Longitudinal links between fathers' and mothers' harsh verbal discipline and adolescents' conduct problems and depressive symptoms

A Daily Diary Study of the Reciprocal Relation between Parental Psychological Aggression and Adolescent Anxiety in China

The daily reciprocal relations between parental psychological aggression and adolescent anxiety and the heterogeneity, i.e., whether these relations vary across different adolescents, remain unclear. This study examined this issue with a 15-day daily diary study among 326 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 14.53 years, SD = 0.60, 47.2% girls). Dynamic structural equation models revealed that parental psychological aggression co-fluctuated with adolescent anxiety within a day. For lagged associations, only father-driven effects were supported but not mother-driven effects, whereas child-driven effects were supported for both parents. These within-person associations were heterogeneous across adolescents. Moreover, adolescents with more parental psychological aggression reported higher anxiety. This study revealed the reciprocal relations between parental psychological aggression and adolescent anxiety at the micro timescale and also highlighted that the within-person associations were heterogeneous across different adolescents.

Does parental use of harsh discipline and punishment in response to ambiguous child situations vary by child physical abuse risk?

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

The present study investigated the extent to which fathers and mothers at high-risk and low-risk for child physical abuse (CPA) differed in their use of harsh discipline and punishment when presented ambiguous child situations (situations where differences in positive and negative valences are close to zero).

PARTICIPANTS/METHODS

High-risk for CPA parents (N = 74: fathers, n = 41; mothers, n = 33) and low-risk parents (N = 178: fathers, n = 91; mothers, n = 87) were asked to indicate their likelihood of using harsh verbal discipline (HVD), harsh physical discipline (HPD), and punishment (i.e., retributive harm separate from HVD and HPD) after viewing each of eighteen ambiguous child situations.

RESULTS

As expected, high-risk, compared to low-risk, for CPA parents were significantly (ps < 0.001) more likely to use HVD (d = 0.546), HPD (d = 0.595), and punishment (d = 0.564). Overall, fathers, relative to mothers, were significantly more likely to use HVD (d = 0.261) and HPD (d = 0.238). For punishment, however, there was no significant parental role (father, mother) difference (d = 0.136).

CONCLUSIONS

Since in everyday living situations many child behaviors are ambiguous, the findings that parents, especially high-risk for CPA parents, use harsh discipline and punishment when encountering ambiguous child situations suggest that non-contingent harsh child-related parental behaviors may be frequent in the lives of some children. The findings that parents may use non-contingent discipline and punishment suggest the need to explore whether, when these parenting behaviors occur, they increase the likelihood of negative child outcomes.

Fearlessness as an Underlying Mechanism Leading to Conduct Problems: Testing the INTERFEAR Model in a Community Sample in Spain

Conduct problems (CP) in childhood and adolescence have a significant impact on the individual, family, and community. To improve treatment for CP, there is a need to improve the understanding of the developmental pathways leading to CP in boys and girls. Prior research has linked the child's fearlessness and callous-unemotional (CU) traits, as well as experiences of parental warmth and punitive parenting, to CP. However, few studies have tested the interplay of these factors in contributing to future CP development. The present study aimed to test the InterFear model, which suggests that fearlessness in early childhood leads to CP through an indirect pathway involving low positive parenting, high negative/punitive parenting, and callous-unemotional (CU) traits. The sample included 2467 Spanish children (48.1% girls; Mage = 4.25; SD = 0.91), followed up across a five-year period. Besides a direct association between fearlessness in early childhood and future CP, the results found an indirect pathway whereby fearlessness reduces positive parenting and increases punitive parenting, which contributes to the development of CU traits and sets the stage for CP in later childhood. The specific indirect effect from fearlessness to CP via CU traits accounted for most of the variance, suggesting the existence of a temperamental pathway independent of parental variables. Further, two additional indirect pathways, exclusive of fearlessness, were identified, which started with low parental warmth and positive parenting, leading to CP via CU traits. These findings support the InterFear model, demonstrating multiple pathways to CP with the involvement of fearlessness, parenting practices, and CU traits. This model might play a pivotal role in the development of targeted prevention and intervention strategies for CP.

Comparing findings from the random-intercept cross-lagged panel model and the monozygotic twin difference cross-lagged panel model: Maladaptive parenting and offspring emotional and behavioural problems

Background

In this study we compare results obtained when applying the monozygotic twin difference cross-lagged panel model (MZD-CLPM) and a random intercept cross-lagged panel model (RI-CLPM) to the same data. Each of these models is designed to strengthen researchers' ability to draw causal inference from cross-lagged associations. We explore differences and similarities in how each model does this, and in the results each model produces. Specifically, we examine associations between maladaptive parenting and child emotional and behavioural problems in identical twins aged 9, 12 and 16.

Method

Child reports of 5698 identical twins from the Twins Early Development Study (TEDS) were analysed. We ran a regular CLPM to anchor our findings within the current literature, then applied the MZD-CLPM and the RI-CLPM.

Results

The RI-CLPM and MZD-CLPM each enable researchers to evaluate the direction of effects between correlated variables, after accounting for unmeasured sources of potential confounding. Our interpretation of these models therefore focusses primarily on the magnitude and significance of cross-lagged associations. In both the MZD-CLPM and the RI-CLPM behavioural problems at age 9 resulted in higher levels of maladaptive parenting at age 12. Other effects were not consistently significant across the two models, although the majority of estimates pointed in the same direction.

Conclusion

In light of the triangulated methods, differences in the results obtained using the MZD-CLPM and the RI-CLPM underline the importance of careful consideration of what sources of unmeasured confounding different models control for and that nuance is required when interpreting findings using such models. We provide an overview of what the CLPM, RI-CLPM and MZD-CLPM can and cannot control for in this respect and the conclusions that can be drawn from each model.

The impact of coercive and assertive communication styles on children's perception of chores: an experimental investigation

Introduction

This article presents the findings of an experimental study aimed at investigating the impact of coercive and assertive communication on children's emotional responses and behavioral tendencies within parent-child interactions.

Methods

The study tested four hypotheses related to children's feelings, personalization bias, the need to express their point of view, and the desire to retreat to their room alone. Short audio stimuli recorded by a female assistant, representing a mother addressing her child, were utilized to create five different communication situations. The experimental procedure involved participants listening to the audio stimuli and answering related questions. The study included 123 participants between the ages of 9 and 13, with an equal gender distribution.

Results

The results of One-Way ANOVA tests indicated significant differences among the four types of communication in terms of unpleasant feelings, personalization bias, listening to a personal point of view, and retreating into a personal room. The findings suggest that coercive communication elicited more negative emotional responses and stronger tendencies toward personalization bias, expressing personal opinions, and seeking solitude compared to assertive communication.

Discussion

The implications of these findings highlight the importance of promoting positive and respectful communication strategies in parent-child relationships to foster children's emotional well-being and healthy behavioral development.

Family resilience during the COVID-19 onset: A daily-diary inquiry into parental employment status, parent-adolescent relationships, and well-being

COVID-19 changed the landscape of employment and financial security in the USA, contributing to multi-systemic disruptions in family life. Using dyadic, daily-diary parent-adolescent data from a nationwide American sample (18,415 daily assessments; 29 days: 4/8/2020-4/21/2020 and 5/18/2020-6/1/2020; N = 635 parent-adolescent dyads), this intensive longitudinal study investigated how COVID-19-related job loss and working-from-home (WFH) arrangements influenced parents' and children's daily affect indirectly through family functioning (i.e., parent-adolescent conflict, inter-adult conflict, and parental warmth) and whether these links varied by family socioeconomic status (SES). Parental employment status was linked to these family relational dynamics, which were then connected to parents' and adolescents' daily affect. Although SES did not moderate these links, low-income families were more likely to experience job loss, parent-adolescent conflict, and inter-adult conflict and less likely to WFH than higher-income families. As inter-relations within the family are a malleable point for intervention, clinicians working with families recovering from the fiscal impact of the COVID-19 pandemic are encouraged to use approaches that strengthen family relationships, especially between adolescents and their parents. Unemployment subsidies are discussed as a means to support families struggling with job loss, and organizations are urged to consider the benefits of WFH on employee health and work-life balance.

Enhancing academic self-efficacy on decreasing adolescents' unmonitored internet usage and depressive mood

Unmonitored internet use and depression are difficulties that adolescents experience. Efforts to promote healthy adolescent development tend to focus on reducing these two risk outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how three important school-related factors (teachers, peers, and academics) affect adolescents' levels of unmonitored internet use and depression. For this study, a cross-sectional data analysis was conducted. The sample included 9297 students who participated in two waves of the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was performed using LISREL 8.80 to analyze the data. Monte Carlo resampling was then performed using R to confirm the significance of the mediating effects. Teacher criticism and negative peers can increase unmonitored internet use and depression in adolescents, while academic stress can exacerbate depression. In contrast, teacher praise and positive peers can reduce those risk outcomes. Academic self-efficacy serves as a key mediator of the impacts of teachers, peers, and academics on adolescents' levels of unmonitored internet use and depression. We advocate that schools should establish a positive school climate, provide teacher feedback training and design physical activity programs to improve academic self-efficacy, thereby reducing the risk of unmonitored internet use and depression among adolescents, effectively preventing possible subsequent internet addiction and promoting the mental health of adolescents.

Associations between 11 parental discipline behaviours and child outcomes across 60 countries

OBJECTIVES

To test associations between 11 caregiver aggressive and non-aggressive discipline behaviours and outcomes (aggression, distraction and prosocial peer relations) of children under 5 years in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs).

PARTICIPANTS

Data came from the fourth (2009-2013) and fifth (2012-2017) rounds of the UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys. Analyses were restricted to households with children under 5 years, leaving a sample of 229 465 respondents across 60 LMICs. Data were analysed using Bayesian multilevel logistic regression.

RESULTS

Verbal reasoning (80%) and shouting (66%) were the most common parental discipline behaviours towards young children. Psychological and physical aggression were associated with higher child aggression and distraction. Compared with not using verbal reasoning, verbal reasoning was associated with lower odds of aggression (OR)=0.92, 95% credible interval (CI)=0.86 to 0.99) and higher odds of prosocial peer relations (OR=1.30, 95% CI=1.20 to 1.42). Taking away privileges was associated with higher odds of distraction (OR=1.09, 95% CI=1.03 to 1.15) and lower odds of prosocial peer relations (OR=0.92, 95% CI=0.87 to 0.98). Giving the child something else to do was associated with higher odds of distraction (OR=1.06, 95% CI=1.01 to 1.12). The results indicated country-level variation in the associations between parenting behaviours and child socioemotional outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychological and physical aggression were disadvantageous for children's socioemotional development across countries. Only verbal reasoning was associated with positive child socioemotional development. No form of psychological aggression or physical aggression benefited child socioemotional development in any country. Greater emphasis should be dedicated to reducing parental use of psychological and physical aggression across cultural contexts.

Childhood exposure to parental threatening behaviors and anxiety in emerging adulthood: Indirect effects of perceived stress

BACKGROUND

Although childhood exposure to parental threatening behaviors is associated with elevated anxiety in emerging adulthood, the underlying mechanisms remain unexplored. Perceived stress-a subjective experience comprised of feelings of helplessness (being unable to cope or exert control) and poor self-efficacy (confidence in one's ability to manage stressors)-is one candidate mechanism. The present investigation examined the underlying role of perceived stress in the association between childhood exposure to parental threatening behaviors and anxiety symptom severity in a sample of emerging adults.

METHODS

Participants (N = 855; Mage  = 18.75 years, SD = 1.05, range 18-24; 70.8% female) were recruited from a large state university and administered a battery of self-report questionnaires assessing constructs of interest.

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses indicated that only greater childhood exposure to maternal threatening behaviors was directly associated with greater feelings of helplessness and lower self-efficacy. Furthermore, only childhood exposure to maternal threatening behaviors was indirectly associated with anxiety severity through greater feelings of helplessness and lower self-efficacy. In contrast, childhood exposure to paternal threatening behaviors was neither directly nor indirectly associated with anxiety severity.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations include a cross-sectional design, use of self-report measures, and a nonclinical sample. Replicating these findings in a clinical sample and testing the hypothesized model in a longitudinal design is necessary.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings underscore the need for intervention efforts that screen for and target perceived stress in emerging adults exposed to negative maternal parenting behaviors.

Harsh Childhood Discipline and Developmental Changes in Adolescent Aggressive Behavior: The Mediating Role of Self-Compassion

Harsh discipline during childhood (psychological aggression and corporal punishment) has been found to be an early risk factor for adolescent aggressive behavior. However, previous studies have mainly examined the relationship between harsh discipline as a whole and the level of adolescent aggressive behavior. This study investigates the effects of childhood psychological aggression and corporal punishment on the initial levels and rate of change in adolescent aggressive behavior, as well as the mediating role of self-compassion in this relationship. Using cluster sampling, a three-wave follow-up assessment was conducted on 1214 high-school students (60.7% boys; mean age at Wave 1 = 15.46 ± 0.71). The results showed that childhood psychological aggression and corporal punishment had a positive predictive effect on the development level of adolescent aggressive behavior. However, only childhood psychological aggression significantly directly attenuated the decline rate of adolescent aggressive behavior. In addition, both childhood psychological aggression and corporal punishment indirectly affected the initial levels and growth rate of adolescent aggressive behavior through self-compassion. These findings could provide potential targets for prevention and intervention programs aimed at improving aggressive behavior in Chinese adolescents.

Housing insecurity and adolescent behavioral outcomes: The mediating role of aggression in parenting

BACKGROUND

Housing insecurity impacts millions of families with children each year and is linked with a range of adverse outcomes. Greater understanding of pathways linking housing insecurity with emotional and behavioral problem is needed to prevent enduring mental health problems. The Family Stress Model and Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Model contribute understanding to the complex dynamics underlying development from childhood to adolescence in the context of economic hardship and parental strain.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of harsh parenting in the relationship between childhood housing insecurity and adolescent behavior problems.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Data from the Fragile Families and Child Well-being Study, and included a sample of at-risk mothers with children from 20 large U.S. cities (N = 2719).

METHODS

Structural equation modeling with latent variables tested direct and indirect pathways from housing insecurity at age 5 with emotional and behavioral problems at age 15 via intermediary harsh parenting at age 9.

RESULTS

Housing insecurity directly predicted adolescent anxious/depressive behaviors (β = 0.14, p < 0.01); and indirectly predicted rule-breaking (β = 0.04, p < 0.01), aggressive (β = 0.05, p < 0.01), and anxious/depressive (β = 0.03, p < 0.05) behaviors via psychological aggression in parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

Failure to address housing hardship among families with young children increases maltreatment risk and subsequent enduring mental health problems. Efforts to identify and mitigate housing hardship and maltreatment among at-risk families offer promise to promote long-term mental health in the transition from childhood to adolescence.

The Efficacy of a Resilience-Enhancement Program for Mothers Based on Emotion Regulation: A Randomized Controlled Trial in Japan

This study evaluated the efficacy of a brief (four 2-h sessions) group-based resilience-enhancement program focused on emotion regulation in Japan. Mothers (n = 123) of children aged 3-6 years were recruited in two prefectures and allocated with stratified randomization by the prefecture to either a bi-weekly intervention or treatment as usual. Mothers self-reported online at pre/post-intervention and at 2-month follow-up. Analysis of covariance was used to compare groups. At post-intervention and 2-month follow-up, the intervention group mothers showed significant improvements compared to the control group in resilience (p < 0.001/p = 0.001), self-esteem (p = 0.008/p = 0.001), anger control toward the child (p < 0.001/p = 0.012), and positive attribution toward the child's misbehavior (p < 0.001/p = 0.003). The partners of mothers in both groups answered the same questionnaire at the same timepoints without participating in either program; no differences between groups were found. This study was the first randomized controlled trial investigating how a resilience-enhancement program improves maternal resilience, emotion regulation, and cognition toward children and themselves. This preliminary study provides evidence that improving resilience may reduce the risk of child maltreatment. Further research regarding implementing this intervention in the community is warranted.

Developmental Cascades of Marital Quality, Harsh Discipline, and Child Externalizing Behavior in China

This study investigated the developmental cascades of marital quality, harsh discipline, and child externalizing behavior in a Chinese sample of 976 father-mother dyads and their children (initial M_age = 7.63 years, 52.2% boys). Marital quality, harsh discipline, and child externalizing behavior were assessed at three annual measurement occasions. Cascade models indicated the unidirectional rather than bidirectional relations between the variables over and above within-time covariance and across-time stability. Both increased maternal and paternal marital quality in a given year predicted decreases in child externalizing behavior in the next year. Child externalizing behavior in a given year predicted increases in both maternal and paternal harsh discipline in the next year. Moreover, increased paternal but not maternal marital quality in a given year predicted decreases in psychological aggression rather than corporal punishment in the next year. Moreover, the indirect effect of marital quality on child externalizing behavior through harsh discipline was not found. In addition, the potential indirect effect of marital quality on harsh discipline through child externalizing behavior was observed. These findings highlight the importance of examining developmental cascades across family subsystems and efforts to improve marital relationship to promote child adjustment as well as parent-child interaction during middle childhood in Chinese society.

Longitudinal Associations Among Low-Income Mothers' and Fathers' Parenting and Relationships with Children and Adolescent Depression

Few studies have examined the associations among quality of parent-child relationships, parenting, and adolescent depression in samples of low-income mothers and fathers with large numbers of nonresidential fathers. This study used the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing data (N = 3,384) to examine the longitudinal associations among parent-child closeness, harsh parenting, and neglect when children were nine years old and adolescent depression at age 15. The findings indicated that children who perceived having close relationships with mothers and fathers at age nine reported significantly less depression at age 15, regardless of residential status. Moderation analyses showed a stronger negative relationship between daughters' closeness with mothers and depression than sons' closeness with mothers and depression. Daughters and sons who were close to fathers reported less depression. There were no significant associations among harsh discipline or neglect and depression. The findings support the use of interventions that promote healthy attachments and close parent-child relationships between low-income parents and children.

Relationship between Punitive Discipline and Child-to-Parent Violence: The Moderating Role of the Context and Implementation of Parenting Practices

This study examines the influence of punitive parental discipline on child-to-parent violence (CPV). The moderating roles of parental context (stress and parental ineffectiveness), mode of implementation of parental discipline (parental impulsivity or warmth/support) and the gender of the aggressor in the relationship between punitive discipline and CPV are examined. The study included 1543 university students between 18 and 25 years old (50.2% males, M_age = 19.9 years, SD = 1.9) who retrospectively described their experience between the ages of 12 and 17 years old. The results indicated that stress, ineffectiveness and parental impulsivity increase the negative effect of punitive discipline on CPV. There is no moderating effect of parental warmth/support. The gender of the aggressor is only a moderator in the case of violence toward the father, and the effect of punitive discipline is stronger in males than in females. The study draws conclusions regarding the importance of context and the mode by which parents discipline their children, aspects that can aggravate the adverse effects of physical and psychological punishment on CPV. It is necessary for interventions to focus not only on promoting positive disciplinary strategies but also on the mode in which they are administered and on contextual aspects.

Bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in Chinese preschool children: the Shenzhen Longhua Child Cohort Study

The bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in Chinese children attending preschools were rarely discussed. A study covering 171 preschools in Longhua District of Shenzhen, China was conducted among children when they first attended preschools. Parents of children reported the self-perceived parenting styles and their children's conduct problems using validated questionnaires. The bidirectional associations between parenting styles and conduct problems in children were assessed using multivariate linear or logistic regressions in both cross-sectional and cohort settings. In cross-sectional settings, the bidirectional associations were present in all dimensions of parenting styles with children's conduct problems. After 1.01 years of follow-up, increases in parenting dimensions of rejection, control attempts, and favoring subject were significantly associated with children's conduct problems at follow-up, while increases in emotional warmth of parents significantly reduced such risk. In addition, parents of children who had conduct problems at baseline but regressed to normal at follow-up showed decreased scores in negative parenting dimensions. In contrast, among children who developed conduct problems during the study period, the scores of rejection and favoring subject in their parents have increased significantly, while the scores of emotional warmth have decreased. Parent-to-child effect was similar between fathers and mothers, while child-to-parent effect was stronger in fathers than that in mothers. In order to stop the negative feedback loop between poor parenting styles and children's conduct problems, our study underscored the importance of intervention not only in parents but also in their children.

The Development, Preliminary Validation, and Clinical Application of the Quick Parenting Assessment

To prevent diseases, efforts are needed to determine how to address Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), including parenting behaviors. The objective of this study, conducted in Nashville TN in 2017, was to initiate testing the psychometric properties of two new Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) screening tools, the Quick Parenting Assessment (QPA) and Other Childhood Stressors (OCS). In a clinic serving low-income families, caregivers of children ages 2-10 completed assessments of parenting (QPA), other stressors (OCS), child behavior problems ((Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ)), and Attitudes Toward Spanking (ATS). The QPA takes 1 min to complete and assesses for healthy and unhealthy parenting behaviors. Seventy-five percent of eligible participants completed the survey (N=558). A reduced 10-item QPA yielded a Cronbach's alpha of 0.79 and, in 4-10-year-olds, was associated with high SDQ conduct, hyperactivity, and total difficulties scores (r=0.44, 0.48, and 0.47; all p< 0.001). Children with QPAs of >4 were nine times more likely than those children with scores of ≤2 to have behavior problems (OR=8.93, 95% CI = 3.74-21.32). Elevated QPAs were associated with the ATS (r=0.47, p < .001). The OCS was also associated with high SDQ total difficulties scores (r=0.28, p< 0.001). Two pediatric ACEs screening tools, the QPA and the OCS, have promising psychometric properties. The findings suggest that parenting behaviors may play an outsized role in the pathogenesis of outcomes associated with ACEs. We discuss the clinical application of QPA at our institution and the theoretical potential for this instrument to reduce the rates of short- and long-term health problems.

Actor-Partner Analyses of the Associations Between Harsh Discipline and Parent-Child Relationships in China

Based on the actor-partner interdependence model (APIM), this study examined the actor and partner effects of parental harsh discipline on the parent-child relationship in a sample of Chinese children. A total of 1,149 Chinese middle-school-aged children who were recruited to participate in this survey completed measures of their fathers' and mothers' psychological aggression (PA) and corporal punishment (CP) toward them and their affinitive and conflicting relationship with the father and mother. Results from the APIM analysis showed that both fathers' and mothers' harsh discipline were negatively associated with parent-child affinity and positively associated with parent-child conflict (βs < .33, ps < .001). Furthermore, results also showed that mothers' CP was negatively related to father-child affinity (βs = -.10, ps < .01) and mothers' CP and PA were positively related to father-child conflict (βs < .13, ps < .01), whereas fathers' harsh discipline was not related to mother-child relationship (βs > .04, ps > .05). Findings indicated that a parent's harsh discipline affected not only their own relationship with children but also their spouse's relationship with children. Findings in the present study highlighted the importance of decreasing both fathers' and mothers' use of harsh discipline when conducting appropriate prevention intervention to improve the parent-child relationship, especially the father-child relationship.

Associations between gaming disorder, parent-child relationship, parental supervision, and discipline styles: Findings from a school-based survey during the COVID-19 pandemic in Vietnam

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Vietnam implemented numerous measures to reduce the transmission of COVID-19 among school students, including study-at-home/self-quarantine. During the study-at-home period, adolescents may engage in more video gaming than usual, potentially contributing to gaming disorder. However, the regionally-representative prevalence of gaming disorder and its association with parenting practice and discipline practice have not been described. We assessed the prevalence of gaming disorder among Vietnamese adolescents during the initial 6 months of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associations between gaming disorder and parenting practice and discipline practice.

METHODS

We conducted a school-based, self-administered cross-sectional survey of 2,084 students in Hanoi, Vietnam (response rate = 97.1%). The survey included standardized instruments translated from English to Vietnamese. We performed multilevel logistic regressions to assess the associations between parenting practice, discipline practice, and gaming disorder.

RESULTS

The prevalence of gaming disorder among the respondents was 11.6%. Healthy parent-child relationship was protective against gaming disorder (Adj OR = 0.36; 95% CI = 0.21, 0.62). Non-supervision, non-discipline, violent discipline were positively associated with gaming disorder.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

We found associations between gaming disorder and parent-child relationship, parental supervision, and parental discipline. Future interventional studies should consider assessing the effect of fostering healthy parent-child relationships and appropriate discipline on the occurrence or prognosis of gaming disorders.

Personal and Environmental Predictors of Aggression in Adolescence

This study aims to find causal factors of aggression in a group of Latino adolescents to achieve a greater understanding of human nature, taking into account personal and contextual variables. The fundamental hypothesis is that moral disengagement, personality traits, self-esteem, values, parenting, sex, and socioeconomic situation can function as possible casual factors of aggression in adolescents. The study examined the variables using the structural equations model (SEM) to determine causal factors of aggression in a sample of 827 adolescents (54% men and 46% women) between 11 and 16 years of age. According to the scientific literature review, sociodemographic, personal, and familiar variables were included in the causal model. The influence of the variables occurred in two ways: one that inhibits aggression and the other that reinforces it. The results are discussed based on identifying protective and risk factors against aggression: biological sex and values of conformity and transcendence as aggression’s inhibitors and, on the other hand, openness, moral disengagement, and leadership values as the most important predictors of aggression.

Corporal punishment and adolescent aggression: An examination of multiple intervening mechanisms and the moderating effects of parental responsiveness and demandingness

BACKGROUND

Research on generational transmission of violence in general suggests that corporal punishment leads to children's aggressive behavior. However, less clear is the intervening mechanisms that link corporal punishment with adolescent aggression and the moderation on the intervening mechanisms.

OBJECTIVES

This study examined the mediating role of negative emotions, endorsement of violence, and low self-control in the association between parental corporal punishment and adolescent aggression and investigated whether the intervening mechanisms operated differently according to different levels of parental responsiveness and demandingness.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Data from a sample (N = 1,635) of students in central China were used. The students were from 4 schools, aged between 12-18.

METHODS

Conditional process analysis was performed to assess the moderated mediation.

RESULTS

The relations of corporal punishment with adolescent aggression were partially mediated by adolescent's endorsement of violence (b = .027, p < .001), negative emotion (b = .028, p < .001), and low self-control (b = .008, p = .007). In addition, these indirect effects were moderated by parental responsiveness and demandingness.

CONCLUSION

Our study adds further empirical credence in our collective effort to reduce adolescent aggressive behavior by banning corporal punishment as a disciplinary practice. Further, parenting programs by social welfare agencies should consider the important role of demandingness. Interventions could reduce adolescent aggression also by adolescent resilience development, improving one's self-control and management of negative emotion while cultivating moral beliefs disapprove of violence.

Leveraging the developmental science of psychosocial risk to strengthen youth psychotherapy

More than 50 years of randomized clinical trials for youth psychotherapies have resulted in moderate effect sizes for treatments targeting the most common mental health problems in children and adolescents (i.e., anxiety, depression, conduct problems, and attention disorders). Despite having psychotherapies that are effective for many children, there has been a dearth of progress in identifying the contextual factors that likely influence who will respond to a given psychotherapy, and under what conditions. The developmental psychopathology evidence base consistently demonstrates that psychosocial risk exposures (e.g., childhood adversities, interpersonal stressors, family dysfunction) significantly influence the onset and course of youth psychopathology. However, the developmental psychopathology framework remains to be well integrated into treatment development and psychotherapy research. We argue that advances in basic developmental psychopathology research carry promising implications for the design and content of youth psychotherapies. Research probing the effects of psychosocial risks on youth development can enrich efforts to identify contextual factors in psychotherapy effectiveness and to personalize treatment. In this article we review empirically supported and hypothesized influences of individual- and family-level risk factors on youth psychotherapy outcomes, and we propose a framework for leveraging developmental psychopathology to strengthen psychotherapies.

Harsh Parenting Predicts Novel HPA Receptor Gene Methylation and NR3C1 Methylation Predicts Cortisol Daily Slope in Middle Childhood

Adverse experiences in childhood are associated with altered hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis function and negative health outcomes throughout life. It is now commonly accepted that abuse and neglect can alter epigenetic regulation of HPA genes. Accumulated evidence suggests harsh parenting practices such as spanking are also strong predictors of negative health outcomes. We predicted harsh parenting at 2.5 years old would predict HPA gene DNA methylation similarly to abuse and neglect, and cortisol output at 8.5 years old. Saliva samples were collected three times a day across 3 days to estimate cortisol diurnal slopes. Methylation was quantified using the Illumina Infinium MethylationEPIC array BeadChip (850 K) with DNA collected from buccal cells. We used principal components analysis to compute a summary statistic for CpG sites across candidate genes. The first and second components were used as outcome variables in mixed linear regression analyses with harsh parenting as a predictor variable. We found harsh parenting significantly predicted methylation of several HPA axis genes, including novel gene associations with AVPRB1, CRHR1, CRHR2, and MC2R (FDR corrected p < 0.05). Further, we found NR3C1 methylation predicted a steeper diurnal cortisol slope. Our results extend the current literature by demonstrating harsh parenting may influence DNA methylation similarly to more extreme early life experiences such as abuse and neglect. Further, we show NR3C1 methylation is associated with diurnal HPA function. Elucidating the molecular consequences of harsh parenting on health can inform best parenting practices and provide potential treatment targets for common complex disorders.

From fathers to peers: Association between paternal violence victimization and peer violence perpetration among youth in Malawi, Nigeria, and Zambia

Interpersonal violence against children and youth, including parental violence and peer violence, are major global health concerns. However, the majority of the parental violence and peer violence literature examines each separately from one another. In this study, we specifically investigate the role of fathers and whether paternal violence victimization is associated with peer violence perpetration, above and beyond maternal violence victimization. We used nationally-representative data from three sub-Saharan African country surveys of the Violence Against Children Surveys, which comprised a pooled sample of 8184 youth aged 13-24 years in Malawi (conducted in 2013), Nigeria (2014), and Zambia (2014). We used multivariable logistic regression models to estimate the association between paternal violence victimization and peer violence perpetration, controlling for maternal violence victimization, witnessing violence, and other covariates. We also tested a structural equation model to determine whether the direct association between paternal violence victimization and peer violence perpetration was mediated through youth mental distress or alcohol use, controlling for other violence exposures and covariates. In the pooled sample, 22.8% of youth reported paternal violence victimization, and 18.8% of youth reported peer violence perpetration in their lifetime. Youth who experienced paternal violence had a greater odds of perpetrating peer violence (OR = 1.74, 95% CI: 1.50-2.02), compared with youth who did not experience paternal violence and after controlling for maternal violence victimization and other covariates. Structural equation model results revealed that approximately a quarter of the total association between paternal violence victimization and peer violence perpetration was mediated by youth mental distress and alcohol use. Our study underscores the role of fathers in the context of parental violence against youth and highlights the need for multicomponent and two-generation violence prevention interventions that address paternal violence and support youth psychosocial wellbeing to prevent cycles of violence perpetration against youth in sub-Saharan Africa.

The Role of Emotion Processing in the Association between Parental Discipline and Adolescent Socio-Emotional Development

This research investigated whether biases in processing threatening emotional cues operate as an indirect pathway through which parental harsh discipline is associated with adolescent socio-emotional functioning. Participants were 192 adolescents (M age = 12.4), and their parents assessed over two years. Findings revealed two significant indirect pathways involving fear processing. Greater parental harsh discipline was linked to more emotional response inhibition difficulty for fear, which was linked to more depressive symptoms in the following year. Greater parental harsh discipline was also associated with more emotional response inhibition difficulty for fear, and thereby, more peer problems later. Findings suggest that adolescent emotional processing operated as an indirect pathway linking parental harsh discipline and adolescent socio-emotional functioning within the broader social context.

Developmental consequences of emotional abuse and neglect in vulnerable adolescents: A multi-informant, multi-wave study

BACKGROUND

Extant research and theory posit that emotional abuse and emotional neglect-exposure is uniquely harmful during adolescence. Yet, these findings are mostly based on mono-informant, retrospective studies with unselected adults that examine emotional maltreatment in the aggregate. This prevents inferences concerning the unique, prospective risk emotional abuse and neglect, as reported by multiple informants, may confer within at-risk, adolescent samples.

OBJECTIVE

In response, the present study examined how emotional abuse and emotional neglect-exposure in adolescence uniquely related to psychological symptoms and social impairment.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Our aims were tested in a child welfare system (CWS)-involved sample of adolescents (N = 657; Age_M = 12.49 at baseline) who were participating in a longitudinal study.

METHODS

A multi-informant approach was used to assess emotional abuse/neglect and mental health. Physical abuse and lifetime CWS contact represented covariates in growth curve models.

RESULTS

Emotional abuse predicted symptoms within informant, such that youth-reported emotional abuse predicted youth-reported internalizing, β = 0.21, p = .001, and externalizing, β=0.35, p = .001, symptoms while parent-reported emotional abuse predicted parent-reported externalizing, β=0.30, p <  .001, and internalizing β=0.29, p <  .001, symptoms. Meanwhile, youth-reported emotional neglect predicted heightened self-reported internalizing symptoms, β=0.29, p <  .001, parent-reported externalizing symptoms, β=0.15, p = .002 and social impairment across youth, β=-0.17, p = .01 and parent, β=-0.24, p <  .001, report.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows the importance of distinguishing between these maltreatment subtypes in adolescence and provides measurement recommendations for future maltreatment research. The manuscript concludes by discussing adolescent emotional abuse and neglect-exposure as a maintenance, as opposed to causal risk, factors.

The Etiology of Oppositional Defiant Disorder for Children with and without Intellectual Disabilities: A Preliminary Analysis

BACKGROUND

Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) appears more prevalent among children with intellectual disabilities (ID) as compared to children with typical development (Christensen et al., 2013). However, it remains unclear what drives this difference.

METHODS

Data from 70 youth with typical development (TD) and 20 youth with ID were drawn from The Collaborative Family Study. The relationships between child temperament and parent psychopathology (age 3), parenting behavior and child behavior problems (age 5), and ODD diagnosis (age 13) were explored via structural equation modeling. The predicted model was examined in the total sample, among children with and without ID separately, and with status (TD vs. ID) as a predictor.

CONCLUSION

Many of the predicted relationships hold true for youth with and without ID. However, we found an unexpected relationship between negative-controlling parenting and child externalizing behavior problems for children with ID. The positive role of parental intrusiveness for children with ID is discussed, although limitations are noted due to the small sample size and preliminary nature of this study.

Maternal alcohol dependence and harsh caregiving across parenting contexts: The moderating role of child negative emotionality

Parental alcohol dependence is a significant risk factor for harsh caregiving behaviors; however, it is unknown whether and how harsh caregiving changes over time and across parenting contexts for alcohol-dependent mothers. Furthermore, to our knowledge, no studies have examined whether and how distinct dimensions of child characteristics, such as negative emotionality modulate harsh caregiving among alcohol-dependent mothers. Guided by parenting process models, the present study examined how two distinct domains of children's negative emotionality-fear and frustration-moderate the association between maternal alcohol dependence and maternal harshness across discipline and free-play contexts. A high-risk sample of 201 mothers and their two-year-old children were studied over a one-year period. Results from latent difference score analyses indicated that harsh parenting among alcohol-dependent mothers increased over time in the more stressful discipline context, but not in the parent-child play context. This effect was maintained even after controlling for other parenting risk factors, including other forms of maternal psychopathology. Furthermore, this increase in harsh parenting was specific to alcohol-dependent mothers whose children were displaying high levels of anger and frustration. Findings provide support for specificity in conceptualizations of child negative emotionality and parenting contexts as potential determinants of maladaptive caregiving among alcohol-dependent mothers.

Child abuse and neglect in a rapidly developing country: Parents' perspectives

Purpose:

To identify parental awareness and knowledge regarding child abuse and neglect in the State of Qatar.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study using a questionnaire was conducted at Hamad Medical Corporation, the only tertiary pediatric hospital in the State of Qatar at the time of the study. Parents of children of all ages were offered a questionnaire that included demographic details, parental knowledge, and awareness of child abuse and neglect.

Results:

300 questionnaires were completed (response rate = 95%). More than 70% of parents were older than 30 years of age, 60% of them were females, and 66% were college graduates. The majority of the participants stated their familiarity about child abuse, and 6% witnessed morbidity or mortality due to child abuse in the society. Despite the identified laws, only 50% of the parents were aware of laws restricting child abuse. In regards to children with special needs, only 16% of the participants agreed that disabled children are at a higher risk of abuse compared to healthy children, while 33% were neutral and 52% disagreed. In addition, one-fifth of the respondents stated that hitting is discipline, while 63% disagreed. Almost one-third of the respondents agreed that hitting hands and buttock or hitting with soft objects is acceptable form of discipline. Unexpectedly, one-quarter of participants stated that it is okay to hit a child as long as no damage incurs. As for verbal abuse, around one-third of parents stated that yelling is not a form of child abuse, and that yelling does not affect growth and development. Comparing both corporal and verbal abuse, approximately 70% of parents stated that yelling is less harmful than hitting. In terms of child neglect, around half of the respondents agreed with the statement “Leaving a child (<5 years) unattended at home is a form of neglect,” while 42% were neutral. Finally, approximately 50% of the participants believed that it is okay to depend on nannies in assisting their children in eating and using the bathroom.

Conclusion:

Parents residing in the State of Qatar believe that they have a good knowledge regarding child abuse and neglect. However, this study shows many deficiencies in parental knowledge of child abuse and neglect. Parents’ attitudes and perceptions are considered indispensable targets for community health intervention.

Discordance in Reporting of Maternal Aggression: Exploring Differences by Characteristics of Children, Mothers, and Their Environments

This study investigated discordant reports of maternal aggression using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 1,606). Multinomial logistic regression models predicted discordant reports of hitting and shouting from child, mother, and environmental characteristics. Compared to dyads in which both mothers and children reported aggression, mothers with a college degree had higher child-only and mother-only reports of both hitting and shouting versus mothers with less than a high school diploma. High-income mothers had higher child-only reports of hitting, while families with past Child Protective Services involvement had higher child-only and mother-only reports of hitting. Additionally, children with lower reading test scores and whose fathers had history of incarceration had higher child-only reports of hitting. Families residing in neighborhoods for which mothers were scared to let children play outside also had higher child-only and mother-only reports of hitting and shouting.

Child abuse in the West Bank of the occupied Palestinian territory (WB/oPt): social and political determinants

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment is a global epidemic. It affects morbidity, mortality, social behavior, wellbeing, and quality of life of children. This study aims to assess prevalence of child abuse in the West Bank (WB) of the occupied Palestinian territory (oPt) and to determine some of its social and political associated factors.

METHODS

We analyzed secondary data obtained from a cross sectional study conducted on a sample representing Palestinian children on the West Bank and using the International Society for the Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN) tool. The ISPCAN Child Abuse Screening Tool for parents (ICAST-P) questionnaire was completed by 1107 Palestinian mothers to estimate physical and emotional child abusive practices at home for children aged 0-12 years. Univariate, bivariate, and multivariate binary logistic regression analyses were performed using the SPSS® version 20 to assess prevalence and predictors of child abuse.

RESULTS

Overall, around 34% of the West Bank-children were abused by their mothers. Results of the logistic regression analysis indicated that male children, children of younger mothers, children whose fathers were with low levels of education, children whose mothers reported low levels of parental warmth, and children whose parents were exposed to political violence were at greater risk of being abused.

CONCLUSIONS

Child abuse is highly prevalent among children of the Palestinian society in the West Bank. Policy makers need to pay more attention to this epidemic. The association between child abuse and political violence found in this study makes a just solution for Palestinians essential for improving the welfare of children and families.

Bullying Victimization among Mexican Adolescents: Psychosocial Differences from an Ecological Approach

This transversal study over a random representative sample of 1687 Mexican students attending public and private secondary schools (54% girls, 12-17 years old, M = 13.65. DT = 1.14) aimed to analyze psychosocial differences between victims and non-victims of bullying from the bioecological model. It included individual variables (ontosystem), familiar, community, and scholar factors (microsystem), and gender (macrosystem) to perform a multivariate discriminant analysis and a logistic regression analysis. The discriminant analysis found that psychological distress, offensive communication with mother and father, and a positive attitude toward social norms transgression characterized the high victimization cluster. For the non-victims, the discriminant variables were community implication, positive attitude toward institutional authority, and open communication with the mother. These variables allowed for correctly predicting membership in 76% of the cases. Logistic regression analysis found that psychological distress, offensive communication with the father, and being a boy increased the probability of high victimization, while a positive attitude toward authority, open communication with the mother, and being a girl decrease this probability. These results highlight the importance of open and offensive communication between adolescents and their parents on psychological distress, attitude toward authority, community implication, and bullying victimization.

Aspects of Parent-Child Interaction from Infancy to Late Adolescence Are Associated with Severity of Childhood Maltreatment through Age 18

Childhood maltreatment (CM) is a pervasive public health problem worldwide, with negative health consequences across the lifespan. Despite these adverse outcomes, identifying children who are being maltreated remains a challenge. Thus, there is a need to identify reliably observable features of parent-child interaction that indicate risk for CM and that can instigate strategically targeted family supports. The aim of this longitudinal study was to assess multiple aspects of observed mother-child interaction from infancy to late adolescence as risk indicators of the overall severity of CM by age 18. Mother-child dyads were assessed in infancy (N = 56), at age 7 years (N = 56), and at age 19 years (N = 56/110). Severity of CM through age 18 was indexed by combined prospective and retrospective assessments. Interactions associated with severity of CM by age 18 included maternal hostility in infancy, maternal withdrawal in infancy and middle childhood, child disorganized attachment behavior in middle childhood and late adolescence, as well as hostile and role-confused interactions in late adolescence. This study identifies new indices of maternal and child behavior as important risk indicators for the severity of CM. These indices could be used to improve early identification and tailor preventive interventions for families at risk for CM.

The Associations of Parental Harsh Discipline, Adolescents' Gender, and Grit Profiles With Aggressive Behavior Among Chinese Early Adolescents

Although the association between parental harsh discipline and aggressive behavior in adolescence has been well established, little attention has been paid to early adolescence. Moreover, the risk and protective factors (the interplay of parents' and adolescents' gender, the role of grit) in this association during this period are still less explored in the literature. Guided by a socioecological framework, the current study (more exploratory in nature) identified the grit profiles based on two dimensions (i.e., perseverance and consistency) in a sample of Chinese early adolescents; likewise, this study further investigated gender-specific patterns and the moderating role of grit profiles in the association between parental harsh discipline and aggressive behavior. A total of 1,156 Chinese early adolescents (46.5% girls) were involved in this study and completed a set of self-report questionnaires. Latent profile analysis revealed three profiles of grit: low perseverance and low consistency, high perseverance and low consistency, and high perseverance and high consistency. Moreover, linear regression analysis indicated that paternal and maternal harsh discipline were each positively associated with aggressive behavior. The positive association between paternal harsh discipline and aggressive behavior was only significant for adolescent boys with low levels of perseverance and consistency; in contrast, the positive association between maternal harsh discipline and aggressive behavior was significantly stronger for adolescent boys with high levels of perseverance and consistency. These findings suggest that parental harsh discipline presents a risk factor for aggressive behavior, especially for adolescent boys in early adolescence; such a vulnerable effect is more heightened for those with low levels of perseverance and consistency. In addition, although grit is assumed to be a positive personal attribute, maternal harsh discipline to boys in the Chinese family context may disturb their positive development pathway during early adolescence, which is highly discouraged.

Interpersonal Relationship Aspects as Perceived Risk and Social Support Factors in a Clinical Sample of Adolescents With Depression

The goal of this qualitative study was to explore how adolescents with diagnosed depression describe their social relationships with peers, parents and teachers. Several previous findings have revealed the dual role of interpersonal relationships — as a stressor and contributor to different mental disorders, and also as a source of social support for mental health. Previous studies confirmed the value of a qualitative approach in exploring the self-perceived experiences of adolescents. The research group consisted of 28 adolescents, aged 13–17, with a diagnosis of depression. Individual semistructured interviews (Children's Depression Rating Scale Revised; CDRS-R) were applied in this study, which were analysed using thematic analysis. The results have both scientific and practical value, as well as relevance for the development of preventive interventions targeted at well-being and mental health of adolescents.

The efficacy of a resilience-enhancement program for mothers in Japan based on emotion regulation: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial

Background

The demands of daily life often cause mothers high levels of distress and other negative emotions. Anger, including harsh verbal discipline, has been linked to child maltreatment, with long-term adverse effects on a child’s well-being. It is critically important to teach mothers stress management and emotion regulation in addition to parenting skills, but this is yet to be conducted in a formalized manner. Strengthening the multiple protective factors that constitute resilience helps reduce distress. The aim of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of a resilience-enhancement program for mothers.

Methods

We designed a two-arm, parallel, randomized trial with an active control. Mothers and their partners with children between three and six years old will be recruited. Following an online baseline survey, 140 mothers will be randomly allocated to either an intervention or control group. Self-report assessment will be conducted online post-intervention and at a two-month follow-up. The control group will participate in a serious of group discussions. The intervention group will participate in four bi-weekly 120-min sessions of a Cognitive Behavior Therapy-based program designed to enhance resilience, focusing on emotion regulation through cognitive reappraisal. Participants will be encouraged to apply and share the skills they acquire with their partner and children at home. Partners will also be assessed to explore their indirect influence from the mothers. Intention-to-treat analysis will be conducted and the two groups will be compared, applying covariate analysis. The primary outcome of the intervention is improved resilience. Secondary outcomes include improved anger control, self-esteem, cognition of children’s misbehavior, and reduced parental stress.

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, this study will evaluate the first resilience-enhancement program focused on emotion regulation for mothers in Japan. It will contribute to the existing body of knowledge on building emotional resilience. If the program is found to be effective, it will provide an alternative means to enhance mothers’ resilience against stress and improve their ability to regulate emotion. In so doing, it will offer a way to prevent child maltreatment and protect the mental health of children and families.

Trial registration

UMIN000027232, May 3, 2017.

Testosterone and Proactive-Reactive Aggression in Youth: the Moderating Role of Harsh Discipline

This study tests a biosocial model of the link between testosterone and proactive-reactive aggression in youth at varying levels of harsh discipline. Given that proactive aggression is used to gain power and status and the importance of social learning in its formation, we hypothesized that testosterone would be associated with proactive aggression at higher levels of harsh discipline, and that this relationship would be more pronounced in boys than girls. Participants (n = 445; 50% male; M age = 11.92 years; 80% African-American) and their caregivers completed questionnaires including demographics, conflict tactics, and proactive-reactive aggression. Youth also provided a saliva sample for testosterone. Analyses revealed an interaction between testosterone and harsh discipline on proactive aggression in both boys and girls, and an interaction between testosterone and harsh discipline on reactive aggression in boys only. For those experiencing high levels of harsh discipline, testosterone was positively associated with proactive aggression, with the magnitude of the association increasing as harsh discipline increased. For below average levels of harsh discipline, there were protective effects of high testosterone for boy's reactive aggression and for girl's proactive aggression. The findings support basic tenets of the biosocial model which suggest that links between testosterone and aggressive behavior are dependent on contextual forces, highlighting the complex relationship between hormones, social context, and aggression. Novel findings include protective effects of high testosterone for those exposed to low levels of harsh discipline. Findings are discussed in light of the context-contingency effect and also within the differential susceptibility framework.

Family Communication Problems, Psychosocial Adjustment and Cyberbullying

The aim of the present study was to analyze the relationship between family communication problems and cyberbullying, through psychosocial adjustment—psychological distress, attitude towards institutional authority, and problematic use of social networking sites—in adolescents. Random sampling by conglomerates was performed. A total of 8115 adolescents participated in the study (51.5% boys, 49.5% girls), and were aged between 11 and 16 years old (M = 13.34, SD = 1.04) and enrolled in the State of Nuevo León (Mexico). A structural equations model was developed using the Structural Equation Modeling Software (EQS). The results showed that problematic family communication is directly associated with cyberbullying, and also indirectly through the relationships of psychological distress and attitude towards transgression of social norms with the problematic use of social networking sites. The multi-group analyses also revealed gender differences in these relationships. Finally, the obtained results were discussed and their practical implications were shown.

Indirect Effects of Early Parenting on Adult Antisocial Outcomes via Adolescent Conduct Disorder Symptoms and Callous-Unemotional Traits

Parental harsh punishment and warmth have been associated with child and adolescent conduct disorder (CD) symptoms and callous-unemotional (CU) traits (i.e., lack of guilt, empathy, and deficient affect); however, it is unclear whether the effect of these parenting behaviors on antisocial outcomes persists into adulthood. Thus, the present study aimed to test whether adolescent CD symptoms and CU traits mediate the effect of parental harsh punishment and warmth on adult antisocial outcomes (i.e., antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), externalizing psychopathology, partner violence, and violent and substance crime). Participants included the high-risk control and normative samples from the Fast Track project (N =753, male = 58%, African American = 46%). Harsh punishment during kindergarten through grades 1-2 predicted higher adolescent CD symptoms, and directly observed warmth during kindergarten through grades 1-2 predicted lower adolescent CU traits. Adolescent CD symptoms predicted greater adult substance crime, and adolescent CU traits predicted greater adult ASPD symptoms and externalizing psychopathology. Further, adolescent CD symptoms indirectly accounted for the effect of parental harsh punishment on adult substance crime, and adolescent CU traits indirectly accounted for the effect of parental warmth on ASPD symptoms and externalizing psychopathology. Findings support the importance of early interventions targeting parenting behaviors to reduce risk for the development of antisocial behavior, and inform developmental models of antisocial behavior in adolescence through adulthood.

Parental threats and adolescent depression: The role of emotion dysregulation

Childhood exposure to parental threatening behaviors places adolescents at greater risk for depression. However, the association between parental threatening behaviors and depressive symptoms among trauma-exposed inpatient youth, and potential factors that exacerbate the harmful effects of such parenting, have remained unexplored. One factor that may contribute to depression is low emotional clarity, which is characterized by difficulties recognizing and understanding one's emotions. The current investigation examined the interactive effects of childhood exposure to maternal threatening behaviors and emotional clarity deficits in relation to depressive symptoms among inpatient psychiatric youth who had been exposed to a potentially traumatic event (i.e., exposure to actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence). Participants (N = 50, M_age = 15.1 years, SD = 0.51, range 12-17) completed measures of emotion dysregulation, childhood exposure to maternal threatening behavior, and depressive symptoms. A significant interaction was found between exposure to maternal threatening behaviors and deficits in emotional clarity in relation to depressive symptom severity. Greater exposure to maternal threatening behaviors was related to more severe depressive symptoms, yet only among children with greater deficits in emotional clarity. Findings underscore the need for interventions that target emotional clarity among trauma-exposed youth who have experienced parental threats.

Video feedback intervention to enhance parental reflective functioning in primary caregivers of inpatient psychiatric children: protocol for a randomized feasibility trial

Background

Children requiring hospitalization for psychiatric care have serious disorders, high use of psychotropic medication, and frequent readmissions. The development and implementation of therapies focused on incorporating primary caregivers or attachment figures is necessary for working with children with severe psychiatric disorders. Mentalization or parental reflective functioning (PRF) is the ability of parents to understand their children’s behaviors as an expression of internal emotional states and act accordingly to help them regulate their emotions; in this way mentalizing is a key component of sensitive parenting. Video-assisted therapies have proven to be effective in promoting change in parent–child relationships. The majority of studies have been carried out with mothers of pre-school children and in an outpatient setting. Video intervention therapy (VIT) is a flexible manualized therapy, which allows the intervention to be individualized to the context where it is applied, according to the needs and resources of the people who participate in it. The objective of the study is to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of applying VIT to improve the PRF of the parents as primary carers of children hospitalized in a psychiatric service.

Methods

This is a pilot randomized, single-masked (outcome assessor) study with a qualitative component. It will involve a block randomization procedure to generate a 2:1 allocation (with more people allocated to the intervention arm). The intervention consists of four modules; every module has both one video-recorded play session and one VIT session per week. People assigned to the control group will receive treatment as usual plus weekly play sessions. Feasibility and acceptability of the study will be quantitatively and qualitatively assessed. Evaluation of the caregivers will include assessments of PRF, wellbeing and personality structure; assessments of children will include parent-ratings and clinician-ratings of symptomatology and general functioning. After every video feedback (VF) session, PRF, the caregiver’s wellbeing and children’s general functioning will be reassessed.

Discussion

This study will contribute to the currently scarce evidence on how to provide family attachment-based interventions in a child inpatient psychiatric unit. It will also inform the design and implementation of a future randomized clinical trial.

Trial registration

ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT03374904. Registered on 14 December 2017 (retrospectively registered).

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13063-019-3310-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Longitudinal relation between state-trait maternal irritability and harsh parenting

According to Belsky's process model of parenting, parents' personality represents the most important factor influencing parenting and child development. While an extensive literature has empirically corroborated the role of irritability traits in predicting aggressive behaviors in laboratory-based studies, only a few studies have examined the role of irritability in predicting aggressive behaviors within family contexts. The present study addressed this gap by examining the longitudinal association between maternal irritability and harsh parenting. Referencing latent state-trait theory (LST), first we estimated the amount of variance in mothers' irritability due to trait and state components, and, next, we examined the relation between mothers' irritability (both at trait- and state- levels) and harsh parenting over time. A sample of 204 mothers from Naples and Rome provided data over 5 years in four waves. Mothers averaged 40.30 years (SD = 5.33) at Time 1 and 44.01 years (SD = 5.43) at Time 4. Their children (50% girls) were 9.45 years (SD = 0.74) at Time 1 and 13.18 years (SD = 0.66) at Time 4. Results of LST analysis showed that, on average, 39% of variability in irritability was due to trait-like factors and only 12% to state-like factors. A multitrait-multistate model revealed that the irritability trait associated with mother's lack of control predicted her harsh parenting 1-year later, while controlling for the rank-order stability of harsh parenting.

Effective Discipline to Raise Healthy Children

Pediatricians are a source of advice for parents and guardians concerning the management of child behavior, including discipline strategies that are used to teach appropriate behavior and protect their children and others from the adverse effects of challenging behavior. Aversive disciplinary strategies, including all forms of corporal punishment and yelling at or shaming children, are minimally effective in the short-term and not effective in the long-term. With new evidence, researchers link corporal punishment to an increased risk of negative behavioral, cognitive, psychosocial, and emotional outcomes for children. In this Policy Statement, the American Academy of Pediatrics provides guidance for pediatricians and other child health care providers on educating parents about positive and effective parenting strategies of discipline for children at each stage of development as well as references to educational materials. This statement supports the need for adults to avoid physical punishment and verbal abuse of children.

Parent Spanking and Verbal Punishment, and Young Child Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors in Latino Immigrant Families: Test of Moderation by Context and Culture

Objective

This study examined the prevalence and correlates of spanking and verbal punishment in a community sample of Latino immigrant families with young children, as well as the association of spanking and verbal punishment with child internalizing and externalizing problems 1 year later. Parenting context (e.g., warmth) and cultural context (e.g., the cultural value of respeto) are considered as potential moderators.

Design

Parenting and cultural socialization practices were assessed via parent self-report in sample of 633 Mexican and Dominican immigrant families with young children (M age = 4.43 years). Parent and teacher assessments of child internalizing and externalizing were also collected at baseline and 12 months later.

Results

At Time 1, male child gender was positively correlated with concurrent spanking; familial social support and U.S. American cultural knowledge were negatively correlated with mothers' spanking. Verbal punishment at Time 1 was associated with externalizing problems at Time 2 among both Mexican and Dominican American children, and this relation was not moderated. Additionally, verbal punishment was associated with Time 2 child internalizing problems among Mexican American children. There were no significant associations between spanking and later child internalizing or externalizing behaviors.

Conclusion

It is important that researchers examine both physical and verbal discipline strategies to understand their unique influences on Latino child outcomes, as well as contextual influences that may elucidate the use and long-term effects of spanking and verbal punishment on Latino children at different developmental stages.