IFN-α subtypes: distinct biological activities in anti-viral therapy

Cloning and functional characterization of novel human neutralizing anti-interferon-alpha and anti-interferon-beta antibodies

Type I interferons (IFNs) play a pivotal role in immune response modulation, yet dysregulation is implicated in various disorders. Therefore, it is crucial to develop tools that facilitate the understanding of their mechanism of action and enable the development of more effective anti-IFN therapeutic strategies. In this study, we isolated, cloned, and characterized anti-IFN-α and anti-IFN-β antibodies (Abs) from peripheral blood mononuclear cells of individuals treated with IFN-α or IFN-β, harboring confirmed neutralizing Abs. Clones AH07856 and AH07857 were identified as neutralizing anti-IFN-α-specific with inhibition against IFN-α2a, -α2b, and -αK subtypes. Clones AH07859 and AH07866 were identified as neutralizing anti-IFN-β1a-specific signaling, and able to block Lipopolysaccharide or S100 calcium binding protein A14-induced IFN-β signaling effects. Cloned Abs bind rhesus but not murine IFNs. The specificity of inhibition between IFN-α and IFN-β suggests potential for diverse research and clinical applications.

Oleoylethanolamide and Palmitoylethanolamide Enhance IFNβ-Induced Apoptosis in Human Neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y Cells

Oleoylethanolamide (OEA) and palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) are endogenous lipids that act as agonists of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα). Recently, an interest in the role of these lipids in malignant tumors has emerged. Nevertheless, the effects of OEA and PEA on human neuroblastoma cells are still not documented. Type I interferons (IFNs) are immunomodulatory cytokines endowed with antiviral and anti-proliferative actions and are used in the treatment of various pathologies such as different cancer forms (i.e., non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, melanoma, leukemia), hepatitis B, hepatitis C, multiple sclerosis, and many others. In this study, we investigated the effect of OEA and PEA on human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells treated with IFNβ. We focused on evaluating cell viability, cell proliferation, and cell signaling. Co-exposure to either OEA or PEA along with IFNβ leads to increased apoptotic cell death marked by the cleavage of caspase 3 and poly-(ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP) alongside a decrease in survivin and IKBα levels. Moreover, we found that OEA and PEA did not affect IFNβ signaling through the JAK-STAT pathway and the STAT1-inducible protein kinase R (PKR). OEA and PEA also increased the phosphorylation of p38 MAP kinase and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression both in full cell lysate and surface membranes. Furthermore, GW6471, a PPARα inhibitor, and the genetic silencing of the receptor were shown to lower PD-L1 and cleaved PARP levels. These results reveal the presence of a novel mechanism, independent of the IFNβ-prompted pathway, by which OEA and PEA can directly impair cell survival, proliferation, and clonogenicity through modulating and potentiating the intrinsic apoptotic pathway in human SH-SY5Y cells.

Inflammation-Targeted Drug Delivery Strategies via Albumin-Based Systems

Albumin, being the most abundant serum protein, has the potential to significantly enhance the physicochemical properties of therapeutic payloads, thereby improving their pharmacological effects. Apart from its passive transport via the enhanced permeability and retention effect, albumin can actively accumulate in tumor microenvironments or inflammatory tissues via receptor-mediated processes. This unique property makes albumin a promising scaffold for targeted drug delivery. This review focuses on exploring different delivery strategies that combine albumin with drug payloads to achieve targeted therapy for inflammatory diseases. Also, albumin-derived therapeutic products on the market or undergoing clinical trials in the past decade have been summarized to gain insight into the future development of albumin-based drug delivery systems. Given the involvement of inflammation in numerous diseases, drug delivery systems utilizing albumin demonstrate remarkable advantages, including enhanced properties, improved in vivo behavior and efficacy. Albumin-based drug delivery systems have been demonstrated in clinical trials, while more advanced strategies for improving the capacity of drug delivery systems with the help of albumin remain to be discovered. This could pave the way for biomedical applications in more effective and precise treatments.

Differential signaling by type-I and type-III interferons in mucosa

Mucosal surfaces are barrier sites that protect the body from the outside environment. They have developed mechanisms to handle microbiota-associated triggers while remaining responsive to pathogens. Cells at mucosal surfaces rely on both the type-I and -III interferons (IFNs) as key cytokines to protect the epithelium itself and to prevent systemic spread of viral infections. Type-I and -III IFNs have been shown to use distinct receptors but similar JAK/STAT signaling cascades to elicit the induction of IFN-stimulated genes. These overlapping cascades led to the original hypothesis that both IFNs provided redundant functions at mucosal surfaces. However, accumulating evidence points toward a different model where each IFN provides a unique protective and homeostatic function as well as distinct antiviral protection to epithelial cells. This review will highlight recent work shedding light on the differences in how both type -I and -III IFNs induce receptor-mediated signaling to protect mucosal surfaces.

Sex-dependent differences in type I IFN-induced natural killer cell activation

Natural killer (NK) cells are important antiviral effector cells and also involved in tumor clearance. NK cells express IFNAR, rendering them responsive to Type I IFNs. To evaluate Type I IFN-mediated modulation of NK cell functions, individual Type I IFNs subtypes were assessed for their ability to activate NK cells. Different Type I IFN subtypes displayed a broad range in the capacity to induce and modulate NK cell activation and degranulation, measured by CD69 and CD107a expression in response to leukemia cell line K562. When including biological sex as a variable in the analysis, transwell co-cultures of NK cells with either male- or female-derived PBMCs or pDCs stimulated with the TLR7/8 agonist CL097 showed that NK cells were more activated by CL097-stimulated cells derived from females. These sex-specific differences were linked to higher CL097-induced IFNα production by pDCs derived from females, indicating an extrinsic sex-specific effect of Type I IFNs on NK cell function. Interestingly, in addition to the extrinsic effect, we also observed NK cell-intrinsic sex differences, as female NK cells displayed higher activation levels after IFNα-stimulation and after co-culture with CL097-stimulated pDCs, suggesting higher activation of IFNα-signaling transduction in female NK cells. Taken together, the results from these studies identify both extrinsic and intrinsic sex-specific differences in Type I IFN-dependent NK cell functions, contributing to a better understanding of sex-specific differences in innate immunity.

A novel TRIM22 gene polymorphism promotes the response to PegIFNα therapy through cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction signaling pathway in chronic hepatitis B

IMPORTANCE

Pegylated interferon alfa (PegIFNα) has limited efficacy in the treatment of chronic hepatitis B (CHB). Although many biomarkers related to hepatitis B virus (HBV) have been proposed to stratify patients, the response rate to PegIFNα is still unsatisfactory. Herein, our data suggest that the single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs10838543 in TRIM22 potentiates a positive clinical response to PegIFNα treatment in patients with hepatitis B e antigen-positive CHB by increasing the levels of IFNL1, CCL3, and CCL5. These observations can help guide treatment decisions for patients with CHB to improve the response rate to PegIFNα.

Activation of Immune and Antiviral Effects by Euglena Extracts: A Review

Influenza is an acute respiratory illness caused by influenza virus infection, which is managed using vaccines and antiviral drugs. Recently, the antiviral effects of plants and foods have gained attention. Euglena is a motile unicellular alga and eukaryotic photosynthetic microorganism. It has secondary chloroplasts and is a mixotroph able to feed by photosynthesis or phagocytosis. This review summarizes the influenza treatment effects of Euglena from the perspective of a functional food that is attracting attention. While it has been reported that Euglena contributes to suppressing blood sugar levels and ameliorates symptoms caused by stress by acting on the autonomic nervous system, the immunostimulatory and antiviral activities of Euglena have also been reported. In this review, I focused on the immunostimulation of antiviral activity via the intestinal environment and the suppression of viral replication in infected cells. The functions of specific components of Euglena, which also serves as the source of a wide range of nutrients such as vitamins, minerals, amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and β-1,3-glucan (paramylon), are also reviewed. Euglena has animal and plant properties and natural compounds with a wide range of functions, providing crucial information for improved antiviral strategies.

Aicardi-Goutières syndrome: A monogenic type I interferonopathy

Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) is a rare monogenic autoimmune disease that primarily affects the brains of children patients. Its main clinical features include encephalatrophy, basal ganglia calcification, leukoencephalopathy, lymphocytosis and increased interferon-α (IFN-α) levels in the patient's cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and serum. AGS may be caused by mutations in any one of nine genes (TREX1, RNASEH2A, RNASEH2B, RNASEH2C, SAMHD1, ADAR1, IFIH1, LSM11 and RNU7-1) that result in accumulation of self-nucleic acids in the cytoplasm or aberrant sensing of self-nucleic acids. This triggers overproduction of type I interferons (IFNs) and subsequently causes AGS, the prototype of type I interferonopathies. This review describes the discovery history of AGS with various genotypes and provides the latest knowledge of clinical manifestations and causative genes of AGS. The relationship between AGS and type I interferonopathy and potential therapeutic methods for AGS are also discussed in this review.

Ubiquitination network in the type I IFN-induced antiviral signaling pathway

Type I IFN (IFN-I) is the body's first line of defense against pathogen infection. IFN-I can induce cellular antiviral responses and therefore plays a key role in driving antiviral innate and adaptive immunity. Canonical IFN-I signaling activates the Janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) pathway, which induces the expression of IFN-stimulated genes and eventually establishes a complex antiviral state in the cells. Ubiquitin is a ubiquitous cellular molecule for protein modifications, and the ubiquitination modifications of protein have been recognized as one of the key modifications that regulate protein levels and/or signaling activation. Despite great advances in understanding the ubiquitination regulation of many signaling pathways, the mechanisms by which protein ubiquitination regulates IFN-I-induced antiviral signaling have not been explored until very recently. This review details the current understanding of the regulatory network of ubiquitination that critically controls the IFN-I-induced antiviral signaling pathway from three main levels, including IFN-I receptors, IFN-I-induced cascade signals, and effector IFN-stimulated genes.

Interferons-Implications in the Immune Response to Respiratory Viruses

Interferons (IFN) are an assemblage of signaling proteins made and released by various host cells in response to stimuli, including viruses. Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza virus, and SARS-CoV-2 are major causes of respiratory disease that induce or antagonize IFN responses depending on various factors. In this review, the role and function of type I, II, and III IFN responses to respiratory virus infections are considered. In addition, the role of the viral proteins in modifying anti-viral immunity is noted, as are the specific IFN responses that underly the correlates of immunity and protection from disease.

A separable temporal convolutional networks based deep learning technique for discovering antiviral medicines

An alarming number of fatalities caused by the COVID-19 pandemic has forced the scientific community to accelerate the process of therapeutic drug discovery. In this regard, the collaboration between biomedical scientists and experts in artificial intelligence (AI) has led to a number of in silico tools being developed for the initial screening of therapeutic molecules. All living organisms produce antiviral peptides (AVPs) as a part of their first line of defense against invading viruses. The Deep-AVPiden model proposed in this paper and its corresponding web app, deployed at https://deep-avpiden.anvil.app , is an effort toward discovering novel AVPs in proteomes of living organisms. Apart from Deep-AVPiden, a computationally efficient model called Deep-AVPiden (DS) has also been developed using the same underlying network but with point-wise separable convolutions. The Deep-AVPiden and Deep-AVPiden (DS) models show an accuracy of 90% and 88%, respectively, and both have a precision of 90%. Also, the proposed models were statistically compared using the Student's t-test. On comparing the proposed models with the state-of-the-art classifiers, it was found that they are much better than them. To test the proposed model, we identified some AVPs in the natural defense proteins of plants, mammals, and fishes and found them to have appreciable sequence similarity with some experimentally validated antimicrobial peptides. These AVPs can be chemically synthesized and tested for their antiviral activity.

WTAP-mediated m6A modification of IFNE is required for antiviral defense in condyloma acuminata

BACKGROUND

IFN-ε is essential in combating viral infections, particularly in epithelial cells and protected mucosal tissues. Its protective effects have been demonstrated against HSV2, Zika virus, HIV and SARS-COV2. However, the specific expression and role of IFN-ε in skin keratinocytes and HPV infection are still not fully understood and require further investigation.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to investigate the functions and expression mechanism of IFN-ε in keratinocytes during HPV infection and the progression of condyloma acuminata.

METHODS

Keratinocytes isolated from biopsied CA warts and normal skins samples were analyzed by MeRIP-seq analysis. IFN-ε and WTAP in CA warts and normal skins were analyzed by immunostaining and qPCR.

RESULTS

In this study, we identified IFN-ɛ was markedly upregulated in CA warts and HPV-infected keratinocytes. IFN-ɛ expression also showed negatively correlation with the size of CA warts (R=-0.4646, P = 0.009). IFN-ɛ suppressed the susceptibility of HPV infection directly. m6A analysis reveals WTAP is a key m6A writer promoting the m6A modification of IFNE mRNA.

CONCLUSION

Our research suggests that IFN-ɛ is an important Type I IFN cytokine involved in the development of genital warts. Furthermore, we found that HPV infection affects the m6A modifications of IFNE through a mechanism dependent on WTAP. This study provides insights into the innate immune response of the host to HPV infection and may contribute to the development of future strategies for regulating innate immunity to treat genital warts.

Interferon-based treatment of chronic hepatitis D

Treatment of hepatitis D virus (HDV) infection has been based on the administration of interferon-alfa for more than three decades. First studies to treat HDV-infected patients with type 1 interferons were already performed in the 1980s. Several smaller trials and case series were reported thereafter. During the mid 2000s the use of pegylated interferons for hepatitis D was established. Since then, additional trials were performed in different countries exploring strategies to personalize treatment including extended treatment durations. The overall findings were that about one-quarter to one-third of patients benefit from interferon treatment with persistent suppression of HDV replication. However, only few patients achieve also functional cure of hepatitis B with HBsAg loss. Importantly, several studies indicate that successful interferon treatment is associated with improved clinical long-term outcomes. Still, only a proportion of patients with hepatitis D can be treated with interferons. Even though alternative treatments are currently developed, it is likely that pegylated interferon-alfa will still have an important role in the management of hepatitis D - either alone or in combination. Therefore, better biomarkers are needed to select patients with a high likelihood to benefit from interferon-based treatments. In this review we are discussing basic principles of mode of action of interferon alpha against HDV, summarize previous data on interferon treatment of hepatitis D and give an outlook on potential combinations with novel drugs currently in development.

Mafosfamide Boosts GMI-HBVac against HBV via Treg Depletion in HBV-Infected Mice

Chronic hepatitis B infection remains a significant worldwide health burden, placing persons at risk for hepatocellular cancer and hepatic fibrosis. Chronic hepatitis B virus (CHB) infection is characterized by elevated levels of immunosuppressive regulatory T cells (Tregs), which can inhibit the function of effector T cells and lead to an insufficient immune clearance response against HBV. Theoretically, suppression of Treg cell functionality and percentage could increase anti-HBV reactivity in CHB-infected patients, although this has not yet been explored. We attempted to enhance our previously established anti-CHB protocol utilizing the GM-CSF+IFN-α+rHBVvac regimen (GMI-HBVac) by incorporating mafosfamide (MAF), which has been utilized in anticancer therapy in the past. Intravenous administration of MAF to rAAV8-1.3HBV-infected mice resulted in a dose-dependent reduction of Tregs in the blood, rebounding to pretreatment levels 10 days later. To assess the potential benefit of adding MAF to the anti-CHB protocol, 2 μg/mL MAF was combined with the GMI-HBVac as an anti-Treg treatment in an HBV-infected animal model. When rAAV8-1.3HBV-infected mice were immunized with MAF+GMI-HBVac, peripheral blood Tregs decreased significantly, leading to dendritic cell activation, HBV-specific T cell proliferation, and the upregulation of IFN-gamma-producing CD8⁺T cells. In addition, MAF+GMI-HBVac vaccination stimulated T cell infiltration in HBV-infected livers. These effects may contribute to an enhanced immune response and the clearance of HBV-associated antigens, including serum HBsAg, serum HBcAg, and HBcAg⁺ hepatocytes. Overall, this is the first indication that MAF can act as an adjuvant with GMI-HBVac to deplete Tregs in mice with an established CHB infection. This unique therapeutic vaccine regimen produced a functional cure, as revealed by the remarkable clearance of HBsAg.

Omalizumab may protect allergic patients against COVID-19: A systematic review

Omalizumab, which downregulates the immunoglobulin E (IgE) receptor site on plasmacytoid dendritic cells and thereby increases interferon-α (INF-α) production, may shorten the duration of viral infections by enhancing the antiviral immunity. A systematic review was conducted to investigate whether previous anti-IgE treatment with omalizumab could protect against SARS-CoV-2 disease ("COVID-19") (infection, disease duration, and severity), and whether IFN-α upregulation could be involved. The research included articles published from March 2020 to January 2022. An accurate search was performed on bibliographic biomedical database (MEDLINE - Pubmed, SCOPUS, EMBASE, BIOMED CENTRAL, Google scholar, COCHRANE LIBRARY, ClinicalTrial.gov) including cohorts, case reports and reviews. Different methods were used, based on the study design, to assess the quality of eligible studies. Several authors link omalizumab to a possible protection against viruses, but they often refer to studies carried out before the pandemic and with viruses other than SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) (eg, rhinoviruses -RV). Few cases of COVID-19 patients treated with omalizumab have been recorded, and, in most of them, no increased susceptibility to severe disease was observed. According to these data, the current indication is to continue omalizumab therapy during the pandemic. Moreover, although omalizumab may enhance the antiviral immune response even for SARS-CoV-2, further studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis. It would be helpful to establish a registry of omalizumab-treated (or in treatment) patients who have developed COVID-19. Finally, randomized controlled trials could be able to demonstrate the effect of omalizumab in protecting against severe SARS-CoV-2, through IFN-α upregulation or other immunological pathways.

Interferon therapy and its association with depressive disorders - A review

Interferons (IFNs) are important in controlling the innate immune response to viral infections. Besides that, studies have found that IFNs also have antimicrobial, antiproliferative/antitumor and immunomodulatory effects. IFNs are divided into Type I, II and III. Type I IFNs, in particular IFN-α, is an approved treatment for hepatitis C. However, patients developed neuropsychological disorders during treatment. IFN-α induces proinflammatory cytokines, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), oxidative and nitrative stress that intensifies the body's inflammatory response in the treatment of chronic inflammatory disease. The severity of the immune response is related to behavioral changes in both animal models and humans. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is important for synaptic plasticity and long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus. However, excess ROS will generate highly reactive free radicals which may lead to neuronal damage and neurodegeneration. The limbic system regulates memory and emotional response, damage of neurons in this region is correlated with mood disorders. Due to the drawbacks of the treatment, often patients will not complete the treatment sessions, and this affects their recovery process. However, with proper management, this could be avoided. This review briefly describes the different types of IFNs and its pharmacological and clinical usages and a focus on IFN-α and its implications on depression.

The Influenza-Induced Pulmonary Inflammatory Exudate in Susceptible Tpl2-Deficient Mice Is Dictated by Type I IFN Signaling

The most prominent host response to viral infection is the production of type 1 interferons (T1 IFNs). One host regulator of the T1 IFNs is the serine-threonine kinase, tumor progression locus 2 (TPL2). We have previously demonstrated that Tpl2^-/- mice succumb to infection with a low-pathogenicity influenza A strain (x31), in association with with increased pulmonary levels of interferon-β (IFN-β), chemokine CCL2, and excessive monocyte and neutrophil pulmonary infiltration. TPL2-dependent overexpression of IFN-β has been implicated in enhanced susceptibility to Mycobacterium tuberculosis; therefore, we examined the role of T1 IFNs in susceptibility of Tpl2^-/- mice to influenza. CCL2 overexpression and monocyte recruitment were normalized in Ifnar1^-/-Tpl2^-/- mice, confirming that TPL2 constrains inflammatory monocyte recruitment via inhibition of the T1 IFN/CCL2 axis. Unexpectedly, excessive neutrophil recruitment in Ifnar1^-/- strains was further exacerbated by simultaneous TPL2 genetic ablation in Ifnar1^-/-Tpl2^-/- by 7 dpi, accompanied by overexpression of neutrophil-regulating cytokines, CXCL1 and IFN-λ. Collectively, our data suggest that TPL2 and T1 IFNs synergize to inhibit neutrophil recruitment. However, treatment with the neutrophil-depleting anti-Ly6G antibody showed only a modest improvement in disease. Analysis of sorted innate immune populations revealed redundant expression of inflammatory mediators among neutrophils, inflammatory monocytes and alveolar macrophages. These findings suggest that targeting a single cell type or mediator may be inadequate to control severe disease characterized by a mixed inflammatory exudate. Future studies will consider TPL2-regulated pathways as potential predictors of severe influenza progression as well as investigate novel methods to modulate TPL2 function during viral infection.

Modulation of type I interferon signaling by natural products in the treatment of immune-related diseases

Type I interferon (IFN) is considered as a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity. Proper activation or inhibition of type I IFN signaling is essential for host defense against pathogen invasion, tumor cell proliferation, and overactive immune responses. Due to intricate and diverse chemical structures, natural products and their derivatives have become an invaluable source inspiring innovative drug discovery. In addition, some natural products have been applied in clinical practice for infection, cancer, and autoimmunity over thousands of years and their promising curative effects and safety have been well-accepted. However, whether these natural products are primarily targeting type I IFN signaling and specific molecular targets involved are not fully elucidated. In the current review, we thoroughly summarize recent advances in the pharmacology researches of natural products for their type I IFN activity, including both agonism/activation and antagonism/inhibition, and their potential application as therapies. Furthermore, the source and chemical nature of natural products with type I IFN activity are highlighted and their specific molecular targets in the type I IFN pathway and mode of action are classified. In conclusion, natural products possessing type I IFN activity represent promising therapeutic strategies and have a bright prospect in the treatment of infection, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.

Type I interferon subtypes differentially activate the anti-leukaemic function of natural killer cells

Natural killer (NK) cells have an intrinsic ability to detect and eliminate leukaemic cells. Cellular therapies using cytokine-activated NK cells have emerged as promising treatments for patients with advanced leukaemia. However, not all patients respond to current NK cell therapies, and thus improvements in efficacy are required. Type I interferons (IFN-I) are a family of potent immunomodulatory cytokines with a known ability to modulate NK cell responses against cancer. Although the human IFN-I family comprises 16 distinct subtypes, only IFNα2 has been widely explored as an anti-cancer agent. Here, we investigated the individual immunomodulatory effects each IFNα subtype and IFNβ had on NK cell functionality to determine whether a particular subtype confers enhanced effector activity against leukaemia. Importantly, IFNα14 and IFNβ were identified as superior activators of NK cell effector function in vitro. To test the ability of these subtypes to enhance NK cell activity in vivo, IFN-I stimulation was overlaid onto a standard ex vivo expansion protocol to generate NK cells for adoptive cell therapy. Interestingly, infusion of NK cells pre-activated with IFNα14, but not IFNβ, significantly prolonged survival in a preclinical model of leukaemia compared to NK cells expanded without IFN-I. Collectively, these results highlight the diverse immunomodulatory potencies of individual IFN-I subtypes and support further investigation into the use of IFNα14 to favourably modulate NK cells against leukaemia.

SRSF1 acts as an IFN-I-regulated cellular dependency factor decisively affecting HIV-1 post-integration steps

Efficient HIV-1 replication depends on balanced levels of host cell components including cellular splicing factors as the family of serine/arginine-rich splicing factors (SRSF, 1-10). Type I interferons (IFN-I) play a crucial role in the innate immunity against HIV-1 by inducing the expression of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) including potent host restriction factors. The less well known IFN-repressed genes (IRepGs) might additionally affect viral replication by downregulating host dependency factors that are essential for the viral life cycle; however, so far, the knowledge about IRepGs involved in HIV-1 infection is very limited. In this work, we could demonstrate that HIV-1 infection and the associated ISG induction correlated with low SRSF1 levels in intestinal lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMCs) and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) during acute and chronic HIV-1 infection. In HIV-1-susceptible cell lines as well as primary monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs), expression levels of SRSF1 were transiently repressed upon treatment with specific IFNα subtypes in vitro. Mechanically, 4sU labeling of newly transcribed mRNAs revealed that IFN-mediated SRSF1 repression is regulated on early RNA level. SRSF1 knockdown led to an increase in total viral RNA levels, but the relative proportion of the HIV-1 viral infectivity factor (Vif) coding transcripts, which is essential to counteract APOBEC3G-mediated host restriction, was significantly reduced. In the presence of high APOBEC3G levels, however, increased LTR activity upon SRSF1 knockdown facilitated the overall replication, despite decreased vif mRNA levels. In contrast, SRSF1 overexpression significantly impaired HIV-1 post-integration steps including LTR transcription, alternative splice site usage, and virus particle production. Since balanced SRSF1 levels are crucial for efficient viral replication, our data highlight the so far undescribed role of SRSF1 acting as an IFN-modulated cellular dependency factor decisively regulating HIV-1 post-integration steps.

Superior antiviral activity of IFNβ in genital HSV-1 infection

Type I interferons (IFNs) present the first line of defense against viral infections, providing antiviral, immunomodulatory and antiproliferative effects. The type I IFN family contains 12 IFNα subtypes and IFNβ, and although they share the same receptor, they are classified as non-redundant, capable to induce a variety of different IFN-stimulated genes. However, the biological impact of individual subtypes remains controversial. Recent data propose a subtype-specificity of type I IFNs revealing unique effector functions for different viruses and thus expanding the implications for IFNα-based antiviral immunotherapies. Despite extensive research, drug-resistant infections with herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1), which is the common agent of recurrent orogenital lesions, are still lacking a protective or curing therapeutic. However, due to the risk of generalized infections in immunocompromised hosts as well as the increasing incidence of resistance to conventional antiherpetic agents, HSV infections raise major health concerns. Based on their pleiotropic effector functions, the application of type I IFNs represents a promising approach to inhibit HSV-1 replication, to improve host immunity and to further elucidate their qualitative differences. Here, selective IFNα subtypes and IFNβ were evaluated for their therapeutic potential in genital HSV-1 infections. Respective in vivo studies in mice revealed subtype-specific differences in the reduction of local viral loads. IFNβ had the strongest antiviral efficacy against genital HSV-1 infection in mice, whereas IFNα1, IFNα4, and IFNα11 had no impact on viral loads. Based on flow cytometric analyses of underlying immune responses at local and peripheral sites, these differences could be further assigned to specific modulations of the antiviral immunity early during HSV-1 infection. IFNβ led to enhanced systemic cytokine secretion and elevated cytotoxic responses, which negatively correlated with viral loads in the vaginal tract. These data provide further insights into the diversity of type I IFN effector functions and their impact on the immunological control of HSV-1 infections.

IFNα subtype-specific susceptibility of HBV in the course of chronic infection

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection continues to be a major health problem worldwide and remains hard to be cured. Therapy with interferon (IFN) α is an important method for the clinical treatment of chronic hepatitis B. IFNα exhibits direct antiviral effects as well as immunomodulatory activities, which can induce sustained antiviral responses in part of the treated chronic hepatitis B patients. Numerous IFNα subtypes with high sequence identity between 76-96% exist which are characterized by diverse, non-redundant biological activities. Our previous studies have demonstrated that the clinically approved IFNα2 is not the most effective subtype for the anti-HBV treatment among all IFNα subtypes. So far very little is known about the IFNα subtype expression pattern during early HBV infection and the IFNα subtype-specific susceptibility during persistent HBV infection as well as its related cellular mechanism. Here we determined the Ifna subtype mRNA expression during acute and chronic HBV infection by using the well-established hydrodynamic injection (HDI) mouse model and we revealed a transient but strong expression of a panel of Ifna subtypes in the spleen of HBV persistent replication mice compared to HDI controls. Immunotherapy with distinct IFNα subtypes controlled chronic HBV infection. IFNα subtype-mediated antiviral response and immune activation were comprehensively analyzed in an AAV-HBV persistent infection murine model and murine IFNα2 was identified as the most effective subtype in suppression of HBV replication. Further analysis of the immune response revealed a strong immunomodulatory activity of murine IFNα2 on splenic and intrahepatic NK and T cell activation during persistent HBV infection. Taken together, our data provide IFNα subtype-specific differences in the antiviral and immunomodulatory effector responses and a strong expression of all IFNα subtypes in the spleen during persistent HBV infection in mice. This knowledge will support the development of novel immunotherapeutic strategies for chronic hepatitis B infection.

Impact of genetic polymorphisms related to innate immune response on respiratory syncytial virus infection in children

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes lower respiratory tract infections and bronchiolitis, mainly affecting children under 2 years of age and immunocompromised patients. Currently, there are no available vaccines or efficient pharmacological treatments against RSV. In recent years, tremendous efforts have been directed to understand the pathological mechanisms of the disease and generate a vaccine against RSV. Although RSV is highly infectious, not all the patients who get infected develop bronchiolitis and severe disease. Through various sequencing studies, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been discovered in diverse receptors, cytokines, and transcriptional regulators with crucial role in the activation of the innate immune response, which is implicated in the susceptibility to develop or protect from severe forms of the infection. In this review, we highlighted how variations in the key genes affect the development of innate immune response against RSV. This data would provide crucial information about the mechanisms of viral infection, and in the future, could help in generation of new strategies for vaccine development or generation of the pharmacological treatments.

Toosendanin suppresses African swine fever virus replication through upregulating interferon regulatory factor 1 in porcine alveolar macrophage cultures

African swine fever virus (ASFV) is a highly infectious and lethal swine pathogen that causes severe socio-economic consequences in affected countries. Unfortunately, effective vaccine for combating ASF is unavailable so far, and the prevention and control strategies for ASFV are still very limited. Toosendanin (TSN), a triterpenoid saponin extracted from the medicinal herb Melia toosendan Sieb. Et Zucc, has been demonstrated to possess analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anti-botulism and anti-microbial activities, and was used clinically as an anthelmintic, while the antiviral effect of TSN on ASFV has not been reported. In this study, we revealed that TSN exhibited a potent inhibitory effect on ASFV GZ201801-38 strain in porcine alveolar macrophages (PAMs; EC₅₀ = 0.085 μM, SI = 365) in a dose-dependent manner. TSN showed robust antiviral activity in different doses of ASFV infection and reduced the transcription and translation levels of ASFV p30 protein, viral genomic DNA quantity as well as viral titer at 24 and 48 h post-infection. In addition, TSN did not affect virion attachment and release but intervened in its internalization in PAMs. Further investigations disclosed that TSN played its antiviral role by upregulating the host IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) IRF1 rather than by directly inactivating the virus particles. Overall, our results suggest that TSN is an effective antiviral agent against ASFV replication in vitro and may have the potential for clinical use.

Type III and Not Type I Interferons Efficiently Prevent the Spread of Rotavirus in Human Intestinal Epithelial Cells

Rotavirus infects intestinal epithelial cells and is the leading cause of gastroenteritis in infants worldwide. Upon viral infection, intestinal cells produce type I and type III interferons (IFNs) to alert the tissue and promote an antiviral state. These two types of IFN bind to different receptors but induce similar pathways that stimulate the activation of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) to combat viral infection. In this work, we studied the spread of a fluorescent wild-type (WT) SA11 rotavirus in human colorectal cancer cells lacking specific interferon receptors and compared it to that of an NSP1 mutant rotavirus that cannot interfere with the host intrinsic innate immune response. We could show that the WT rotavirus efficiently blocks the production of type I IFNs but that type III IFNs are still produced, whereas the NSP1 mutant rotavirus allows the production of both. Interestingly, while both exogenously added type I and type III IFNs could efficiently protect cells against rotavirus infection, endogenous type III IFNs were found to be key to limit infection of human intestinal cells by rotavirus. By using a fluorescent reporter cell line to highlight the cells mounting an antiviral program, we could show that paracrine signaling driven by type III IFNs efficiently controls the spread of both WT and NSP1 mutant rotavirus. Our results strongly suggest that NSP1 efficiently blocks the type I IFN-mediated antiviral response; however, its restriction of the type III IFN-mediated one is not sufficient to prevent type III IFNs from partially inhibiting viral spread in intestinal epithelial cells. Additionally, our findings further highlight the importance of type III IFNs in controlling rotavirus infection, which could be exploited as antiviral therapeutic measures.

IMPORTANCE Rotavirus is one of the most common causes of gastroenteritis worldwide. In developing countries, rotavirus infections lead to more than 200,000 deaths in infants and children. The intestinal epithelial cells lining the gastrointestinal tract combat rotavirus infection by two key antiviral compounds known as type I and III interferons. However, rotavirus has developed countermeasures to block the antiviral actions of the interferons. In this work, we evaluated the arms race between rotavirus and type I and III interferons. We determined that although rotavirus could block the induction of type I interferons, it was unable to block type III interferons. The ability of infected cells to produce and release type III interferons leads to the protection of the noninfected neighboring cells and the clearance of rotavirus infection from the epithelium. This suggests that type III interferons are key antiviral agents and could be used to help control rotavirus infections in children.

Interferon resistance of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with enhanced transmissibility, pathogenesis, and resistance to vaccines presents urgent challenges for curbing the COVID-19 pandemic. While Spike mutations that enhance virus infectivity or neutralizing antibody evasion may drive the emergence of these novel variants, studies documenting a critical role for interferon responses in the early control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, combined with the presence of viral genes that limit these responses, suggest that interferons may also influence SARS-CoV-2 evolution. Here, we compared the potency of 17 different human interferons against multiple viral lineages sampled during the course of the global outbreak, including ancestral and five major variants of concern that include the B.1.1.7 (alpha), B.1.351 (beta), P.1 (gamma), B.1.617.2 (delta), and B.1.1.529 (omicron) lineages. Our data reveal that relative to ancestral isolates, SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern exhibited increased interferon resistance, suggesting that evasion of innate immunity may be a significant, ongoing driving force for SARS-CoV-2 evolution. These findings have implications for the increased transmissibility and/or lethality of emerging variants and highlight the interferon subtypes that may be most successful in the treatment of early infections.

Interferon‑α and its effects on cancer cell apoptosis (Review)

Interferon (IFN)-α is a cytokine that exhibits a wide range of biological activities and is used in various cancer treatments. It regulates numerous genes that serve roles in antiviral, antiproliferative and proapoptotic activities. For decades, one of the main aspects of clinical oncology has been the development of anticancer therapeutics that promote the effective elimination of cancer cells via apoptosis. However, the updated available information concerning IFN-α-induced cancer cell apoptosis needs to be assembled, so as to provide an improved theoretical reference for the basic scientific research and clinical treatment of malignant tumors. Therefore, the present review focuses on the potential effects of IFN-α in inducing cancer cell apoptosis. The biological characteristics of IFN-α, the apoptotic signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms of apoptosis caused by IFN-α are discussed in different types of cancer cells. The present review provided a comprehensive understanding of the effects of IFN-α on cancer cell apoptosis, which will aid in developing more efficient strategies to effectively control the progression of certain cancers.

Distinct effects of treatment with two different interferon-alpha subtypes on HIV-1-associated T-cell activation and dysfunction in humanized mice

OBJECTIVE

Interferon-alpha (IFN-α) has been associated with excessive immune activation and dysfunction during HIV-1 infection. However, evidence suggests specific IFN-α subtypes may be beneficial rather than detrimental. This study compared the effects of treatment with two different IFN-α subtypes on indicators of T-cell activation and dysfunction during HIV-1 infection.

DESIGN

Humanized mice were infected with HIV-1 for 5 weeks and then treated with two different IFN-α subtypes for an additional 3 weeks. Splenic T cells were assessed both immediately posttreatment and again 6 weeks after treatment cessation.

METHODS

HIV-1 infected triple-knockout bone marrow-liver-thymus mice received daily intraperitoneal injections of either IFN-α14 or the clinically approved subtype, IFN-α2. T cells were analysed directly ex vivo for indicators of activation and dysfunction or stimulated to determine their proliferative capacity and ability to produce functional mediators.

RESULTS

Unlike IFN-α2, IFN-α14 treatment reduced viremia and resulted in less activated CD4+ T cells and a lower naïve to effector CD8+ T-cell ratio. Despite exhibiting a reduced proliferative response, the frequency of CD8+ T cells from IFN-α14 treated mice that produced functional mediators and expressed markers of dysfunction was more similar to healthy controls than untreated and IFN-α2 treated mice. Frequencies of exhaustion marker expression remained higher in untreated and IFN-α2 treated mice 6 weeks posttreatment despite similar viral loads between groups at this timepoint.

CONCLUSIONS

Treatment with different IFN-α subtypes had distinctive effects on T cells during HIV-1 infection. IFN-α14 was associated with fewer indicators of T-cell dysfunction whereas IFN-α2 treatment had little impact.

Type I Interferons in Autoimmunity

Dysregulated IFN-1 responses play crucial roles in the development of multiple forms of autoimmunity. Many patients with lupus, systemic sclerosis, Sjogren's syndrome, and dermatomyositis demonstrate enhanced IFN-1 signaling. IFN-1 excess is associated with disease severity and autoantibodies and could potentially predict response to newer therapies targeting IFN-1 pathways. In this review, we provide an overview of the signaling pathway and immune functions of IFN-1s in health and disease. We also review the systemic autoimmune diseases classically associated with IFN-1 upregulation and current therapeutic strategies targeting the IFN-1 system.

Differences in neuroinvasion and protective innate immune pathways between encephalitic California Serogroup orthobunyaviruses

The California serogroup (CSG) of Orthobunyaviruses comprises several members capable of causing neuroinvasive disease in humans, including La Crosse orthobunyavirus (LACV), Jamestown Canyon orthobunyavirus (JCV), and Inkoo orthobunyavirus (INKV). Despite being genetically and serologically closely related, their disease incidences and pathogenesis in humans and mice differ. We have previously shown that following intraperitoneal inoculation of weanling mice, LACV was highly pathogenic while JCV and INKV were not. To determine why there were differences, we examined the ability of these viruses to invade the CNS and compared the host innate immune responses that regulated viral pathogenesis. We found that LACV was always neuroinvasive, which correlated with its high level of neuroinvasive disease. Interestingly, JCV was not neuroinvasive in any mice, while INKV was neuroinvasive in most mice. The type I interferon (IFN) response was critical for protecting mice from both JCV and INKV disease, although in the periphery JCV induced little IFN expression, while INKV induced high IFN expression. Despite their differing neuroinvasive abilities, JCV and INKV shared innate signaling components required for protection. The presence of either cytoplasmic Rig-I-Like Receptor signaling or endosomal Toll-Like Receptor signaling was sufficient to protect mice from JCV or INKV, however, inhibition of both pathways rendered mice highly susceptible to neurological disease. Comparison of IFN and IFN-stimulated gene (ISG) responses to INKV in the brains of resistant wild type (WT) mice and susceptible immune knockout mice showed similar IFN responses in the brain, but WT mice had higher ISG responses, suggesting induction of key ISGs in the brain is critical for protection of mice from INKV. Overall, these results show that the CSG viruses differ in neuroinvasiveness, which can be independent from their neuropathogenicity. The type I IFN response was crucial for protecting mice from CSG virus-induced neurological disease, however, the exact correlates of protection appear to vary between CSG viruses.

Trastuzumab in combination with PEGylated interferon-α1b exerts synergistic antitumor activity through enhanced inhibition of HER2 downstream signaling and antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity

The anti-HER2 monoclonal antibody trastuzumab is the mainstay of treatment for HER2-positive breast and gastric cancer, and its combination with multiple chemotherapeutic agents has represented an effective and rational strategy in the clinic. In this study, we report that trastuzumab in combination with PEGylated interferon-α1b (IFN-α1b), a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-conjugated form of a subtype of interferon alpha (IFN-α), synergistically inhibited the proliferation of HER2-positive cells, including BT-474 and SK-BR-3 breast cancer cells and NCI-N87 gastric cancer cells, and also induced their apoptosis, but had no effect on HER2-negative MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Trastuzumab inhibited phosphorylation of HER2, AKT and ERK, an effect that was enhanced by PEGylated IFN-α1b, likely owing to PEGylated IFN-α1b-mediated downregulation of HER2 through the lysosomal degradation pathway. Moreover, PEGylated IFN-α1b significantly enhanced trastuzumab-mediated antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) in HER2-positive cells. Importantly, trastuzumab combined with PEGylated IFN-α1b exhibited significant synergistic antitumor activity in HER2-positive BT-474 xenografts, an effect that was associated with enhanced inhibition of HER2 expression and AKT and ERK phosphorylation. Strikingly, depletion of natural killer cells with anti-Asialo GM1 antibody abrogated the synergistic antitumor activity, indicating that augmented ADCC is essential for this synergy. Taken together, our findings indicate that both enhanced inhibition of HER2 downstream signaling and augmented ADCC contribute to the synergistic antitumor activity of trastuzumab with PEGylated IFN-α1b, and imply that combining trastuzumab with PEGylated IFN-α1b could be a promising strategy for HER2-positive cancers.

Mast Cell Activation Triggered by Retrovirus Promotes Acute Viral Infection

Mast cells (MCs) are strategically located at the host-environment interface and their non-allergic roles in the immune-surveillance of pathogens have recently gained more attention. However, MC-caused detrimental regulation of immune inflammations can promote viral invasion. Currently, the role of MCs in retroviral infection remains elusive. We have recently proved that human gut MCs could capture and transfer HIV-1 to CD4⁺ T cells for promoting viral spread; MC-released histamine augments HIV-1-induced functional polarization of dendritic cells to cause immunosuppression via stimulating the differentiation of regulatory T cells. In this study, we used a murine model of MuLV/Friend virus infection to address MC role in acute retroviral infection in vivo. The acute infection of MuLV/Friend virus could be established in C57BL/6 wild type mice, but viral acquisition showed low efficiency in C57BL/6-Kit ^W - ^sh/W - ^sh (Sash) mice which lack MCs. In mechanism, we found that MuLV/Friend virus triggered MC activation for degranulation; MC degranulation subsequently activated the granulocyte-like myeloid derived suppressive cells (G-MDSCs) to inhibit CD8⁺ T cells- and NK cells-mediated antiviral immune responses. The reconstruction of MCs in Sash mice promoted acute retroviral infection by regulating G-MDSCs functions and antiviral immune responses. Importantly, the administration of MC stabilizers to block cell degranulation elevated antiviral immune response and consequently suppressed retrovirus infection. This study uncovers a specific role of MCs in acute retroviral infection and elucidates the underlying immune-mechanisms. Targeting MCs may provide a novel approach for controlling acute infection by retroviruses.

Immunotherapy With Interferon α11, But Not Interferon Beta, Controls Persistent Retroviral Infection

Type I Interferons (IFNs), including numerous IFNα subtypes and IFNβ, are key molecules during innate and adaptive immune responses against viral infections. These cytokines exert various non-redundant biological activities, although binding to the same receptor. Persistent viral infections are often characterized by increased IFN signatures implicating a potential role of type I IFNs in disease pathogenesis. Using the well-established Friend retrovirus (FV) mouse model, we compared the therapeutic efficacy of IFNα11 and IFNβ in acute and chronic retroviral infection. We observed a strong antiviral activity of both IFNs during acute FV infection, whereas only IFNα11 and not IFNβ could also control persistent FV infection. The therapeutic treatment with IFNα11 induced the expression of antiviral IFN-stimulated genes (ISG) and improved cytotoxic T cell responses. Finally, dysfunctional CD8+ T cells solely regained cytotoxicity after IFNα11 treatment. Our data provide evidence for opposing activities of type I IFNs during chronic retroviral infections. IFNβ was shown to be involved in immune dysfunction in chronic infections, whereas IFNα11 had a strong antiviral potential and reactivated exhausted T cells during persistent retroviral infection. In contrast, during acute infection, both type I IFNs were able to efficiently suppress FV replication.

Immune Response to Viruses

Viruses are essentially, obligate intracellular parasites. They require a host to replicate their genetic material, spread to other cells, and eventually to other hosts. For humans, most viral infections are not considered lethal, regardless if at the cellular level, the virus can obliterate individual cells. Constant genomic mutations, (which can alter the antigenic content of viruses such as influenza or coronaviruses), zoonosis or immunosuppression/immunocompromisation, is when viruses achieve higher host mortality. Frequent examples of the severe consequenses of viral infection can be seen in children and the elderly. In most instances, the immune system will take a multifaceted approach in defending the host against viruses. Depending on the virus, the individual, and the point of entry, the immune system will initiate a robust response which involves multiple components. In this chapter, we expand on the total immune system, breaking it down to the two principal types: Innate and Adaptive Immunity, their different roles in viral recognition and clearance. Finally, how different viruses activate and evade different arms of the immune system.

Suppression of Interferon-α Treatment Response by Host Negative Factors in Hepatitis B Virus Infection

Chronic hepatitis B virus (CHB) infection remains a major global public health issue for which there is still lacking effective curative treatment. Interferon-α (IFN-α) and its pegylated form have been approved as an anti-HBV drug with the advantage of antiviral activity and host immunity against HBV infection enhancement, however, IFN-α treatment failure in CHB patients is a challenging obstacle with 70% of CHB patients respond poorly to exogenous IFN-α treatment. The IFN-α treatment response is negatively regulated by both viral and host factors, and the role of viral factors has been extensively illustrated, while much less attention has been paid to host negative factors. Here, we summarized evidence of host negative regulators and parameters involved in IFN-α therapy failure, review the mechanisms responsible for these effects, and discuss the possible improvement of IFN-based therapy and the rationale of combining the inhibitors of negative regulators in achieving an HBV cure.

Targeted Delivery of Chloroquine to Antigen-Presenting Cells Enhances Inhibition of the Type I Interferon Response

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) causes damaging inflammation in multiple organs via the accumulation of immune complexes. These complexes activate plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) via toll-like receptors (TLRs), contributing to disease pathogenesis by driving the secretion of inflammatory type I interferons (IFNs). Antimalarial drugs, such as chloroquine (CQ), are TLR antagonists used to alleviate inflammation in SLE. However, they require ∼3 months of continuous use before achieving therapeutic efficacy and can accumulate in the retinal pigment epithelium with chronic use, resulting in retinopathy. We hypothesized that poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(propylene sulfide) filamentous nanocarriers, filomicelles (FMs), could directly deliver CQ to pDCs via passive, morphology-based targeting to concentrate drug delivery to specific immune cells, improve drug activity by increased inhibition of type I IFN, and enhance efficacy per dose. Healthy human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were treated with soluble CQ or CQ-loaded FMs, stimulated with TLR agonists or SLE patient sera, and type I IFN secretion was quantified via multi-subtype IFN-α ELISA and MX1 gene expression using real-time reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Our results showed that 50 μg CQ/mg FM decreased MX1 expression and IFN-α production after TLR activation with either synthetic nucleic acid agonists or immune complex-rich sera from SLE patients. Cellular uptake and biodistribution studies showed that FMs preferentially accumulate in human pDCs and monocytes in vitro and in tissues frequently damaged in SLE patients (i.e., kidneys), while sparing the eye in vivo. These results showed that nanocarrier morphology enables drug delivery, and CQ-FMs may be equally effective and more targeted than soluble CQ at inhibiting SLE-relevant pathways.

Interferon Resistance of Emerging SARS-CoV-2 Variants

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with enhanced transmissibility, pathogenesis and resistance to vaccines presents urgent challenges for curbing the COVID-19 pandemic. While Spike mutations that enhance virus infectivity or neutralizing antibody evasion may drive the emergence of these novel variants, studies documenting a critical role for interferon responses in the early control of SARS-CoV-2 infection, combined with the presence of viral genes that limit these responses, suggest that interferons may also influence SARS-CoV-2 evolution. Here, we compared the potency of 17 different human interferons against multiple viral lineages sampled during the course of the global outbreak, including ancestral and four major variants of concern. Our data reveal increased interferon resistance in emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants, suggesting that evasion of innate immunity may be a significant, ongoing driving force for SARS-CoV-2 evolution. These findings have implications for the increased lethality of emerging variants and highlight the interferon subtypes that may be most successful in the treatment of early infections.

Baculovirus Vectors Induce the Production of Interferons in Swine: Their Potential in the Development of Antiviral Strategies

The huge variety of viruses affecting swine represents a global threat. Since vaccines against highly contagious viruses last several days to induce protective immune responses, antiviral strategies for rapid control of outbreak situations are needed. The baculovirus Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV), an insect virus, has been demonstrated to be an effective vaccine vector for mammals. Besides the ability to display or transduce heterologous antigens, it also induces strong innate immune responses and provides IFN-mediated protection against lethal challenges with viruses like foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) in mice. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of AcMNPV to induce IFN production and elicit antiviral activity in porcine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). Our results demonstrated that AcMNPV induced an IFN-α-mediated antiviral activity in PBMCs in vitro. Moreover, the inoculation of AcMNPV in piglets led to the production of type I and II IFNs in sera from inoculated animals and antiviral activities against vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and FMDV measured by in vitro assays. Finally, it was demonstrated that the pseudotyping of AcMNPV with VSV-G protein, but not the enrichment of the AcMNPV genome with specific immunostimulatory CpG motifs for the porcine TLR9, improved the ability to induce IFN-α production in PBMCs in vitro. Together, these results suggest that AcMNPV is a promising tool for the induction of IFNs in antiviral strategies, with the potential to be biotechnologically improved.

Depletion of TAX1BP1 Amplifies Innate Immune Responses during Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the main cause of acute respiratory infections in young children and also has a major impact on the elderly and immunocompromised people. In the absence of a vaccine or efficient treatment, a better understanding of RSV interactions with the host antiviral response during infection is needed. Previous studies revealed that cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (IBs), where viral replication and transcription occur, could play a major role in the control of innate immunity during infection by recruiting cellular proteins involved in the host antiviral response. We recently showed that the morphogenesis of IBs relies on a liquid-liquid-phase separation mechanism depending on the interaction between viral nucleoprotein (N) and phosphoprotein (P). These scaffold proteins are expected to play a central role in the recruitment of cellular proteins to IBs. Here, we performed a yeast two-hybrid screen using RSV N protein as bait and identified the cellular protein TAX1BP1 as a potential partner of this viral protein. This interaction was validated by pulldown and immunoprecipitation assays. We showed that TAX1BP1 suppression has only a limited impact on RSV infection in cell cultures. However, RSV replication is decreased in TAX1BP1-deficient (TAX1BP1 knockout [TAX1BP1KO]) mice, whereas the production of inflammatory and antiviral cytokines is enhanced. In vitro infection of wild-type or TAX1BP1KO alveolar macrophages confirmed that the innate immune response to RSV infection is enhanced in the absence of TAX1BP1. Altogether, our results suggest that RSV could hijack TAX1BP1 to restrain the host immune response during infection. IMPORTANCE Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), which is the leading cause of lower respiratory tract illness in infants, remains a medical problem in the absence of a vaccine or efficient treatment. This virus is also recognized as a main pathogen in the elderly and immunocompromised people, and the occurrence of coinfections (with other respiratory viruses and bacteria) amplifies the risks of developing respiratory distress. In this context, a better understanding of the pathogenesis associated with viral respiratory infections, which depends on both viral replication and the host immune response, is needed. The present study reveals that the cellular protein TAX1BP1, which interacts with the RSV nucleoprotein N, participates in the control of the innate immune response during RSV infection, suggesting that the N-TAX1BP1 interaction represents a new target for the development of antivirals.

Beyond Vaccines: Clinical Status of Prospective COVID-19 Therapeutics

Since November 2019 the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has caused nearly 200 million infection and more than 4 million deaths globally (Updated information from the World Health Organization, as on 2nd Aug 2021). Within only one year into the pandemic, several vaccines were designed and reached approval for the immunization of the world population. The remarkable protective effects of the manufactured vaccines are demonstrated in countries with high vaccination rates, such as Israel and UK. However, limited production capacities, poor distribution infrastructures and political hesitations still hamper the availability of vaccines in many countries. In addition, due to the emergency of SARS-CoV-2 variants with immune escape properties towards the vaccines the global numbers of new infections as well as patients developing severe COVID-19, remains high. New studies reported that about 8% of infected individuals develop long term symptoms with strong personal restrictions on private as well as professional level, which contributes to the long socioeconomic problems caused by this pandemic. Until today, emergency use-approved treatment options for COVID-19 are limited to the antiviral Remdesivir, a nucleoside analogue targeting the viral polymerase, the glucocorticosteroide Dexamethasone as well as neutralizing antibodies. The therapeutic benefits of these treatments are under ongoing debate and clinical studies assessing the efficiency of these treatments are still underway. To identify new therapeutic treatments for COVID-19, now and by the post-pandemic era, diverse experimental approaches are under scientific evaluation in companies and scientific research teams all over the world. To accelerate clinical translation of promising candidates, repurposing approaches of known approved drugs are specifically fostered but also novel technologies are being developed and are under investigation. This review summarizes the recent developments from the lab bench as well as the clinical status of emerging therapeutic candidates and discusses possible therapeutic entry points for the treatment strategies with regard to the biology of SARS-CoV-2 and the clinical course of COVID-19.

IFNβ Is a Potent Adjuvant for Cancer Vaccination Strategies

Cancer vaccination drives the generation of anti-tumor T cell immunity and can be enhanced by the inclusion of effective immune adjuvants such as type I interferons (IFNs). Whilst type I IFNs have been shown to promote cross-priming of T cells, the role of individual subtypes remains unclear. Here we systematically compared the capacity of distinct type I IFN subtypes to enhance T cell responses to a whole-cell vaccination strategy in a pre-clinical murine model. We show that vaccination in combination with IFNβ induces significantly greater expansion of tumor-specific CD8+ T cells than the other type I IFN subtypes tested. Optimal expansion was dependent on the presence of XCR1+ dendritic cells, CD4+ T cells, and CD40/CD40L signaling. Therapeutically, vaccination with IFNβ delayed tumor progression when compared to vaccination without IFN. When vaccinated in combination with anti-PD-L1 checkpoint blockade therapy (CPB), the inclusion of IFNβ associated with more mice experiencing complete regression and a trend in increased overall survival. This work demonstrates the potent adjuvant activity of IFNβ, highlighting its potential to enhance cancer vaccination strategies alone and in combination with CPB.

Smart Polymeric Nanoparticles with pH-Responsive and PEG-Detachable Properties (II): Co-Delivery of Paclitaxel and VEGF siRNA for Synergistic Breast Cancer Therapy in Mice

Background

The dual-loaded nano-delivery system can realize chemotherapeutic drug and small interfering RNA (siRNA) co-loading as well as enhance the therapeutic effect of drugs on tumors through a synergistic effect, while reducing their toxic and side effects on normal tissues.

Methods

Previously, we developed layered smart nanoparticles (NPs) to co-deliver survivin siRNA as well as small molecule drugs for lung cancer. In this study, we used such smart NPs to co-deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and siRNA against vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) gene for breast cancer therapy in mice models. For the prepared NPs, characterizations such as particle size, zeta potential, gel electrophoresis imaging and in vitro stability were investigated. Then, 4T1 cells were used to evaluate the in vitro VEGF silencing capacity, tumor cell inhibitory and anti-apoptotic abilities. Finally, an orthotopic model of mouse breast cancer was established to evaluate the in vivo antitumor effects and safety properties of PTX-siRNA^VEGF-NPs.

Results

We prepared PTX-siRNA^VEGF-NPs with particle size of 85.25 nm, PDI of 0.261, and zeta potential of 5.25 mV. The NPs with VEGF siRNA effectively knocked down the expression of VEGF mRNA. Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) and apoptosis assays revealed that the PTX-siRNA^VEGF-NPs exhibited antiproliferation effect of PTX on 4T1 cells. The in vivo anti-tumor study indicated that PTX-siRNA^VEGF-NPs could exert an antitumor effect by inhibiting the formation and development of new blood vessels in tumor tissues, thereby cutting off nutrient and blood supplies required for tumor tissue growth. Both the anti-tumor efficacy and in vivo safety of the PTX-siRNA^VEGF-NPs group were better than that of the PTX-NPs and siRNA^VEGF-NPs groups.

Conclusion

The combination of PTX and VEGF siRNA exerts good antitumor effect on 4T1 tumor cells. This study provides a theoretical and practical basis for breast cancer therapy.

Therapeutic Agents Rounding Up the Immunopathology of COVID-19

COVID-19 pandemic has caused more than 3 million deaths globally during the past year. The direct attack from SARS-CoV-2 and hyperactivated immune response contribute to the progress and deterioration of COVID-19. After the virus invades, the activation and release of cytokines/chemokines cause "cytokine storm", leading to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and multiple organs dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Eliminating virus and blocking cytokines are important checkpoints of COVID-19 therapy, and several agents targeting immunopathology, including interferons, thymosin, glucocorticoids and immunoglobulin, have shown therapeutic effects in severe patients with COVID-19. Herein, we reviewed the practice evidences and concluded that several agents rounding up the immunopathology of COVID-19 may be the alternative approaches under the scenario of the lacking of effective antiviral drugs.

Type I Interferons in Systemic Autoimmune Diseases: Distinguishing Between Afferent and Efferent Functions for Precision Medicine and Individualized Treatment

A sustained increase in type I interferon (IFN-I) may accompany clinical manifestations and disease activity in systemic autoimmune diseases (SADs). Despite the very frequent presence of IFN-I in SADs, clinical manifestations are extremely varied between and within SADs. The present short review will address the following key questions associated with high IFN-I in SADs in the perspective of precision medicine. 1) What are the mechanisms leading to high IFN-I? 2) What are the predisposing conditions favoring high IFN-I production? 3) What is the role of IFN-I in the development of distinct clinical manifestations within SADs? 4) Would therapeutic strategies targeting IFN-I be helpful in controlling or even preventing SADs? In answering these questions, we will underlie areas of incertitude and the intertwined role of autoantibodies, immune complexes, and neutrophils.

A Translational Investigation of IFN-α and STAT1 Signaling in Endothelial Cells during Septic Shock Provides Therapeutic Perspectives

Septic shock and disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC) are known to be characterized by an endothelial cell dysfunction. The molecular mechanisms underlying this relationship are, however, poorly understood. In this work, we aimed to investigate human circulating IFN-α in patients with septic shock-induced DIC and tested the potential role of endothelial Stat1 (signal transducer and activator of transcription 1) as a therapeutic target in a mouse model of sepsis. For this, circulating type I, type II, and type III IFNs and procoagulant microvesicles were quantified in a prospective cohort of patients with septic shock. Next, we used a septic shock model induced by cecal ligation and puncture in wild-type mice, in Ifnar1 (type I IFN receptor subunit 1)-knockout mice, and in Stat1 conditional knockout mice. In human samples, we observed higher concentrations of circulating IFN-α and IFN-α1 in patients with DIC compared with patients without DIC, whereas concentrations of IFN-β, IFN-γ, IFN-λ1, IFN-λ2, and IFN-λ3 were not different. IFN-α concentration was positively correlated with CD105 microvesicle concentrations, reflecting endothelial injury. In Ifnar1^-/- mice, cecal ligation and puncture did not induce septic shock and was characterized by lesser endothelial cell injury, with lower aortic inflammatory cytokine expression, endothelial inflammatory-related gene expression, and fibrinolysis. In mice in which Stat1 was specifically ablated in endothelial cells, a marked protection against sepsis was also observed, suggesting the relevance of an endothelium-targeted strategy. Our work highlights the key roles of type I IFNs as pathogenic players in septic shock-induced DIC and the potential pertinence of endothelial STAT1 as a therapeutic target.

Interferon-Based Biopharmaceuticals: Overview on the Production, Purification, and Formulation

The advent of biopharmaceuticals in modern medicine brought enormous benefits to the treatment of numerous human diseases and improved the well-being of many people worldwide. First introduced in the market in the early 1980s, the number of approved biopharmaceutical products has been steadily increasing, with therapeutic proteins, antibodies, and their derivatives accounting for most of the generated revenues. The success of pharmaceutical biotechnology is closely linked with remarkable developments in DNA recombinant technology, which has enabled the production of proteins with high specificity. Among promising biopharmaceuticals are interferons, first described by Isaacs and Lindenmann in 1957 and approved for clinical use in humans nearly thirty years later. Interferons are secreted autocrine and paracrine proteins, which by regulating several biochemical pathways have a spectrum of clinical effectiveness against viral infections, malignant diseases, and multiple sclerosis. Given their relevance and sustained market share, this review provides an overview on the evolution of interferon manufacture, comprising their production, purification, and formulation stages. Remarkable developments achieved in the last decades are herein discussed in three main sections: (i) an upstream stage, including genetically engineered genes, vectors, and hosts, and optimization of culture conditions (culture media, induction temperature, type and concentration of inducer, induction regimens, and scale); (ii) a downstream stage, focusing on single- and multiple-step chromatography, and emerging alternatives (e.g., aqueous two-phase systems); and (iii) formulation and delivery, providing an overview of improved bioactivities and extended half-lives and targeted delivery to the site of action. This review ends with an outlook and foreseeable prospects for underdeveloped aspects of biopharma research involving human interferons.

The Uniqueness of Albumin as a Carrier in Nanodrug Delivery

Albumin is an appealing carrier in nanomedicine because of its unique features. First, it is the most abundant protein in plasma, endowing high biocompatibility, biodegradability, nonimmunogenicity, and safety for its clinical application. Second, albumin chemical structure and conformation allows interaction with many different drugs, potentially protecting them from elimination and metabolism in vivo, thus improving their pharmacokinetic properties. Finally, albumin can interact with receptors overexpressed in many diseased tissues and cells, providing a unique feature for active targeting of the disease site without the addition of specific ligands to the nanocarrier. For this reason, albumin, characterized by an extended serum half-life of around 19 days, has the potential of promoting half-life extension and targeted delivery of drugs. Therefore, this article focuses on the importance of albumin as a nanodrug delivery carrier for hydrophobic drugs, taking advantage of the passive as well as active targeting potential of this nanocarrier. Particular attention is paid to the breakthrough NAB-Technology, with emphasis on the advantages of Nab-Paclitaxel (Abraxane), compared to the solvent-based formulations of Paclitaxel, i.e., CrEL-paclitaxel (Taxol) in a clinical setting. Finally, the role of albumin in carrying anticancer compounds is depicted, with a particular focus on the albumin-based formulations that are currently undergoing clinical trials. The article sheds light on the power of an endogenous substance, such as albumin, as a drug delivery system, signifies the importance of the drug vehicle in drug performance in the biological systems, and highlights the possible future trends in the use of this drug delivery system.

The find of COVID-19 vaccine: Challenges and opportunities

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), a novel corona virus, causing COVID-19 with Flu-like symptoms is the first alarming pandemic of the third millennium. SARS-CoV-2 belongs to beta coronavirus as Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV). Pandemic COVID-19 owes devastating mortality and destructively exceptional consequences on Socio-Economics life around the world. Therefore, the current review is redirected to the scientific community to owe comprehensive visualization about SARS-CoV-2 to tackle the current pandemic. As systematically shown through the current review, it indexes unmet medical problem of COVID-19 in view of public health and vaccination discovery for the infectious SARS-CoV-2; it is currently under-investigational therapeutic protocols, and next possible vaccines. Furthermore, the review extensively reports the precautionary measures to achieve" COVID-19/Flatten the curve". It is concluded that vaccines formulation within exceptional no time in this pandemic is highly recommended, via following the same protocols of previous pandemics; MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV, and excluding some initial steps of vaccination development process.

Mycobacterium vaccae Nebulization in the Treatment of COVID-19: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial

Background: Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection is associated with strong infectiousness and has no effective therapy. We aimed to explore the efficacy and safety of Mycobacterium vaccae nebulization in the treatment of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19). Methods: In this randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial, we included 31 adult patients with moderate COVID-19 who were admitted to the Fourth People's Hospital of Nanning (Nanning, China) between January 22, 2020 and February 17, 2020. Patients were randomly divided into two groups: group A (standard care group) and group B (M. vaccae in combination with standard care group). The primary outcome was the time interval from admission to viral RNA negative conversion (oropharyngeal swabs were used in this study). Secondary outcomes included chest computed tomography (CT), mortality, length of hospital stay, complications during treatment, and so on. Patients were followed up to 4 weeks after discharge (reexamination of viral RNA, chest CT, etc.). Results: Nucleic acid test negative conversion time in group B was shorter than that in group A (2.9 days [2.7-8.7] vs. 6.8 days [3.3-13.8]; p = 0.045). No death and no conversion to severe or critical cases were observed in both groups. Two weeks after discharge, neither "relapse" nor "return to positive" cases were found. Four weeks after discharge, it was found that there was no case of " relapse " or "return to positive" in group B, and 1 patient in group A showed "return to positive", but there was no clinical manifestation and imaging progression. No adverse reactions related to M. vaccae were found during observation period. Conclusion: M. vaccae treatment might shorten the time interval from admission to viral RNA negative conversion, which might be beneficial to the prevention and treatment of COVID-19. Clinical Trial Registration: ChiCTR2000030016.