properties of the AMD-loaded NPs were determined. Among the prepared NPs, two ones were selected for further investigation of spectral and thermal analysis as well as morphological properties. Additionally, in vitro release patterns were studied and kinetically analyzed at different pH values. In vitro cytotoxicity of an optimized formula (NP4) was quantified using A549 and Hep-2 cell lines. In vivo assessment of the pulmonary toxicity on Sprague Dawley rats via histopathological and immunohistochemical evaluations was applied.

RESULTS

The developed NPs achieved a size not more than 190 nm with an encapsulation efficiency of more than 88%. Satisfactory values of loading capacity and yield were also attained. The spectral and thermal analysis demonstrated homogeneous entrapment of AMD inside the polymeric matrix of NPs. Morphology revealed uniform, core-shell structured, and sphere-shaped particles with a smooth surface. Furthermore, the AMD-loaded NPs exhibited a pH-dependent and diffusion-controlled release over a significant period without an initial burst effect. NP4 demonstrated a superior cytoprotective efficiency by diminishing cell death and significantly increasing the IC50 by more than threefold above the pure AMD. Also, NP4 ameliorated AMD-induced pulmonary damage in rats. Significant downregulation of inflammatory mediators and free radicle production were noticed in the NP4-treated rats.

CONCLUSION

The AMD-loaded NPs could ameliorate the pulmonary injury induced by the pure drug moieties. Cytoprotective, anti-fibrotic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties were presented by the optimized NPs (NP4). Future studies may be built on these findings for diminishing AMD-induced off-target toxicities.

Non-Ionic Surfactants for Stabilization of Polymeric Nanoparticles for Biomedical Uses

Surfactants are essential in the manufacture of polymeric nanoparticles by emulsion formation methods and to preserve the stability of carriers in liquid media. The deposition of non-ionic surfactants at the interface allows a considerable reduction of the globule of the emulsion with high biocompatibility and the possibility of oscillating the final sizes in a wide nanometric range. Therefore, this review presents an analysis of the three principal non-ionic surfactants utilized in the manufacture of polymeric nanoparticles; polysorbates, poly(vinyl alcohol), and poloxamers. We included a section on general properties and uses and a comprehensive compilation of formulations with each principal non-ionic surfactant. Then, we highlight a section on the interaction of non-ionic surfactants with biological barriers to emphasize that the function of surfactants is not limited to stabilizing the dispersion of nanoparticles and has a broad impact on pharmacokinetics. Finally, the last section corresponds to a recommendation in the experimental approach for choosing a surfactant applying the systematic methodology of Quality by Design.

Ferulic Acid-Loaded Polymeric Nanoparticles for Potential Ocular Delivery

Ferulic acid (FA) is an antioxidant compound that can prevent ROS-related diseases, but due to its poor solubility, therapeutic efficacy is limited. One strategy to improve the bioavailability is nanomedicine. In the following study, FA delivery through polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) consisting of polylactic acid (NPA) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (NPB) is proposed. To verify the absence of cytotoxicity of blank carriers, a preliminary in vitro assay was performed on retinal pericytes and endothelial cells. FA-loaded NPs were subjected to purification studies and the physico-hemical properties were analyzed by photon correlation spectroscopy. Encapsulation efficiency and in vitro release studies were assessed through high performance liquid chromatography. To maintain the integrity of the systems, nanoformulations were cryoprotected and freeze-dried. Morphology was evaluated by a scanning electron microscope. Physico-chemical stability of resuspended nanosystems was monitored during 28 days of storage at 5 °C. Thermal analysis and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy were performed to characterize drug state in the systems. Results showed homogeneous particle populations, a suitable mean size for ocular delivery, drug loading ranging from 64.86 to 75.16%, and a controlled release profile. The obtained systems could be promising carriers for ocular drug delivery, legitimating further studies on FA-loaded NPs to confirm efficacy and safety in vitro.

Plant oils: From chemical composition to encapsulated form use

The last decade has witnessed a burgeoning global movement towards essential and vegetable oils in the food, agriculture, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and textile industries thanks to their natural and safe status, broad acceptance by consumers, and versatile functional properties. However, efforts to develop new therapy or functional agents based on plant oils have met with challenges of limited stability and/or reduced efficacy. As a result, there has been increased research interest in the encapsulation of plant oils, whereby the nanocarriers serve as barrier between plant oils and the environment and control oil release leading to improved efficacy, reduced toxicity and enhanced patient compliance and convenience. In this review, special concern has been addressed to the encapsulation of essential and vegetable oils in three types of nanocarriers: polymeric nanoparticles, liposomes and solid lipid nanoparticles. First, the chemical composition of essential and vegetable oils was handled. Moreover, we gather together the research findings reported by the literature regarding the different techniques used to generate these nanocarriers with their significant findings. Finally, differences and similarities between these nanocarriers are discussed, along with current and future applications that are warranted by their structures and properties.

Characterization and Biotechnological Potential of Intracellular Polyhydroxybutyrate by Stigeoclonium sp. B23 Using Cassava Peel as Carbon Source

The possibility of utilizing lignocellulosic agro-industrial waste products such as cassava peel hydrolysate (CPH) as carbon sources for polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) biosynthesis and characterization by Amazonian microalga Stigeoclonium sp. B23. was investigated. Cassava peel was hydrolyzed to reducing sugars to obtain increased glucose content with 2.56 ± 0.07 mmol/L. Prior to obtaining PHB, Stigeoclonium sp. B23 was grown in BG-11 for characterization and Z8 media for evaluation of PHB nanoparticles' cytotoxicity in zebrafish embryos. As results, microalga produced the highest amount of dry weight of PHB with 12.16 ± 1.28 (%) in modified Z8 medium, and PHB nanoparticles exerted some toxicity on zebrafish embryos at concentrations of 6.25-100 µg/mL, increased mortality (<35%) and lethality indicators as lack of somite formation (<25%), non-detachment of tail, and lack of heartbeat (both <15%). Characterization of PHB by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and thermogravimetry (TGA) analysis revealed the polymer obtained from CPH cultivation to be morphologically, thermally, physically, and biologically acceptable and promising for its use as a biomaterial and confirmed the structure of the polymer as PHB. The findings revealed that microalgal PHB from Stigeoclonium sp. B23 was a promising and biologically feasible new option with high commercial value, potential for biomaterial applications, and also suggested the use of cassava peel as an alternative renewable resource of carbon for PHB biosynthesis and the non-use of agro-industrial waste and dumping concerns.

Polymer Nanoparticles and Nanomotors Modified by DNA/RNA Aptamers and Antibodies in Targeted Therapy of Cancer

Polymer nanoparticles and nano/micromotors are novel nanostructures that are of increased interest especially in the diagnosis and therapy of cancer. These structures are modified by antibodies or nucleic acid aptamers and can recognize the cancer markers at the membrane of the cancer cells or in the intracellular side. They can serve as a cargo for targeted transport of drugs or nucleic acids in chemo- immuno- or gene therapy. The various mechanisms, such as enzyme, ultrasound, magnetic, electrical, or light, served as a driving force for nano/micromotors, allowing their transport into the cells. This review is focused on the recent achievements in the development of polymer nanoparticles and nano/micromotors modified by antibodies and nucleic acid aptamers. The methods of preparation of polymer nanoparticles, their structure and properties are provided together with those for synthesis and the application of nano/micromotors. The various mechanisms of the driving of nano/micromotors such as chemical, light, ultrasound, electric and magnetic fields are explained. The targeting drug delivery is based on the modification of nanostructures by receptors such as nucleic acid aptamers and antibodies. Special focus is therefore on the method of selection aptamers for recognition cancer markers as well as on the comparison of the properties of nucleic acid aptamers and antibodies. The methods of immobilization of aptamers at the nanoparticles and nano/micromotors are provided. Examples of applications of polymer nanoparticles and nano/micromotors in targeted delivery and in controlled drug release are presented. The future perspectives of biomimetic nanostructures in personalized nanomedicine are also discussed.

Encapsulation of Essential Oils via Nanoprecipitation Process: Overview, Progress, Challenges and Prospects

Essential oils are of paramount importance in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, agricultural, and food areas thanks to their crucial properties. However, stability and bioactivity determine the effectiveness of essential oils. Polymeric nanoencapsulation is a well-established approach for the preservation of essential oils. It offers a plethora of benefits, including improved water solubility, effective protection against degradation, prevention of volatile components evaporation and controlled and targeted release. Among the several techniques used for the design of polymeric nanoparticles, nanoprecipitation has attracted great attention. This review focuses on the most outstanding contributions of nanotechnology in essential oils encapsulation via nanoprecipitation method. We emphasize the chemical composition of essential oils, the principle of polymeric nanoparticle preparation, the physicochemical properties of essential oils loaded nanoparticles and their current applications.

The antibacterial properties of phenolic isomers, carvacrol and thymol

Most of the antibacterial activities of essential oils from the Lamiaceae herbaceous plant family thyme and oregano are attributed to their bioactive isomeric monoterpenoid constituents, carvacrol and thymol. Commercially available antibiotics of thymol or carvacrol have not yet been developed but health products have incorporated thymol into their formulations for their antimicrobial properties. Carvacrol and thymol are generally considered safe for consumption and they have been used in dental applications, approved as food flavorings and have been considered as antibacterial additives in food and feed. Many studies have demonstrated that carvacrol and thymol are potent antibacterial agents against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The most frequently reported mechanism of antibacterial action of both isomers involves the disruption of bacterial membrane leading to bacterial lysis and leakage of intracellular contents resulting in death. Other proposed mechanisms of antibacterial action include the inhibition of efflux pumps, prevention in the formation and disruption of preformed biofilms, inhibition of bacterial motility, and inhibition of membrane ATPases. In addition, both isomers have been found to act additively or synergistically with conventional antibiotics important in overcoming the problem of bacteria resistance in food and disease.

MicroRNA 155 Downregulation by Vitamin C–Loaded Human Serum Albumin Nanoparticles During Cutaneous Wound Healing in Mice

This study focused on potential of vitamin C loaded human serum albumin (HSA) nanoparticles for treatment of wound. Nanocarrier were prepared and assessed for their effect on growth of 3T3 fibroblast cells, cell migration, wound healing rate and expression of miR-155, TGF-β1 and SMAD 1,2 genes. Wound healing assay was done and wounds were treated with vitamin C loaded HSA nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were prepared with size and zeta potential of 180±6 and -29 mV, respectively. Vitamin C loaded HSA nanoparticles showed controlled release of vitamin C into the buffer solution. Also, yield and encapsulation efficacy of loaded nanoparticles were obtained as 70.6 and 52.1 %, respectively. MTT results showed that the growth of 3T3 fibroblast cells was promoted in culture medium with 20 µg/ml of vitamin C loaded HSA nanoparticles. Cell migration assay indicated the positive effect of loaded nanoparticles on wound healing. The in-vivo results showed that the rate of wound healing was increased after treatment with 20 µg/ml of vitamin C loaded HSA nanoparticles. The wounds were healed faster when treated with vitamin C loaded HSA nanoparticles in comparison with control group. The expression of miR-155 was downregulated after treatment. Furthermore, expression of TGF-β1 and SMAD 1,2 were increased while the wounds were treated with these nanoparticles. In conclusion, these results showed for the first time that wounds were healed after treatment with albumin nanocarrier loaded with vitamin C. This nanocarrier changed expression of miR-155 and TGF-β1 towards faster healing of wounds.

Microparticles from Wheat-Gluten Proteins Soluble in Ethanol by Nanoprecipitation: Preparation, Characterization, and Their Study as a Prolonged-Release Fertilizer

At present, the development of natural polymeric microparticles is carried out to obtain release systems. Prolonged-release systems are a potential solution to avoid nitrogen (N) losses in agricultural fields. The aim of this study was to develop microspheres from wheat-gluten proteins soluble in ethanol 70% (v/v), to ascertain their characterization, and to study their potential application in agricultural fields. Soluble-protein extraction was performed with 1600 mL of ethanol 70% (v/v). Likewise, ethanolic solutions with protein concentrations of 0.5%, 1%, and 2% (w/v) are classified as non-Newtonian fluids with pseudoplastic behavior. Using the nanoprecipitation method, it was possible to develop urea-loaded microspheres with a diameter ranging from 900 nm–1.7 μm. The Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) test exhibited interaction through hydrogen bonds between carbonyls and amino groups from the urea and proteins. Also, the thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) test demonstrated thermal stability at 130°C. The release experiment showed that the microspheres achieved equilibrium when 88% of the urea was released. Finally, according to the empirical model of Ritger and Peppas, urea release is carried out through Fickian diffusion. We conclude that the microspheres could be applied in the fields and with this improve agricultural practices. Also, they could reduce the potential environmental pollution and developing a sustainable agriculture.

Nanoencapsulation of Polyphenols towards Dairy Beverage Incorporation

Phenolic compounds, while widely recognized for their biological potential, when added into food matrixes may interact with food constituents. One example of this is the interaction between phenolic compounds and proteins, that may result in the formation of complexes and alter the bioavailability of both phenolic compounds and the nutrient availability. Moreover, when adding compounds to improve the functionality of a food matrix, these interactions may compromise the perceived benefits of the additions. Nanoencapsulation has been considered one of the means to circumvent these interactions, as they may function as a physical barrier between the phenolic compounds and the matrix (preventing not only the loss of bioactivity, but eventual sensorial alterations of the foods), protect phenolic compounds through the gastrointestinal tract, and may enhance phenolic absorption through cellular endocytosis. However, despite these advantages the food industry is still limited in its nanotechnological solutions, as special care must be taken to use food-grade encapsulants which will not pose any deleterious effect towards human health. Therefore, this review aims to provide an encompassing view of the existing advantages and limitations of nanotechnology, associated with the inclusion of phenolic compounds in dairy beverages.

The natural plant compound carvacrol as an antimicrobial and anti-biofilm agent: mechanisms, synergies and bio-inspired anti-infective materials

Carvacrol (5-isopropyl-2-methyl phenol) is a natural compound that occurs in the leaves of a number of plants and herbs including wild bergamot, thyme and pepperwort, but which is most abundant in oregano. The aim of this review is to analyse the scientific data from the last five years (2012-2017) on the antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities of carvacrol, targeting different bacteria and fungi responsible for human infectious diseases. The antimicrobial and anti-biofilm mechanisms of carvacrol and its synergies with antibiotics are illustrated. The potential of carvacrol-loaded anti-infective nanomaterials is underlined. Carvacrol shows excellent antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities, and is a very interesting bioactive compound against fungi and a wide range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and being active against both planktonic and sessile human pathogens. Moreover, carvacrol lends itself to being combined with nanomaterials, thus providing an opportunity for preventing biofilm-associated infections by new bio-inspired, anti-infective materials.

Update on Monoterpenes as Antimicrobial Agents: A Particular Focus on p-Cymene

p-Cymene [1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-benzene] is a monoterpene found in over 100 plant species used for medicine and food purposes. It shows a range of biological activity including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anxiolytic, anticancer and antimicrobial effects. This last property has been widely investigated due to the urgent need for new substances with antimicrobial properties, to be used to treat communicable diseases whose diffusion in developed countries has been facilitated by globalization and the evolution of antimicrobial resistance. This review summarizes available scientific data, as reported by the most recent studies describing the antimicrobial activity of p-cymene either alone, or as the main component of plant extracts, as well as addressing the mechanisms of action of cymenes as antimicrobial agents. While p-cymene is one of the major constituents of extracts and essential oils used in traditional medicines as antimicrobial agents, but considering the limited data on its in vivo efficacy and safety, further studies are required to reach a definitive recommendation on the use and beneficial effects of p-cymene in human healthcare and in biomedical applications as a promising candidate to functionalize biomaterials and nanomaterials.

Chemistry and multibeneficial bioactivities of carvacrol (4-isopropyl-2-methylphenol), a component of essential oils produced by aromatic plants and spices

Aromatic plants produce organic compounds that may be involved in the defense of plants against phytopathogenic insects, bacteria, fungi, and viruses. One of these compounds, called carvacrol, which is found in high concentrations in essential oils such as oregano, has been reported to exhibit numerous bioactivities in cells and animals. This integrated overview surveys and interprets our present knowledge of the chemistry and analysis of carvacrol and its beneficial bioactivities. These activities include its antioxidative properties in food (e.g., lard, sunflower oil) and in vivo and the inhibition of foodborne and human antibiotic-susceptible and antibiotic-resistant pathogenic bacteria, viruses, pathogenic fungi and parasites, and insects in vitro and in human foods (e.g., apple juice, eggs, leafy greens, meat and poultry products, milk, oysters) and food animal feeds and wastes. Also covered are inhibitions of microbial and fungal toxin production and the anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antiarthritic, antiallergic, anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, cardioprotective, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective properties of carvacrol as well as metabolic, synergistic, and mechanistic aspects. Areas for future research are also suggested. The collated information and suggested research might contribute to a better understanding of agronomical, biosynthetic, chemical, physiological, and cellular mechanisms of the described health-promoting effects of carvacrol, and facilitate and guide further studies needed to optimize the use of carvacrol as a multifunctional food in pure and encapsulated forms, in edible antimicrobial films, and in combination with plant-derived and medical antibiotics to help prevent or treat animal and human diseases.