Interrupting the Pathway From Discrimination to Black Adolescents' Psychosocial Outcomes: The Contribution of Parental Racial Worries and Racial Socialization Competency

Guidance on Conversations About Race and Racism in Pediatric Clinical Settings

OBJECTIVE

To develop guidance for pediatric clinicians on how to discuss race and racism in pediatric clinical settings.

METHODS

We conducted a modified Delphi study from 2021 to 2022 with a panel of pediatric clinicians, psychologists, parents, and adolescents with expertise in racism and child health through scholarship or lived experience. Panelists responded to an initial survey with open-ended questions about how to talk to youth about race and racism. We coded the responses using qualitative methods and presented them back to the panelists. In iterative surveys, panelists reached a consensus on which themes were most important for the conversation.

RESULTS

A total of 29 of 33 panelists completed the surveys and a consensus was reached about the concepts pediatric clinicians should consider before, during, and after conversations about race and racism and impediments clinicians may face while having these discussions. Panelists agreed that it was within the pediatric clinician's role to have these conversations. An overarching theme was the importance of having background knowledge about the systemic nature of racism. Panelists agreed that being active listeners, learning from patients, and addressing intersectionality were important for pediatric clinicians during conversations. Panelists also agreed that short- and long-term benefits may result from these conversations; however, harm could be done if pediatric clinicians do not have adequate training to conduct the conversations.

CONCLUSIONS

These principles can help guide conversations about race and racism in the pediatric clinical setting, equipping clinicians with tools to offer care that acknowledges and addresses the racism many of their patients face.

Intergenerational consequences of racism in the United Kingdom: a qualitative investigation into parents' exposure to racism and offspring mental health and well-being

BACKGROUND

Experiences of racism are linked to negative physical and mental health outcomes among those exposed. According to quantitative research derived mainly from the United States, these negative outcomes can have cascading effects in families, when parents' experiences of racism indirectly impact offspring. New research is warranted for families in the United Kingdom, informed by a qualitative approach to canvassing community knowledge and perspectives, exploring how existing findings relate to lived experiences.

METHOD

We conducted four online focus groups with 14 parents of school-aged children and 14 adolescents who had experienced racism in the United Kingdom. Participants were asked what children know of parents' experiences of racism, and how these experiences can impact parent-child interactions, mental health and well-being. Focus group recordings were transcribed, data coded and analysed through iterative categorisation.

RESULTS

Analyses drew four themes from participants' insights. Together, themes illuminated the pervasive nature of racism experienced by some families in the United Kingdom. Parent and child experiences of racism were connected and co-occurring, with indirect effects impacting mental health and well-being in both generations. These experiences were linked to both positive and negative changes in parenting behaviour and parent-child relationships, which could be moderated by intersecting identities such as the parent's generational status for immigration to the United Kingdom. Social cohesion, safe spaces and education programmes were highlighted for future intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings corroborate existing literature, while further emphasising a broader bidirectional picture, requiring a family system and intersectional approach to understanding the mental health impact of racism in families. Avenues for future research are discussed to support development of equitable intervention and support strategies to prevent racism and support those affected.

Cascading effects of Chinese American parents' COVID-19 racial discrimination and racial socialization on adolescents' adjustment

Using a three-wave longitudinal sample of 108 Chinese American parent-adolescent dyads (Mparent-ageW1 = 45.44 years, 17% fathers; Madolescent-ageW1 = 13.34 years, 50% boys), this study examined the effects of parents' COVID-19-related racial discrimination experiences on adolescents' ethnic identity exploration and anxiety as mediated by parents' awareness of discrimination (AOD) socialization and moderated by parents' anxiety and racial socialization competency (RSC). Parents' racial discrimination experiences in 2020 predicted adolescents' greater ethnic identity exploration or greater anxiety in 2022 via parents' greater use of AOD in 2021, depending on the levels of parents' anxiety and RSC. These findings highlighted individual and contextual factors impacting racial socialization processes in Chinese American families.

Black mothers' ethnic-racial socialization one year after highly publicized anti-Black murders during the pandemic

Although research on ethnic-racial socialization is well established, limited studies have examined the influence of specific, highly publicized anti-Black murders. We assessed Black mothers' (N = 12, mean age = 37.45) concerns and ethnic-racial socialization with adolescents aged 11-18 years old approximately 1 year following the murders of George Floyd and other unarmed Black people. Researchers generated the following themes using reflexive thematic analysis: protecting adolescents from physical harm; protecting adolescents from psychological harm; parents' emotional distress; and parents' lack of confidence in their ethnic-racial socialization practices. Black mothers exhibit exceptional amounts of strength and courage as they navigate pervasive physical and psychological threats to their adolescents while experiencing worry and low confidence in their ability to socialize their adolescents about anti-Black racism.

The promise and pitfalls of a strength-based approach to child poverty and neurocognitive development: Implications for policy

There has been significant progress in understanding the effects of childhood poverty on neurocognitive development. This progress has captured the attention of policymakers and promoted progressive policy reform. However, the prevailing emphasis on the harms associated with childhood poverty may have inadvertently perpetuated a deficit-based narrative, focused on the presumed shortcomings of children and families in poverty. This focus can have unintended consequences for policy (e.g., overlooking strengths) as well as public discourse (e.g., focusing on individual rather than systemic factors). Here, we join scientists across disciplines in arguing for a more well-rounded, "strength-based" approach, which incorporates the positive and/or adaptive developmental responses to experiences of social disadvantage. Specifically, we first show the value of this approach in understanding normative brain development across diverse human environments. We then highlight its application to educational and social policy, explore pitfalls and ethical considerations, and offer practical solutions to conducting strength-based research responsibly. Our paper re-ignites old and recent calls for a strength-based paradigm shift, with a focus on its application to developmental cognitive neuroscience. We also offer a unique perspective from a new generation of early-career researchers engaged in this work, several of whom themselves have grown up in conditions of poverty. Ultimately, we argue that a balanced strength-based scientific approach will be essential to building more effective policies.

Emotional impacts of racial discrimination on caregiver-child dyads: Can mentalizing-focused parenting groups buffer against racism-related stress?

Black and Latinx caregivers face high risk for parenting stress and racism-related stress due to experiences of racial discrimination (RD). This study aimed to explore the associations between RD, parenting stress, and psychological distress in caregiver-child dyads, as well as the impact of a mentalizing-focused group intervention on caregivers' experiences of RD distress. Ethnoracially minoritized caregivers of children aged 5-17 years old participated in a non-randomized clinical trial (N = 70). They received either a 12-session mentalizing-focused group parenting intervention or treatment-as-usual in outpatient psychiatry. We assessed self-reported frequency and distress related to RD, parenting stress, and psychological distress at baseline (T1) and post-intervention (T2). Caregiver- and self-reported child psychological distress were also measured. The results showed that greater RD frequency and greater RD distress separately predicted higher overall parenting stress and parental role-related distress. Greater RD distress was linked to increased psychological distress in caregivers. Similarly, greater RD frequency and distress among caregivers were associated with higher caregiver-reported, but not self-reported, child psychological distress. No significant changes in RD distress were observed between T1 and T2 for either of the treatment groups. These findings highlight the exacerbating role of RD on parenting stress and psychological distress among ethnoracially minoritized caregivers and their children.

A qualitative analysis of black mother preparation for bias messages following incidents of racism-related violence

Preparation for bias messages (PFB), represent a specific form of racial socialization, used to inform youth about racism and how to cope with racism-related adversity. Although research commonly examines how frequently PFB are delivered to children, few studies have qualitatively explored the heterogeneity in the content of such messages, making it difficult to ascertain how caregivers prepare and coach their children to negotiate incidents of racism-related violence. To address this gap in the literature, the present study qualitatively examined the content of PFB given to Black children from their mothers following high-profile incidents of anti-Black violence. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 12 mothers (Mage = 41.91) of Black children to explore how parental concerns regarding their children's safety inform the content of their PFB. Using thematic analysis, two primary themes emerged. The first theme related to psychosocial factors among caregivers that precipitated PFB (i.e., awareness of anti-Black violence, worry about the child being a victim). The second theme pertained to the different types of PFB that caregivers provided to their children (i.e., awareness of racial biases, strategies to navigate discriminatory encounters). Overall findings support and extend extant racial socialization research and have important implications for how Black youth come to understand the significance of race and racism in the aftermath of racism-related violence. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Cascading Influences of Caregiver Experiences of Discrimination and Adolescent Antisocial Behavior

OBJECTIVE

Although a growing body of work has found that parents' experiences of racial and socioeconomic (SES) based discrimination are directly related to their children's behavior problems , more work is needed to understand possible pathways by which these factors are related and to identify potential targets for prevention and/or intervention.

METHOD

Using a large (N = 572), longitudinal sample of low-income families from diverse racial backgrounds, the current study explored whether caregivers' experiences of racial and SES discrimination during their children's middle childhood (i.e. ages 7.5-9.5) predicted youth-reported antisocial behavior during adolescence and potential factors mediating these associations (e.g. caregiver depressive symptoms and positive parenting practices).

RESULTS

We found that higher levels of caregiver experiences of discrimination at child ages 7.5-9.5 predicted higher levels of caregiver depressive symptoms at child age 10.5, which were related to lower levels of caregiver endorsement of positive parenting practices at child age 14.5, which in turn, predicted higher levels of youth-reported antisocial behavior at age 16.

CONCLUSION

The findings highlight the adverse effects of racism and discrimination in American society. Second, the findings underscore the need to develop interventions which mitigate racism and discrimination among perpetrators and alleviate depressive symptoms among caregivers.

Leveraging the developmental neuroscience of caregiving to promote resilience among youth exposed to adversity

Early adversity is a major risk factor for the emergence of psychopathology across development. Identifying mechanisms that support resilience, or favorable mental health outcomes despite exposure to adversity, is critical for informing clinical intervention and guiding policy to promote youth mental health. Here we propose that caregivers play a central role in fostering resilience among children exposed to adversity via caregiving influences on children's corticolimbic circuitry and emotional functioning. We first delineate the numerous ways that caregivers support youth emotional learning and regulation and describe how early attachment lays the foundation for optimal caregiver support of youth emotional functioning in a developmental stage-specific manner. Second, we outline neural mechanisms by which caregivers foster resilience-namely, by modulating offspring corticolimbic circuitry to support emotion regulation and buffer stress reactivity. Next, we highlight the importance of developmental timing and sensitive periods in understanding caregiving-related mechanisms of resilience. Finally, we discuss clinical implications of this line of research and how findings can be translated to guide policy that promotes the well-being of youth and families.

Racial Identification as a Protective Factor for At-Risk Parenting in Black Parents: A Longitudinal, Multi-Method Investigation

Although considerable literature focuses on risk factors predicting parents' likelihood to engage in maltreatment, relatively less work evaluates potentially protective parental resources, particularly culturally relevant qualities. The current investigation utilized a multi-method longitudinal study to examine parents' racial identification as a possible resource, hypothesizing that Black parents with stronger racial group identification would demonstrate lower at-risk parenting, operationalized as lower child abuse risk and less negative observed parenting. In a sample of 359 mothers and fathers (half self-identified Black, half non-Hispanic White), controlling for socioeconomic status, findings partially supported the hypothesis. Black parents' greater racial identification was associated with lower child abuse risk and less observed negative parenting, whereas the reverse was true for White parents. The potential limitations of current assessment approaches to gauge at-risk parenting in parents of color are discussed, as well as how racial identification could be considered in culturally informed prevention programming for at-risk parenting.

Severity and Transition of Suicidal Behaviors in Childhood: Sex, Racial, and Ethnic Differences in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

PURPOSE

To examine the prevalence, incidence, and transitions of suicide ideation and attempts and sex and racial/ethnic differences among children enrolled in three yearly assessments of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. The forms of suicidal ideation (SI) (no SI, passive, nonspecific active, and active) among those who attempted suicide were also described.

METHODS

A subsample of 9,923 children (9-10 years old at baseline, 48.6% female) completed the KSADS-5 questions about suicide ideation and attempts in three yearly assessment (83.5% of baseline sample).

RESULTS

Almost 18% of the children reported suicidal ideation and 2.2% a suicide attempt at one of the three assessments. Passive (6.9%) and nonspecific active (6.4%) were the most frequent forms of suicidal ideation reported. Of the children with suicidal ideation at baseline, 5.9% first attempted suicide in the two subsequent years. Boys (vs. girls) reported more suicidal ideation at baseline. Black children (vs. White and Hispanic/Latinx) and girls (vs. boys) were more likely to start thinking about suicide over time. Black children (vs. White) reported more suicide attempts at baseline and across assessments. More than half of the children who attempted suicide at any assessment reported nonspecific active suicidal ideation (desire to kill oneself without plan/intent/method) as the most severe form of ideation.

DISCUSSION

Findings suggest a high prevalence of suicidal ideation among children in the US. When conducting risk assessments, clinicians should consider both active and nonspecific active suicidal ideation. Early intervention with children who are thinking about suicide may reduce their risk for attempting suicide.

Developmental differences in the impact of racial discrimination on depression and anxiety among Black youth: Examining rumination as a mechanism

Experiences of racial discrimination are pervasive among Black youth, resulting in psychosocial problems such as depression and anxiety. Rumination plays a key role in linking racial discrimination and internalizing concerns. Developmental age has also been shown to influence the extent to which racial discrimination and rumination impact mental health; however, studies have yet to explore the interplay between these factors. This study examined the association between racial discrimination and internalizing concerns among Black youth, whether racial discrimination was indirectly associated with internalizing concerns through rumination, and whether developmental age moderated these direct and indirect effects. Participants included 158 pre- and early-adolescent youth recruited from a community sample (Mage = 11.56 years; 53% female). Data were from baseline questionnaire responses from a larger longitudinal study conducted in the Southeastern United States examining the effects of interpersonal stressors on youth mental health outcomes. Racial discrimination was directly and indirectly associated with internalizing concerns through rumination. Developmental age moderated the indirect link between racial discrimination and depressive symptoms via rumination with the association being stronger as participant age increased. The impact of racial discrimination on mental health among Black youth is informed by maladaptive coping strategies such as rumination and developmental age. Such factors help to identify who is most at risk for the impact of racial discrimination and potential intervening targets. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Promoting Racial/Ethnic Identity in Child and Adolescent Mental Health Treatments

Over the last decade, state and city legislative efforts have underscored that racism is a public health crisis. These legislative shifts have been in concert with several professional medical organizations, including the National Academy of Medicine, the United States Department of Health and Human Services, the Centers for Disease Control, and the National Institute of Health, which have collectively called for structural change to address race inequity in health, from research to patient care. The adverse effects of racism (eg, interpersonal, structural, institutional, and internalized) on health have been documented to include negative effects across the lifespan and developmental continuum, particularly for ethnoracially minoritized youth. Indeed, several studies have specifically identified racism's impact on youths' psychosocial functioning and emotional well-being, particularly around anxiety, depression, and academic functioning. The effects of interpersonal racism on mental health in adolescents and, in particular, Black youth is telling. Although the child and adolescent mental health establishment and literature have advocated for strengths-based (eg, cultural assets) and community engaged (eg, community-based participatory research) frameworks to advance evidence-based treatments for diverse communities, the development of culturally responsive and antiracist interventions remain a gap in our treatment armamentarium for ethnoracially minoritized youth. As in other papers, we have highlighted the criticality of health equity, cultural humility, and culturally informed and responsive clinical practices. We have also underscored that, as a field, child mental health practitioners need to move toward being antiracist to truly address well-being, a shift that requires pivoting toward approaches that promote racial/ethnic identity (REI), which includes racial/ethnic connectedness and racial/ethnic pride. Race-conscious interventions, particularly those that focus on racial/ethnic connectedness and racial/ethnic pride, can not only be protective and health promoting in their ability to mitigate the emotional harms of experiencing racism, but can also foster social-emotional functioning and successful academic outcomes among ethnoracially minoritized individuals.

Talking through the tough: Identifying facilitating factors to preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations among families from minoritized ethnic-racial groups

Parent-child conversations about race-related issues serve a protective function for minoritized families and are needed to help children of color thrive in the United States (Hughes et al., Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 51, 2016 and 1). Despite the difficulties that parents experience in having such conversations to prepare youth to cope with discrimination (Priest et al., International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 43, 2014 and 139), parents are actively engaging in these courageous conversations with the aim of protecting their youth. In order to fully understand and support parents having these conversations, our study sought to identify conversation facilitators (i.e., strategies currently being implemented and viewed as successful and/or viewed as potentially helpful) to engage in preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations from the perspective of parents and youth. The current qualitative study draws upon focus group data collected from parents and youth from African American, Chinese American, Mexican American, and Indian American (South Asian) families (N = 138 individuals; 30 focus groups). Reflections were transcribed and coded by a racially and ethnically diverse research team using an inductive thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 2006 and 77). Shared and unique facilitators to engaging in preparation for bias and racial-ethnic discrimination conversations were identified across the four racial-ethnic groups. Shared facilitators broadly centered on parent-youth relationship quality, conversation characteristics, and quality, and conversation content and relevance. Unique facilitators broadly centered on communication style and needs and conversation content. Shared and unique facilitators warrant more attention to best support minoritized families. The use of findings in developing interventions to support marginalized parents, youth, and families is addressed.

U.S. mothers' appraisals of the race-related events of 2020: Implications for the course of maternal posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms

For parents of color, publicized racial violence can heighten concerns about their children's safety. The goal of this study was to test whether this form of race-related stress exacerbates maternal posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms over a 4-month period in families of color. Participants included 262 U.S. mothers with a lifetime mental health diagnosis (67.6% non-Hispanic White, 15.6% African-American/Black, 16.8% other family of color). Mothers completed online surveys and open-ended questions, including appraisals of the meaning of the 2020 race-related events (i.e., George Floyd's death, subsequent protests) in relation to their children's future. Open-ended responses were quantified using LIWC15 text analysis for emotion word frequency and thematic coding for perceived implications. In ANCOVA, there were significant racial group differences in appraisals, ds = 0.09-0.57. The responses from mothers of Black children included fewer positive and more negative emotion words than mothers of White children; they also included more perceived negative implications than all other mothers but did not vary on perceived positive implications. In regression analyses, there were significant moderating effects of race/ethnicity in the association between appraisals and PTSD symptom course such that negative appraisals predicted a subsequent increase in PTSD symptoms only for mothers of Black children, βs = .26-.37. Variations in event appraisals were unrelated to PTSD symptom course for other mothers. These findings provide longitudinal support for the link between vicarious racism exposure and PTSD symptoms and highlight one potential form of racism-related stress for parents of Black children.

Pathways to emotion regulation in young Black children: An attachment perspective

Attachment theory proposes that a central function of caregivers is to provide protection and co-regulation of children's distress in the context of threat, and that children's secure attachment (confidence in a secure base/safe haven when needed) precipitates positive developmental cascades in part by supporting children's emotion regulation. Yet the field of attachment has rarely considered the unique experiences of African American families, including the context of systemic racism in which caregivers must provide physical and emotional protection for their children, and in which children must learn to regulate emotion across different sociocultural contexts (emotional flexibility and "code-switching"; Dunbar et al., 2022a; Lozada et al., 2022; Stern et al., 2022b). This chapter brings attachment theory into conversation with the field of positive Black youth development to explore pathways to emotion regulation in African American children during early childhood. In doing so, we (a) highlight the strengths of African American caregivers in providing unique and specific forms of protection via racial and emotional socialization; (b) review research on predictors and consequences of secure caregiver-child relationships in Black families, with a focus on the outcome of child emotion regulation; (c) present a theoretical framework for understanding cascades of positive Black youth development via healthy relationships and emotion regulation; and (d) outline promising new directions for more inclusive and just attachment research.

Neurodevelopmental mechanisms linking early experiences and mental health: Translating science to promote well-being among youth

Early experiences can have profound and lasting effects on mental health. Delineating neurodevelopmental pathways related to risk and resilience following adversity exposure is critical for promoting well-being and targeting interventions. A rapidly growing cross-species literature has facilitated advances in identifying neural and behavioral mechanisms linking early experiences with mental health, highlighting a central role of corticolimbic circuitry involved in learning and emotion regulation. Building upon knowledge of corticolimbic development related to stress and buffering factors, we describe the importance of the developmental timing and experiential elements of adversity in mental health outcomes. Finally, we discuss opportunities to translate knowledge of the developing brain and early experiences to optimize interventions for youth with psychopathology and to inform policy that promotes healthy development at the societal level. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

"They Just Keep Coming": A Study of How Anti-Black Racial Violence Informs Racial Grief and Resistance Among Black Mothers

Scholars have begun to address how exposure to vicarious racial violence influences stress and coping processes among Black families in the U.S. Yet, fewer scholars have considered the importance of racial grief as a component of the coping process. The current study drew upon semi-structured interview data from 31 Black mothers in the U.S. (25-52 years; M _age = 35 years) to explore how mothers processed and responded to vicarious anti-Black racial violence. We used consensual qualitative research methods and identified the following themes: (a) recognizing the endemic nature of racial violence, (b) feeling frozen in fear after a new case of racial violence, and (c) transforming grief into grievance as a route to racial justice. The findings contextualize Black mothers' concerns about the racial violence that they and their children might experience during their lifetime, and how they channel this grief into actionable change against racial injustice. Authors discuss strengths-based ways to frame the role of grief and loss in the context of racism.

A 21st Century Take on Racial-Ethnic Socialization: Patterns of Competency and Content among Diverse Parents of Color

Racial-ethnic socialization is a process where parents pass beliefs and behaviors to their children, including critical reflections on race and racism. Currently, it is not well known across racial/ethnic groups in the U.S how parents’ socialization competency (confidence, skills, and stress surrounding the delivery of racial-ethnic socialization) coalesces with the frequency with which they deliver different types of socialization messages (socialization content). The current study utilizes latent profile analysis to examine racial-ethnic socialization content and competency patterns among 203 Black, 194 Latinx, and 188 Asian American parents (n = 585, Mage = 44.46, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) with children 10–18 years old (Mage = 14.30, SD = 2.49, 50.3% female). Furthermore, we relate profiles to sociodemographic and relevant factors posited to impact socialization competency and content delivery, namely, discrimination and critical consciousness dimensions (reflection, motivation, action). We observed three parental profiles: Less Prepared Stressed Low Frequency (LPSLF; n = 285), Prepared Low Stress Frequent (PLSF; n = 204), and Prepared Stressed Frequent (PSF; n = 96) socializers. Profile differences emerged on parental and youth sociodemographic factors, lifetime discrimination exposure, and each parental critical consciousness dimension. This study lays a foundation for the combined study of racial-ethnic socialization competence and content in diverse groups, a practice crucial to understanding 21st century parenting.

“The Talk” Tells the Story: A Qualitative Investigation of Parents’ Racial Socialization Competency With Black Adolescents

Black youth overwhelmingly experience racial discrimination (RD). Racial socialization (RS), or racial communication between families, mitigates RD stress by expanding youth coping strategies. Although most Black parents currently discuss racial content with their children, less is known about this RS quality. The burgeoning construct of RS competency, or the skills, confidence, and stress of RS transmission, explores these emotion-focused approaches. Drawing on the racial encounter coping appraisal and socialization theory (RECAST), the current study seeks to depict RS competency through qualitative methods. Through deductive analysis, we examined in-depth interviews from nine parents of 10- to 14-year-olds enrolled in a RS intervention with familial conversations on RD in an urban mid-Atlantic city. Overall, findings support what has been found in quantitative studies of RS competency, particularly that subfactors are related yet unique, parent’s prior experiences impact current practices, and parental concerns for children drive practices and competency. This study also unearthed findings of processes occurring in light of a contentious context for Black adolescents. To our knowledge, this is the first study to qualitatively investigate these emotional and cognitive processes inherent in RS competency, which has future implications for family interventions to disrupt the psychological impact racism exacts on Black adolescents and families.

Future Directions for Vaccinating Children against the American Endemic: Treating Racism as a Virus

For Black American youth and their families, the racial terror that claimed the life of George Floyd in May 2020 is nothing new, as stories of people who look just like them have been part and parcel of their lived experience in the United States. Beyond state-sanctioned murder, Black youth were also witnessing the disproportionate transmission, treatment, and travesty plaguing their community with COVID-19 - all predictable outcomes given the inequitable systems supporting the American pipeline from cradle to grave. Why, then, were so many White Americans just coming into awareness of this deadly disease of individual and systemic racism that has ravaged Black American communities for centuries? In this work, we seek to explain in what ways racism is tantamount to a social virus and how its permeation is endemic to the American body, rather than an emerging threat, like a pandemic. We will also address how better conceptualizing racism as a virus allows for more accurate, precise, and feasible treatments for transmitters and targets of racism with respect to prevention (e.g., inoculation) and intervention (e.g., healing and vaccination). Finally, we will describe clinical therapeutic trials that will help to decipher whether our treatment of this social disease is effective, including family-level interventions and systemic shifts in prevention through clinical training.

Impact of Racial Discrimination on the Mental Health of Minoritized Youth

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The impacts of racism and discrimination on developing minoritized youth are increasingly shown as having the potential to create long-lasting adverse outcomes on children's developmental trajectories.

RECENT FINDINGS

From the quality of the schools they attend, to the level and amount of toxicants in the air they breathe, to equitable access to health care, and within interpersonal relationships and experiences with their peers, multiple forms of racism, systemic/structural, interpersonal/personally mediated, and internalized shape the health status of Black, Indigenous, and people of color (BIPoC) youth. Accordingly, it is exceedingly important to use a developmental lens to distinguish the various outcomes these multiple forms of racism have on the health of minoritized youth. Critically, the time is now for rapid identification of these harms in all of the mediums and spaces in which they present followed by prevention and intervention strategies that are effective in equitably ensuring the healthy development for all of America's children.

Not the Same Old Song and Dance: Viewing Racial Socialization Through a Family Systems Lens to Resist Racial Trauma

Racial socialization has been a mainstay within the psychological literature for the past four decades, touted primarily as a protective factor buffering the negative effects of racism. How effective this factor is in preventing behavioral and emotional trauma and promoting resilience for Black and Brown families remains to be studied. While the literature has focused on family communication between parent and child, little attention has been paid to familial dynamics inherent within racial socialization processes. This paper seeks to advance the conversation of racial socialization as The Talk toward one that holds more promise toward the goal of resilience in the face of systemic racism. To do so, we offer a reframe of The Dance, drawing upon key aspects from the family- and multisystem-focused literatures (e.g., synergy, homeostasis, feedback, metacommunication) to expand and justify the utility, complexity, and efficacy of racial socialization among Black and Brown families as a resilient response to historical and contemporary systemic racism in American society. We include methodological and applied recommendations to promote resilience, resistance, and ultimately healing in the face of racial adversity and trauma.