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Rubien-Thomas E, Lin YC, Chan I, Conley MI, Skalaban L, Kopp H, Adake A, Richeson JA, Gee DG, Baskin-Sommers A, Casey BJ. Interactive effects of participant and stimulus race on cognitive performance in youth: Insights from the ABCD study. Dev Cogn Neurosci 2024; 67:101393. [PMID: 38838435 PMCID: PMC11214402 DOI: 10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024] Open
Abstract
An extensive literature shows that race information can impact cognitive performance. Two key findings include an attentional bias to Black racial cues in U.S. samples and diminished recognition of other-race faces compared to same-race faces in predominantly White adult samples. Yet face stimuli are increasingly used in psychological research often unrelated to race (Conley et al., 2018) or without consideration for how race information may influence cognitive performance, especially among developmental participants from different racial groups. In the current study we used open-access data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive DevelopmentSM (ABCD) Study® 4.0.1 release to test for developmentally similar other- and same-race effects of Black and White face stimuli on attention, working memory, and recognition memory in 9- and 10-year-old Black and White children (n=5,659) living in the U.S. Black and White children showed better performance when attending to Black versus White faces. We also show an advantage in recognition memory of same-race compared to other-race faces in White children that did not generalize to Black children. Together the findings highlight how race information, even when irrelevant to an experiment, may indirectly lead to misinterpretation of group differences in cognitive performance in children of different racial backgrounds.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yen-Chu Lin
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Barnard College-Columbia University, New York, USA.
| | - Ivan Chan
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - May I Conley
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Lena Skalaban
- Department of Psychology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hailey Kopp
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Barnard College-Columbia University, New York, USA
| | - Arya Adake
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Barnard College-Columbia University, New York, USA
| | | | - Dylan G Gee
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | - B J Casey
- Department of Neuroscience and Behavior, Barnard College-Columbia University, New York, USA.
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2
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Tracy RE, Zomberg D, Young SG. On the role of experience versus motivation in predicting the own-race effect. Br J Psychol 2023; 114 Suppl 1:172-187. [PMID: 36647236 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The other-race effect (ORE) is a longstanding phenomenon in experimental psychology, where recognition for same-race faces is superior than for other-race faces. The present research pits two competing theories of perceptual expertise and social motivation against each other to see which is the more robust predictor of the ORE. In Study 1, we measured Black and White participants' prior contact with individuals from the other-race (i.e. expertise) as well as their expected level of future interaction with other-race individuals (i.e. motivation). Of the two theories, anticipated interaction (i.e. motivation) emerged as a significant predictor of the ORE. Study 2 followed the same design, measuring motivation with a self-report assessment of how much participants are willing to have cross-race friendships. Here, neither experience nor motivation predicted the ORE, though an ORE was established. Differences in measures that assess motivation and the experience versus motivation debate are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan E Tracy
- The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
| | - Dvora Zomberg
- The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
| | - Steven G Young
- The Graduate Center, City University of New York, New York, New York, USA.,Baruch College, City University of New York, New York, New York, USA
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3
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Is the Other-Race Effect in Working Memory Due to Attentional Refreshing? J Cogn 2023; 6:16. [PMID: 36818491 PMCID: PMC9936906 DOI: 10.5334/joc.263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The other-race effect is the observation that faces from another ethnicity induce worst recall performance than faces from one's own ethnicity. This effect has been defined as a type of familiarity effect, with more familiar faces better recalled than less familiar faces. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that a working memory maintenance mechanism called attentional refreshing mediates the other-race effect and that faces from one's own ethnicity are refreshed more efficiently than faces from other ethnicities. In two experiments, face ethnicity was orthogonally manipulated with cognitive load of a concurrent processing task in a complex-span paradigm (Exp. 1) and with the memory load in a Brown-Peterson paradigm (Exp. 2). Both cognitive and memory load effects are indices of the functioning of attentional refreshing. Testing Caucasian young adults, Caucasian and East-Asian faces were contrasted. Results from both experiments were congruent and against our initial hypothesis. The other-race effect in working memory does not appear to be supported by attentional refreshing. Furthermore, the results are congruent with the idea that faces as a whole are not maintained in working memory via attentional refreshing.
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Stelter M, Simon D, Calanchini J, Christ O, Degner J. Real-life outgroup exposure, self-reported outgroup contact and the other-race effect. Br J Psychol 2022; 114 Suppl 1:150-171. [PMID: 36229411 DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
People are better at recognizing faces from their own racial or ethnic group compared with faces from other racial or ethnic groups, known as the other-'race' effect (ORE). Several theories of the ORE assume that memory for other-race faces is impaired because people have less contact with members of other racial or ethnic groups, resulting in lower visual expertise. The present research investigates contact theories of the ORE, using self-report contact measures and objective measures of potential outgroup exposure (estimated from participants' residential location and from GPS tracking). Across six studies (total N = 2660), we observed that White American and White German participants displayed better memory for White faces compared with Black or Middle Eastern faces, whereas Black American participants displayed similarly equal or better memory for White compared with Black faces. We did not observe any relations between the ORE and objective measures of potential outgroup exposure. Only in Studies 2a and 2b, we observed very small correlations (rs = -.08 to .06) between 4 out of 30 contact measures and the ORE. We discuss methodological limitations and implications for theories of the ORE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marleen Stelter
- Department of Psychology, FernUniversität in Hagen, Hagen, Germany.,Institute of Psychology, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Deja Simon
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Jimmy Calanchini
- Department of Psychology, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Oliver Christ
- Department of Psychology, FernUniversität in Hagen, Hagen, Germany
| | - Juliane Degner
- Institute of Psychology, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
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5
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Nishimura Y, Tsuda H, Ogawa H. Own‐Race
Advantage in Visual Working Memory for Faces Reflects Enhanced Storage Capacity and Quick Encoding
1. JAPANESE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/jpr.12327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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6
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Ficco L, Müller VI, Kaufmann JM, Schweinberger SR. Socio‐cognitive, expertise‐based and appearance‐based accounts of the other‐‘race’ effect in face perception: A label‐based systematic review of neuroimaging results. Br J Psychol 2022; 114 Suppl 1:45-69. [DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linda Ficco
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Friedrich Schiller University Jena Germany
- Department of Linguistics and Cultural Evolution International Max Planck Research School for the Science of Human History Jena Germany
| | - Veronika I. Müller
- Institute of Systems Neuroscience, Medical Faculty Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf Düsseldorf Germany
- Institute of Neuroscience und Medicine (INM‐7) Research Centre Jülich Jülich Germany
| | - Jürgen M. Kaufmann
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Friedrich Schiller University Jena Germany
| | - Stefan R. Schweinberger
- Department of General Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience Friedrich Schiller University Jena Germany
- Department of Linguistics and Cultural Evolution International Max Planck Research School for the Science of Human History Jena Germany
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7
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Lee J, Penrod SD. Three‐level meta‐analysis of the other‐race bias in facial identification. APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/acp.3997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jungwon Lee
- Department of Psychology Hallym University Chuncheon South Korea
| | - Steven D. Penrod
- Department of Psychology John Jay College of Criminal Justice New York USA
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8
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Lee MD, Mistry PK, Menon V. A Multinomial Processing Tree Model of the 2-back Working Memory Task. COMPUTATIONAL BRAIN & BEHAVIOR 2022; 5:261-278. [PMID: 37873549 PMCID: PMC10593202 DOI: 10.1007/s42113-022-00138-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
The n -back task is a widely used behavioral task for measuring working memory and the ability to inhibit interfering information. We develop a novel model of the commonly used 2-back task using the cognitive psychometric framework provided by Multinomial Processing Trees. Our model involves three parameters: a memory parameter, corresponding to how well an individual encodes and updates sequence information about presented stimuli; a decision parameter corresponding to how well participants execute choices based on information stored in memory; and a base-rate parameter corresponding to bias for responding "yes" or "no". We test the parameter recovery properties of the model using existing 2-back experimental designs, and demonstrate the application of the model to two previous data sets: one from social psychology involving faces corresponding to different races (Stelter and Degner, British Journal of Psychology 109:777-798, 2018), and one from cognitive neuroscience involving more than 1000 participants from the Human Connectome Project (Van Essen et al., Neuroimage 80:62-79, 2013). We demonstrate that the model can be used to infer interpretable individual-level parameters. We develop a hierarchical extension of the model to test differences between stimulus conditions, comparing faces of different races, and comparing face to non-face stimuli. We also develop a multivariate regression extension to examine the relationship between the model parameters and individual performance on standardized cognitive measures including the List Sorting and Flanker tasks. We conclude by discussing how our model can be used to dissociate underlying cognitive processes such as encoding failures, inhibition failures, and binding failures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D. Lee
- Department of Cognitive Sciences, University of California Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Percy K. Mistry
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, USA, CA 94305
| | - Vinod Menon
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, USA, CA 94305
- Department of Neurology and Neurological Sciences, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, USA, CA 94305
- Wu Tsai Stanford Neuroscience Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, USA, CA 94305
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9
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Marcolin F, Vezzetti E, Monaci M. Face perception foundations for pattern recognition algorithms. Neurocomputing 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neucom.2021.02.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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10
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Singh B, Mellinger C, Earls HA, Tran J, Bardsley B, Correll J. Does Cross-Race Contact Improve Cross-Race Face Perception? A Meta-Analysis of the Cross-Race Deficit and Contact. PERSONALITY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY BULLETIN 2021; 48:865-887. [PMID: 34176344 DOI: 10.1177/01461672211024463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Contact with racial outgroups is thought to reduce the cross-race recognition deficit (CRD), the tendency for people to recognize same-race (i.e., ingroup) faces more accurately than cross-race (i.e., outgroup) faces. In 2001, Meissner and Brigham conducted a meta-analysis in which they examined this question and found a meta-analytic effect of r = -.13. We conduct a new meta-analysis based on 20 years of additional data to update the estimate of this relationship and examine theoretical and methodological moderators of the effect. We find a meta-analytic effect of r = -.15. In line with theoretical predictions, we find some evidence that the magnitude of this relationship is stronger when contact occurs during childhood rather than adulthood. We find no evidence that the relationship differs for measures of holistic/configural processing compared with normal processing. Finally, we find that the magnitude of the relationship depends on the operationalization of contact and that it is strongest when contact is manipulated. We consider recommendations for further research on this topic.
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11
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Kang J, Han X, Song J, Niu Z, Li X. The identification of children with autism spectrum disorder by SVM approach on EEG and eye-tracking data. Comput Biol Med 2020; 120:103722. [PMID: 32250854 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2020.103722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify autistic children, we used features extracted from two modalities (EEG and eye-tracking) as input to a machine learning approach (SVM). METHODS A total of 97 children aged from 3 to 6 were enrolled in the present study. After resting-state EEG data recording, the children performed eye-tracking tests individually on own-race and other-race stranger faces stimuli. Power spectrum analysis was used for EEG analysis and areas of interest (AOI) were selected for face gaze analysis of eye-tracking data. The minimum redundancy maximum relevance (MRMR) feature selection method combined with SVM classifiers were used for classification of autistic versus typically developing children. RESULTS Results showed that classification accuracy from combining two types of data reached a maximum of 85.44%, with AUC = 0.93, when 32 features were selected. LIMITATIONS The sample consisted of children aged from 3 to 6, and no younger patients were included. CONCLUSIONS Our machine learning approach, combining EEG and eye-tracking data, may be a useful tool for the identification of children with ASD, and may help for diagnostic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiannan Kang
- College of Electronic & Information Engineering, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Xiaoya Han
- School of Information Science & Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Jiajia Song
- College of Electronic & Information Engineering, Hebei University, Baoding, China
| | - Zikang Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoli Li
- State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
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12
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Abstract
People often recognize and remember faces of individuals within their own race more easily than those of other races. While behavioral research has long suggested that the Other-Race Effect (ORE) is due to extensive experience with one’s own race group, the neural mechanisms underlying the effect have remained elusive. Predominant theories of the ORE have argued that the effect is mainly caused by processing disparities between same and other-race faces during early stages of perceptual encoding. Our findings support an alternative view that the ORE is additionally shaped by mnemonic processing mechanisms beyond perception and attention. Using a “pattern separation” paradigm based on computational models of episodic memory, we report evidence that the ORE may be driven by differences in successful memory discrimination across races as a function of degree of interference or overlap between face stimuli. In contrast, there were no ORE-related differences on a comparable match-to-sample task with no long-term memory load, suggesting that the effect is not simply attributable to visual and attentional processes. These findings suggest that the ORE may emerge in part due to “tuned” memory mechanisms that may enhance same-race, at the expense of other-race face detection.
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13
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Gambarota F, Sessa P. Visual Working Memory for Faces and Facial Expressions as a Useful "Tool" for Understanding Social and Affective Cognition. Front Psychol 2019; 10:2392. [PMID: 31695663 PMCID: PMC6817943 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual working memory (VWM) is one of the most investigated cognitive systems functioning as a hub between low- and high-level processes. Remarkably, its role in human cognitive architecture makes it a stage of crucial importance for the study of socio-affective cognition, also in relation with psychopathology such as anxiety. Among socio-affective stimuli, faces occupy a place of first importance. How faces and facial expressions are encoded and maintained in VWM is the focus of this review. Within the main theoretical VWM models, we will review research comparing VWM representations of faces and of other classes of stimuli. We will further present previous work investigating if and how both static (i.e., ethnicity, trustworthiness and identity) and changeable (i.e., facial expressions) facial features are represented in VWM. Finally, we will examine research showing qualitative differences in VWM for face representations as a function of psychopathology and personality traits. The findings that we will review are not always coherent with each other, and for this reason we will highlight the main methodological differences as the main source of inconsistency. Finally, we will provide some suggestions for future research in this field in order to foster our understanding of representation of faces in VWM and its potential role in supporting socio-affective cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filippo Gambarota
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
| | - Paola Sessa
- Department of Developmental Psychology and Socialization, University of Padua, Padua, Italy.,Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padua, Padua, Italy
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