Testing and recommending methods for fitting size spectra to data

Maximum likelihood outperforms binning methods for detecting differences in abundance size spectra across environmental gradients

Individual body size distributions (ISD) within communities are remarkably consistent across habitats and spatiotemporal scales and can be represented by size spectra, which are described by a power law. The focus of size spectra analysis is to estimate the exponent (λ ) of the power law. A common application of size spectra studies is to detect anthropogenic pressures. Many methods have been proposed for estimatingλ most of which involve binning the data, counting the abundance within bins, and then fitting an ordinary least squares regression in log-log space. However, recent work has shown that binning procedures return biased estimates ofλ compared to procedures that directly estimateλ using maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). While it is clear that MLE produces less biased estimates of site-specific λ's, it is less clear how this bias affects the ability to test for changes in λ across space and time, a common question in the ecological literature. Here, we used simulation to compare the ability of two normalised binning methods (equal logarithmic and log2 bins) and MLE to (1) recapture known values ofλ , and (2) recapture parameters in a linear regression measuring the change inλ across a hypothetical environmental gradient. We also compared the methods using two previously published body size datasets across a natural temperature gradient and an anthropogenic pollution gradient. Maximum likelihood methods always performed better than common binning methods, which demonstrated consistent bias depending on the simulated values ofλ . This bias carried over to the regressions, which were more accurate whenλ was estimated using MLE compared to the binning procedures. Additionally, the variance in estimates using MLE methods is markedly reduced when compared to binning methods. The error induced by binning methods can be of similar magnitudes as the variation previously published in experimental and observational studies, bringing into question the effect sizes of previously published results. However, while the methods produced different regression slope estimates, they were in qualitative agreement on the sign of those slopes (i.e. all negative or all positive). Our results provide further support for the direct estimation ofλ and its relative variation across environmental gradients using MLE over the more common methods of binning.

Divergent responses of pelagic and benthic fish body-size structure to remoteness and protection from humans

Animal body-size variation influences multiple processes in marine ecosystems, but habitat heterogeneity has prevented a comprehensive assessment of size across pelagic (midwater) and benthic (seabed) systems along anthropic gradients. In this work, we derive fish size indicators from 17,411 stereo baited-video deployments to test for differences between pelagic and benthic responses to remoteness from human pressures and effectiveness of marine protected areas (MPAs). From records of 823,849 individual fish, we report divergent responses between systems, with pelagic size structure more profoundly eroded near human markets than benthic size structure, signifying greater vulnerability of pelagic systems to human pressure. Effective protection of benthic size structure can be achieved through MPAs placed near markets, thereby contributing to benthic habitat restoration and the recovery of associated fishes. By contrast, recovery of the world's largest and most endangered fishes in pelagic systems requires the creation of highly protected areas in remote locations, including on the High Seas, where protection efforts lag.

Livestock grazing modifies soil nematode body size structure in mosaic grassland habitats

Body size is closely related to the trophic level and abundance of soil fauna, particularly nematodes. Therefore, size-based analyses are increasingly prominent in unveiling soil food web structure and its responses to anthropogenic disturbances, such as livestock grazing. Yet, little is known about the effects of different livestock on the body size structure of soil nematodes, especially in grasslands characterized by local habitat heterogeneity. A four-year field grazing experiment from 2017 to 2020 was conducted in a meadow steppe characterized by typical mosaics of degraded hypersaline patches and undegraded hyposaline patches to assess the impacts of cattle and sheep grazing on the body size structure of soil nematodes within and across trophic groups. Without grazing, the hypersaline patches harbored higher abundance of large-bodied nematodes in the community compared to the hyposaline patches. Livestock grazing decreased large-bodied nematodes within and across trophic groups mainly by reducing soil microbial biomass in the hypersaline patches, with sheep grazing resulting in more substantial reductions compared to cattle grazing. The reduction in large-bodied nematode individuals correspondingly resulted in decreases in nematode community-weighted mean (CWM) body size, nematode biomass, and size spectra slopes. However, both cattle and sheep grazing had minimal impacts on the CWM body size and size spectra of total nematodes in the hyposaline patches. Our findings suggest that livestock grazing, especially sheep grazing, has the potential to simplify soil food webs by reducing large-bodied nematodes in degraded habitats, which may aggravate soil degradation by weakening the bioturbation activities of soil fauna. In light of the widespread land use of grasslands by herbivores of various species and the ongoing global grassland degradation of mosaic patches, the recognition of the trends revealed by our findings is critical for developing appropriate strategies for grassland grazing management.

Human pressures modulate climate-warming-induced changes in size spectra of stream fish communities

Climate warming can negatively affect the body size of ectothermic organisms and, based on known temperature-size rules, tends to benefit small-bodied organisms. Our understanding of the interactive effects of climate warming and other environmental factors on the temporal changes of body size structure is limited. We quantified the annual trends in size spectra of 583 stream fish communities sampled for more than 20 years across France. The results show that climate warming steepened the slope of the community size spectrum in streams with limited impacts from other human pressures. These changes were caused by increasing abundance of small-bodied individuals and decreasing abundance of large-bodied individuals. However, opposite effects of climate warming on the size spectrum slopes were observed in streams facing high levels of other human pressures. This demonstrates that the effects of temperature on body size structure can depend on other human pressures, disrupting the natural patterns of size spectra in wild communities with potentially strong implications for the fluxes of energy and nutrients in ecosystems.

Larger but younger fish when growth outpaces mortality in heated ecosystem

Ectotherms are predicted to 'shrink' with global warming, in line with general growth models and the temperature-size rule (TSR), both predicting smaller adult sizes with warming. However, they also predict faster juvenile growth rates and thus larger size-at-age of young organisms. Hence, the result of warming on the size-structure of a population depends on the interplay between how mortality rate, juvenile- and adult growth rates are affected by warming. Here, we use two-decade long time series of biological samples from a unique enclosed bay heated by cooling water from a nearby nuclear power plant to become 5-10 °C warmer than its reference area. We used growth-increment biochronologies (12,658 reconstructed length-at-age estimates from 2426 individuals) to quantify how >20 years of warming has affected body growth, size-at-age, and catch to quantify mortality rates and population size- and age structure of Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis). In the heated area, growth rates were faster for all sizes, and hence size-at-age was larger for all ages, compared to the reference area. While mortality rates were also higher (lowering mean age by 0.4 years), the faster growth rates lead to a 2 cm larger mean size in the heated area. Differences in the size-spectrum exponent (describing how the abundance declines with size) were less clear statistically. Our analyses reveal that mortality, in addition to plastic growth and size-responses, is a key factor determining the size structure of populations exposed to warming. Understanding the mechanisms by which warming affects the size- and the age structure of populations is critical for predicting the impacts of climate change on ecological functions, interactions, and dynamics.

Zooplankton Size Structure in Relation to Environmental Factors in the Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir, China

Body size is sensitive to environmental changes and one of the fundamental traits linking ecological functions. Size structure has been suggested as a useful indicator for environmental monitoring and assessment in aquatic ecosystems. However, the organisms’ size structure and the relationship with environmental factors remain seldom addressed in reservoir ecosystems. In this study, we investigated the size spectrum, size diversity of the zooplankton and their relationships with environmental conditions across nitrogen and phosphorus gradients in the Xiangxi Bay of Three Gorges Reservoir, China. We further tested the hypotheses that how nutrient and water temperature affect zooplankton size structure: nutrients indirectly affect zooplankton size spectrum and size diversity via phytoplankton (H1); increasing water temperature will reduce size diversity and result in a steeper size spectrum (H2); size diversity is a more robust metric indicating environment changes than the size spectrum in high dynamic ecosystems (H3). We found that both the size spectrum and size diversity showed high spatiotemporal dynamics. The size spectrum ranged from −3.373 to −0.984. The size diversity ranged from 0.631 to 3.291. Spatially, the lowest values of the size spectrum and size diversity were observed in the upstream areas of Xiangxi Bay, where nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations are high and low, respectively. And in temporal dynamics, lower values of the size spectrum and size diversity were generally observed in March and April. Further analyses based on the structural equation model (SEM) found a clear pathway revealing that nutrient variables affect the zooplankton abundance and size structure, supporting hypothesis H1. That is, dissolved inorganic nitrogen had an indirect effect on the zooplankton abundance, size spectrum, and size diversity by influencing the concentration of phytoplankton chlorophyll a. In addition, results of SEM suggested that increased water temperature had a significant negative effect on the size diversity but had non-significant effects on zooplankton abundance and size spectrum. This finding suggests that size diversity is a reliable and useful index in measuring the zooplankton size structure in reservoir ecosystems with high dynamics, which may have a wide application in environmental monitoring and assessment, especially for complex and dynamic aquatic ecosystems.

Individual size distributions across North American streams vary with local temperature

Parameters describing the negative relationship between abundance and body size within ecological communities provide a summary of many important biological processes. While it is considered to be one of the few consistent patterns in ecology, spatiotemporal variation of this relationship across continental scale temperature gradients is unknown. Using a database of stream communities collected across North America (18-68°N latitude, -4 to 25°C mean annual air temperature) over 3 years, we constructed 160 individual size distribution (ISD) relationships (i.e. abundance size spectra). The exponent parameter describing ISD's decreased (became steeper) with increasing mean annual temperature, with median slopes varying by ~0.2 units across the 29°C temperature gradient. In addition, total community biomass increased with increasing temperatures, contrary with theoretical predictions. Our study suggests conservation of ISD relationships in streams across broad natural environmental gradients. This supports the emerging use of size-spectra deviations as indicators of fundamental changes to the structure and function of ecological communities.

Species compositions mediate biomass conservation: the case of lake fish communities

Environmental and geographical factors are known to influence the number, distribution and combination of species that coexist within ecological communities. This, in turn, should influence ecosystem functions such as biomass conservation, or the ability of a community to sustain biomass from small to large organisms. We tested this hypothesis by assessing the role of environmental factors in determining how biomass is conserved in over 600 limnetic fish communities spread across a broad geographic gradient in Canada. Comprehensive and accurate information on water conditions and community characteristics such as taxonomy, abundance, biomass and size distributions were used in our assessment. Results showed that species combinations emerge as one of the main predictors of biomass conservation among the effects of individual species and abiotic factors. Our study highlights the strong role that geographic patterns in the distribution of species can play in shaping key ecosystem functions, with consequences for ecosystem services such as the provision of harvestable fish biomass.

Estimating global biomass and biogeochemical cycling of marine fish with and without fishing

The biomass and biogeochemical roles of fish in the ocean are ecologically important but poorly known. Here, we use a data-constrained marine ecosystem model to provide a first-order estimate of the historical reduction of fish biomass due to fishing and the associated change in biogeochemical cycling rates. The pre-exploitation global biomass of exploited fish (10 g to 100 kg) was 3.3 ± 0.5 Gt, cycling roughly 2% of global primary production (9.4 ± 1.6 Gt year⁻¹) and producing 10% of surface biological export. Particulate organic matter produced by exploited fish drove roughly 10% of the oxygen consumption and biological carbon storage at depth. By the 1990s, biomass and cycling rates had been reduced by nearly half, suggesting that the biogeochemical impact of fisheries has been comparable to that of anthropogenic climate change. Our results highlight the importance of developing a better mechanistic understanding of how fish alter ocean biogeochemistry.

Archaeological and Contemporary Evidence Indicates Low Sea Otter Prevalence on the Pacific Northwest Coast During the Late Holocene

The historic extirpation and subsequent recovery of sea otters (Enhydra lutris) have profoundly changed coastal social-ecological systems across the northeastern Pacific. Today, the conservation status of sea otters is informed by estimates of population carrying capacity or growth rates independent of human impacts. However, archaeological and ethnographic evidence suggests that for millennia, complex hunting and management protocols by Indigenous communities limited sea otter abundance near human settlements to reduce the negative impacts of this keystone predator on shared shellfish prey. To assess relative sea otter prevalence in the Holocene, we compared the size structure of ancient California mussels (Mytilus californianus) from six archaeological sites in two regions on the Pacific Northwest Coast, to modern California mussels at locations with and without sea otters. We also quantified modern mussel size distributions from eight locations on the Central Coast of British Columbia, Canada, varying in sea otter occupation time. Comparisons of mussel size spectra revealed that ancient mussel size distributions are consistently more similar to modern size distributions at locations with a prolonged absence of sea otters. This indicates that late Holocene sea otters were maintained well below carrying capacity near human settlements as a result of human intervention. These findings illuminate the conditions under which sea otters and humans persisted over millennia prior to the Pacific maritime fur trade and raise important questions about contemporary conservation objectives for an iconic marine mammal and the social-ecological system in which it is embedded.

Fishing and habitat condition differentially affect size spectra slopes of coral reef fishes

Marine food webs are structured through a combination of top-down and bottom-up processes. In coral reef ecosystems, fish size is related to life-history characteristics and size-based indicators can represent the distribution and flow of energy through the food web. Thus, size spectra can be a useful tool for investigating the impacts of both fishing and habitat condition on the health and productivity of coral reef fisheries. In addition, coral reef fisheries are often data-limited and size spectra analysis can be a relatively cost-effective and simple method for assessing fish populations. Abundance size spectra are widely used and quantify the relationship between organism size and relative abundance. Previous studies that have investigated the impacts of fishing and habitat condition together on the size distribution of coral reef fishes, however, have aggregated all fishes regardless of taxonomic identity. This leads to a poor understanding of how fishes with different feeding strategies, body size-abundance relationships, or catchability might be influenced by top-down and bottom-up drivers. To address this gap, we quantified size spectra slopes of carnivorous and herbivorous coral reef fishes across three regions of Indonesia representing a gradient in fishing pressure and habitat conditions. We show that fishing pressure was the dominant driver of size spectra slopes such that they became steeper as fishing pressure increased, which was due to the removal of large-bodied fishes. When considering fish functional groups separately, however, carnivore size spectra slopes were more heavily impacted by fishing than herbivores. Also, structural complexity, which can mediate predator-prey interactions and provisioning of resources, was a relatively important driver of herbivore size spectra slopes such that slopes were shallower in more complex habitats. Our results show that size spectra slopes can be used as indicators of fishing pressure on coral reef fishes, but aggregating fish regardless of trophic identity or functional role overlooks differential impacts of fishing pressure and habitat condition on carnivore and herbivore size distributions.

The riverine bioreactor: An integrative perspective on biological decomposition of organic matter across riverine habitats

Riverine ecosystems can be conceptualized as 'bioreactors' (the riverine bioreactor) which retain and decompose a wide range of organic substrates. The metabolic performance of the riverine bioreactor is linked to their community structure, the efficiency of energy transfer along food chains, and complex interactions among biotic and abiotic environmental factors. However, our understanding of the mechanistic functioning and capacity of the riverine bioreactor remains limited. We review the state of knowledge and outline major gaps in the understanding of biotic drivers of organic matter decomposition processes that occur in riverine ecosystems, across habitats, temporal dimensions, and latitudes influenced by climate change. We propose a novel, integrative analytical perspective to assess and predict decomposition processes in riverine ecosystems. We then use this model to analyse data to demonstrate that the size-spectra of a community can be used to predict decomposition rates by analysing an illustrative dataset. This modelling methodology allows comparison of the riverine bioreactor's performance across habitats and at a global scale. Our integrative analytical approach can be applied to advance understanding of the functioning and efficiency of the riverine bioreactor as hotspots of metabolic activity. Application of insights gained from such analyses could inform the development of strategies that promote the functioning of the riverine bioreactor across global ecosystems.

The Differential Importance of Deep and Shallow Seagrass to Nekton Assemblages of the Great Barrier Reef

Seagrass meadows are an important habitat for a variety of animals, including ecologically and socioeconomically important species. Seagrass meadows are recognised as providing species with nursery grounds, and as a migratory pathway to adjacent habitats. Despite their recognised importance, little is known about the species assemblages that occupy seagrass meadows of different depths in the coastal zone. Understanding differences in the distribution of species in seagrass at different depths, and differences in species diversity, abundance, biomass, and size spectra, is important to fully appreciate both the ecological significance and economic importance of these seagrass meadows. Here, we assess differences in the assemblage characteristics of fish, crustacea, and cephalopods (collectively, nekton) between deep (>9 m; Halophila spinulosa dominant) and shallow water (<2 m; Halodule uninervis and/or Zostera muelleri dominant) seagrass meadows of the central Great Barrier Reef coast of Queensland, Australia. Nekton assemblage structure differed between deep and shallow seagrass. Deeper meadows were typified by juvenile emperors (e.g., Lethrinus genivittatus), hairfinned leatherjacket (Paramonacanthus japonicus) and rabbitfish (e.g., Siganus fuscescens) in both biomass per unit effort (BPUE) and catch per unit effort (CPUE), whereas shallow meadows were typified by the green tiger prawn (Penaeus semisulcatus) and pugnose ponyfish (Secutor insidiator) in both BPUE and CPUE. Both meadow depths were distinct in their nekton assemblage, particularly for socioeconomically important species, with 11 species unique to both shallow and deep meadows. However, both meadow depths also included juveniles of socioeconomically important species found in adjacent habitats as adults. The total nekton CPUE was not different between deep and shallow seagrass, but the BPUE and body mass of individual animals were greater in deep than shallow seagrass. Size spectra analysis indicated that in both deep and shallow meadows, smaller animals predominated, even more so than theoretically expected for size spectra. Our findings highlight the unique attributes of both shallow and deeper water seagrass meadows, and identify the distinct and critically important role of deep seagrass meadows within the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area (GBRWHA) as a habitat for small and juvenile species, including those of local fisheries value.

Human exploitation shapes productivity-biomass relationships on coral reefs

Coral reef fisheries support the livelihoods of millions of people in tropical countries, despite large-scale depletion of fish biomass. While human adaptability can help to explain the resistance of fisheries to biomass depletion, compensatory ecological mechanisms may also be involved. If this is the case, high productivity should coexist with low biomass under relatively high exploitation. Here we integrate large spatial scale empirical data analysis and a theory-driven modelling approach to unveil the effects of human exploitation on reef fish productivity-biomass relationships. We show that differences in how productivity and biomass respond to overexploitation can decouple their relationship. As size-selective exploitation depletes fish biomass, it triggers increased production per unit biomass, averting immediate productivity collapse in both the modelling and the empirical systems. This 'buffering productivity' exposes the danger of assuming resource production-biomass equivalence, but may help to explain why some biomass-depleted fish assemblages still provide ecosystem goods under continued global fishing exploitation.

Parameterized maximum entropy models predict variability of metabolic scaling across tree communities and populations

The maximum entropy theory of ecology (METE) applies the concept of "entropy" from information theory to predict macroecological patterns. The energetic predictions of the METE rely on predetermined metabolic scaling from external theories, and this reliance diminishes the testability of the theory. In this work, I build parameterized METE models by treating the metabolic scaling exponent as a free parameter, and I use the maximum-likelihood method to obtain empirically plausible estimates of the exponent. I test the models using the individual tree data from an oak-dominated deciduous forest in the northeastern United States and from a tropical forest in central Panama. My analysis shows that the metabolic scaling exponents predicted from the parameterized METE models deviate from that of the metabolic theory of ecology and exhibit large variation, at both community and population levels. Assemblage and population abundance may act as ecological constraints that regulate the individual-level metabolic scaling behavior. This study provides a novel example of the use of the parameterized METE models to reveal the biological processes of individual organisms. The implication and possible extensions of the parameterized METE models are discussed.

Mapping Micro-Pollutants and Their Impacts on the Size Structure of Streambed Communities

Recently there has been increasing concern over the vast array of emerging organic contaminants (EOCs) detected in streams and rivers worldwide. Understanding of the ecological implications of these compounds is limited to local scale case studies, partly as a result of technical limitations and a lack of integrative analyses. Here, we apply state-of-the-art instrumentation to analyze a complex suite of EOCs in the streambed of 30 UK streams and their effect on streambed communities. We apply the abundance–body mass (N–M) relationship approach as an integrative metric of the deviation of natural communities from reference status as a result of EOC pollution. Our analysis includes information regarding the N and M for individual prokaryotes, unicellular flagellates and ciliates, meiofauna, and macroinvertebrates. We detect a strong significant dependence of the N–M relationship coefficients with the presence of EOCs in the system, to the point of shielding the effect of other important environmental factors such as temperature, pH, and productivity. However, contrary to other stressors, EOC pollution showed a positive effect on the N–M coefficient in our work. This phenomenon can be largely explained by the increase in large-size tolerant taxa under polluted conditions. We discuss the potential implications of these results in relation to bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes. Our findings shed light on the impact of EOCs on the organization and ecology of the whole streambed community for the first time.

A single pulse of diffuse contaminants alters the size distribution of natural phytoplankton communities

The presence of a multitude of bioactive organic pollutants collectively classified as pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) in freshwaters is of concern, considering that ecological assessments of their potential impacts on natural systems are still scarce. In this field experiment we tested whether a single pulse exposure to a mixture of 12 pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which are commonly found in European inland waters, can influence the size distributions of natural lake phytoplankton communities. Size is one of the most influential determinants of community structure and functioning, particularly in planktonic communities and food webs. Using an in-situ microcosm approach, phytoplankton communities in two lakes with different nutrient levels (mesotrophic and eutrophic) were exposed to a concentration gradient of the PPCPs mixture at five levels. We tested whether sub-lethal PPCPs doses affect the scaling of organisms' abundances with their size, and the slope of these size spectra, which describe changes in the abundances of small relative to large phytoplankton. Our results showed that a large proportion (approximately 80%) of the dataset followed a power-law distribution, thus suggesting evidence of scale invariance of abundances, as expected in steady state ecosystems. PPCPs were however found to induce significant changes in the size spectra and community structure of natural phytoplankton assemblages. The two highest treatment levels of PPCPs were associated with decreased abundance of the most dominant size class (nano-phytoplankton: 2-5 μm), leading to a flattening of the size spectra slope. These results suggest that a pulse exposure to PPCPs induce changes that potentially lead to unsteady ecosystem states and cascading effects in the aquatic food webs, by favoring larger non-edible algae at the expense of small edible species. We propose higher susceptibility due to higher surface to volume ratio in small species as the likely cause of these structural changes.

Depth and vertical hydrodynamics constrain the size structure of a lowland streambed community

Abundance-body mass (N-M) relationships are prominent macroecological patterns and provide an integrated measurement of the structure and energy flow through natural communities. However, little is known about how N-M relationships are constrained by local environmental conditions. Here, we quantify how sediment depth and direction of surface-groundwater exchange (vertical hydrodynamics), two major drivers of the streambed ecology, determine N-M scaling in a sandy lowland European stream. Streambed assemblages included flagellates, ciliates, meiofauna and macroinvertebrates, and spanned five orders of magnitude in body mass. We detected a significant interaction of body mass with depth and vertical hydrodynamics with a sharp reduction in N-M slopes in the hyporheic zone and under upwelling conditions. These results revealed that streambed assemblages become more size-structured as environmental constraints increase with direct implications for the metabolic capacity and functioning of the system.

Energetic equivalence underpins the size structure of tree and phytoplankton communities

The size structure of autotroph communities – the relative abundance of small vs. large individuals – shapes the functioning of ecosystems. Whether common mechanisms underpin the size structure of unicellular and multicellular autotrophs is, however, unknown. Using a global data compilation, we show that individual body masses in tree and phytoplankton communities follow power-law distributions and that the average exponents of these individual size distributions (ISD) differ. Phytoplankton communities are characterized by an average ISD exponent consistent with three-quarter-power scaling of metabolism with body mass and equivalence in energy use among mass classes. Tree communities deviate from this pattern in a manner consistent with equivalence in energy use among diameter size classes. Our findings suggest that whilst universal metabolic constraints ultimately underlie the emergent size structure of autotroph communities, divergent aspects of body size (volumetric vs. linear dimensions) shape the ecological outcome of metabolic scaling in forest vs. pelagic ecosystems.

Given the size differences between the autotrophs in aquatic and terrestrial systems, it is unclear whether the same metabolic scaling patterns apply in both groups. Here the authors unify previous datasets and show that plankton and trees follow similar power-law scaling of individual size distributions.

Remarkable size-spectra stability in a marine system undergoing massive invasion

The Mediterranean Sea is an invasion hotspot, with non-indigenous species suspected to be a major driver behind community changes. We used size spectra, a reliable index of food web structure, to examine how the influx of Red Sea fishes into the Mediterranean Sea has impacted the indigenous species community. This is the first attempt to use changes in the size spectra to reveal the effect of biological invasions. We used data from trawl catches along Israel's shoreline spanning 20 years to estimate changes in the community size spectra of both indigenous and non-indigenous species. We found that the relative biomass of non-indigenous species increased over the 20 years, especially for small and large species, leading to a convergence with the indigenous species size spectra. Hence, the biomass of indigenous and non-indigenous species has become identical for all size classes, suggesting similar energetic constraints and sensitivities to fishing. However, over this time period the size spectrum of indigenous species has remained remarkably constant. This suggests that the wide-scale invasion of non-indigenous species into the Mediterranean may have had little impact on the community structure of indigenous species.