1
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Baba M, Nozaki M, Tachibana M, Tsuboi T, Torii M, Ishino T. Rhoptry neck protein 4 plays important roles during Plasmodium sporozoite infection of the mammalian liver. mSphere 2023; 8:e0058722. [PMID: 37272704 PMCID: PMC10449513 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00587-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023] Open
Abstract
During invasion, Plasmodium parasites secrete proteins from rhoptry and microneme apical end organelles, which have crucial roles in attaching to and invading target cells. A sporozoite stage-specific gene silencing system revealed that rhoptry neck protein 2 (RON2), RON4, and RON5 are important for sporozoite invasion of mosquito salivary glands. Here, we further investigated the roles of RON4 during sporozoite infection of the liver in vivo. Following intravenous inoculation of RON4-knockdown sporozoites into mice, we demonstrated that sporozoite RON4 has multiple functions during sporozoite traversal of sinusoidal cells and infection of hepatocytes. In vitro infection experiments using a hepatoma cell line revealed that secreted RON4 is involved in sporozoite adhesion to hepatocytes and has an important role in the early steps of hepatocyte infection. In addition, in vitro motility assays indicated that RON4 is required for sporozoite attachment to the substrate and the onset of migration. These findings indicate that RON4 is crucial for sporozoite migration toward and invasion of hepatocytes via attachment ability and motility.IMPORTANCEMalarial parasite transmission to mammals is established when sporozoites are inoculated by mosquitoes and migrate through the bloodstream to infect hepatocytes. Many aspects of the molecular mechanisms underpinning migration and cellular invasion remain largely unelucidated. By applying a sporozoite stage-specific gene silencing system in the rodent malarial parasite, Plasmodium berghei, we demonstrated that rhoptry neck protein 4 (RON4) is crucial for sporozoite infection of the liver in vivo. Combined with in vitro investigations, it was revealed that RON4 functions during a crossing of the sinusoidal cell layer and invading hepatocytes, at an early stage of liver infection, by mediating the sporozoite capacity for adhesion and the onset of motility. Since RON4 is also expressed in Plasmodium merozoites and Toxoplasma tachyzoites, our findings contribute to understanding the conserved invasion mechanisms of Apicomplexa parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minami Baba
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
- Department of Protozoology, Institute of Tropical Medicine (NEKKEN), Nagasaki University, Sakamoto, Nagasaki, Japan
| | - Mamoru Nozaki
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Mayumi Tachibana
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Ehime, Japan
| | - Motomi Torii
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ishino
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Ehime, Japan
- Department of Parasitology and Tropical Medicine, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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2
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Schepis A, Kumar S, Kappe SHI. Malaria parasites harness Rho GTPase signaling and host cell membrane ruffling for productive invasion of hepatocytes. Cell Rep 2023; 42:111927. [PMID: 36640315 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Revised: 09/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites are the motile forms of the malaria parasites that infect hepatocytes. The initial invasion of hepatocytes is thought to be actively driven by sporozoites, but host cell processes might also play a role. Sporozoite invasion triggers a host plasma membrane invagination that forms a vacuole around the intracellular parasite, which is critical for subsequent intracellular parasite replication. Using fast live confocal microscopy, we observed that the initial interactions between sporozoites and hepatocytes induce plasma membrane ruffles and filopodia extensions. Importantly, we find that these host cell processes facilitate invasion and that Rho GTPase signaling, which regulates membrane ruffling and filopodia extension, is critical for productive infection. Interestingly, sporozoite cell traversal stimulates these processes, suggesting that it increases hepatocyte susceptibility to productive infection. Our study identifies host cell signaling events involved in plasma membrane dynamics as a critical host component of successful malaria parasite infection of hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonino Schepis
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Sudhir Kumar
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue North, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.
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3
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Fernandes P, Loubens M, Marinach C, Coppée R, Baron L, Grand M, Andre TP, Hamada S, Langlois AC, Briquet S, Bun P, Silvie O. Plasmodium sporozoites require the protein B9 to invade hepatocytes. iScience 2023; 26:106056. [PMID: 36761022 PMCID: PMC9906020 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.106056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites are transmitted to a mammalian host during blood feeding by an infected mosquito and invade hepatocytes for initial replication of the parasite into thousands of erythrocyte-invasive merozoites. Here we report that the B9 protein, a member of the 6-cysteine domain protein family, is secreted from sporozoite micronemes and is required for productive invasion of hepatocytes. The N-terminus of B9 forms a beta-propeller domain structurally related to CyRPA, a cysteine-rich protein forming an essential invasion complex in Plasmodium falciparum merozoites. The beta-propeller domain of B9 is essential for sporozoite infectivity and interacts with the 6-cysteine proteins P36 and P52 in a heterologous expression system. Our results suggest that, despite using distinct sets of parasite and host entry factors, Plasmodium sporozoites and merozoites may share common structural modules to assemble protein complexes for invasion of host cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priyanka Fernandes
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Manon Loubens
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Carine Marinach
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Romain Coppée
- Université de Paris, UMR 261 MERIT, IRD, 75006 Paris, France
| | - Ludivine Baron
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Morgane Grand
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Thanh-Phuc Andre
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Soumia Hamada
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, UMS PASS, Plateforme Post-génomique de la Pitié Salpêtrière (P3S), 75013 Paris, France
| | - Anne-Claire Langlois
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Briquet
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Bun
- INSERM U1266, NeurImag Facility, Institute of Psychiatry and Neurosciences of Paris, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
- Corresponding author
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4
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Samayoa-Reyes G, Flaherty SM, Wickham KS, Viera-Morilla S, Strauch PM, Roth A, Padrón L, Jackson CM, Meireles P, Calvo D, Roobsoong W, Kangwanrangsan N, Sattabongkot J, Reichard G, Lafuente-Monasterio MJ, Rochford R. Development of an ectopic huLiver model for Plasmodium liver stage infection. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0279144. [PMID: 36928885 PMCID: PMC10019673 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0279144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Early Plasmodium falciparum and P. vivax infection requires parasite replication within host hepatocytes, referred to as liver stage (LS). However, limited understanding of infection dynamics in human LS exists due to species-specificity challenges. Reported here is a reproducible, easy-to-manipulate, and moderate-cost in vivo model to study human Plasmodium LS in mice; the ectopic huLiver model. Ectopic huLiver tumors were generated through subcutaneous injection of the HC-04 cell line and shown to be infectible by both freshly dissected sporozoites and through the bite of infected mosquitoes. Evidence for complete LS development was supported by the transition to blood-stage infection in mice engrafted with human erythrocytes. Additionally, this model was successfully evaluated for its utility in testing antimalarial therapeutics, as supported by primaquine acting as a causal prophylactic against P. falciparum. Presented here is a new platform for the study of human Plasmodium infection with the potential to aid in drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela Samayoa-Reyes
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Siobhan M. Flaherty
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Kristina S. Wickham
- Department of Drug Discovery, Experimental Therapeutics Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sara Viera-Morilla
- Diseases of the Developing World, Infectious Diseases-Centre for Excellence in Drug Discovery (ID CEDD), GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Pamela M. Strauch
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Alison Roth
- Department of Drug Discovery, Experimental Therapeutics Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Laura Padrón
- Diseases of the Developing World, Infectious Diseases-Centre for Excellence in Drug Discovery (ID CEDD), GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Conner M. Jackson
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Patricia Meireles
- Diseases of the Developing World, Infectious Diseases-Centre for Excellence in Drug Discovery (ID CEDD), GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Calvo
- Diseases of the Developing World, Infectious Diseases-Centre for Excellence in Drug Discovery (ID CEDD), GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Wanlapa Roobsoong
- Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Niwat Kangwanrangsan
- Faculty of Science, Pathobiology Department, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jetsumon Sattabongkot
- Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Gregory Reichard
- Department of Drug Discovery, Experimental Therapeutics Branch, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Maria José Lafuente-Monasterio
- Diseases of the Developing World, Infectious Diseases-Centre for Excellence in Drug Discovery (ID CEDD), GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosemary Rochford
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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5
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Overexpression of hepatocyte EphA2 enhances liver-stage infection by Plasmodium vivax. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21542. [PMID: 36513700 PMCID: PMC9746569 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25281-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The liver is the first destination of malaria parasites in humans. After reaching the liver by the blood stream, Plasmodium sporozoites cross the liver sinusoid epithelium, enter and exit several hepatocytes, and eventually invade a final hepatocyte host cell. At present, the mechanism of hepatocyte invasion is only partially understood, presenting a key research gap with opportunities for the development of new therapeutics. Recently, human EphA2, a membrane-bound receptor tyrosine kinase, was implicated in hepatocyte infection by the human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the rodent parasite Plasmodium yoelii, but its role is not known for Plasmodium vivax, a major human parasite whose liver infection poses a specific challenge for malaria treatment and elimination. In this study, the role of EphA2 in P. vivax infection was investigated. It was found that surface expression of several recombinant fragments of EphA2 enhanced the parasite infection rate, thus establishing its role in P. vivax infection. Furthermore, a new permanent cell line (EphA2Extra-HC04) expressing the whole extracellular domain of EphA2 was generated. This cell line supports a higher rate of P. vivax infection and is a valuable tool for P. vivax liver-stage research.
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6
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Cova MM, Lamarque MH, Lebrun M. How Apicomplexa Parasites Secrete and Build Their Invasion Machinery. Annu Rev Microbiol 2022; 76:619-640. [PMID: 35671531 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-micro-041320-021425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Apicomplexa are obligatory intracellular parasites that sense and actively invade host cells. Invasion is a conserved process that relies on the timely and spatially controlled exocytosis of unique specialized secretory organelles termed micronemes and rhoptries. Microneme exocytosis starts first and likely controls the intricate mechanism of rhoptry secretion. To assemble the invasion machinery, micronemal proteins-associated with the surface of the parasite-interact and form complexes with rhoptry proteins, which in turn are targeted into the host cell. This review covers the molecular advances regarding microneme and rhoptry exocytosis and focuses on how the proteins discharged from these two compartments work in synergy to drive a successful invasion event. Particular emphasis is given to the structure and molecular components of the rhoptry secretion apparatus, and to the current conceptual framework of rhoptry exocytosis that may constitute an unconventional eukaryotic secretory machinery closely related to the one described in ciliates. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Microbiology, Volume 76 is September 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Mendonça Cova
- Laboratory of Pathogen Host Interactions (LPHI), CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France;
| | - Mauld H Lamarque
- Laboratory of Pathogen Host Interactions (LPHI), CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France;
| | - Maryse Lebrun
- Laboratory of Pathogen Host Interactions (LPHI), CNRS, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France;
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7
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Amanzougaghene N, Tajeri S, Yalaoui S, Lorthiois A, Soulard V, Gego A, Rametti A, Risco-Castillo V, Moreno A, Tefit M, van Gemert GJ, Sauerwein RW, Vaillant JC, Ravassard P, Pérignon JL, Froissard P, Mazier D, Franetich JF. The Host Protein Aquaporin-9 is Required for Efficient Plasmodium falciparum Sporozoite Entry into Human Hepatocytes. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:704662. [PMID: 34268141 PMCID: PMC8276244 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.704662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatocyte invasion by Plasmodium sporozoites represents a promising target for innovative antimalarial therapy, but the molecular events mediating this process are still largely uncharacterized. We previously showed that Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite entry into hepatocytes strictly requires CD81. However, CD81-overexpressing human hepatoma cells remain refractory to P. falciparum infection, suggesting the existence of additional host factors necessary for sporozoite entry. Here, through differential transcriptomic analysis of human hepatocytes and hepatoma HepG2-CD81 cells, the transmembrane protein Aquaporin-9 (AQP9) was found to be among the most downregulated genes in hepatoma cells. RNA silencing showed that sporozoite invasion of hepatocytes requires AQP9 expression. AQP9 overexpression in hepatocytes increased their permissiveness to P. falciparum. Moreover, chemical disruption with the AQP9 inhibitor phloretin markedly inhibited hepatocyte infection. Our findings identify AQP9 as a novel host factor required for P. falciparum sporozoite hepatocyte-entry and indicate that AQP9 could be a potential therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Amanzougaghene
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Shahin Tajeri
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Samir Yalaoui
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, UMR S945, Paris, France.,INSERM, U945, Paris, France
| | - Audrey Lorthiois
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, UMR S945, Paris, France.,INSERM, U945, Paris, France
| | - Valérie Soulard
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Audrey Gego
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, UMR S945, Paris, France.,INSERM, U945, Paris, France
| | - Armelle Rametti
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, UMR S945, Paris, France.,INSERM, U945, Paris, France
| | | | - Alicia Moreno
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Maurel Tefit
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Geert-Jan van Gemert
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, MMB-NCMLS, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Robert W Sauerwein
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, MMB-NCMLS, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Jean-Christophe Vaillant
- AP-HP, Service de Chirurgie Digestive, Hépato-Bilio-Pancréatique et Transplantation Hépatique, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Ravassard
- CR-ICM - LGN CNRS UMR-7991, IFR des Neurosciences, Groupe Hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Pérignon
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, UMR S945, Paris, France.,INSERM, U945, Paris, France
| | - Patrick Froissard
- Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris 6, UMR S945, Paris, France.,INSERM, U945, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- Sorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, CIMI-Paris, Paris, France
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8
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Loubens M, Vincensini L, Fernandes P, Briquet S, Marinach C, Silvie O. Plasmodium sporozoites on the move: Switching from cell traversal to productive invasion of hepatocytes. Mol Microbiol 2021; 115:870-881. [PMID: 33191548 PMCID: PMC8247013 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Parasites of the genus Plasmodium, the etiological agent of malaria, are transmitted through the bite of anopheline mosquitoes, which deposit sporozoites into the host skin. Sporozoites migrate through the dermis, enter the bloodstream, and rapidly traffic to the liver. They cross the liver sinusoidal barrier and traverse several hepatocytes before switching to productive invasion of a final one for replication inside a parasitophorous vacuole. Cell traversal and productive invasion are functionally independent processes that require proteins secreted from specialized secretory organelles known as micronemes. In this review, we summarize the current understanding of how sporozoites traverse through cells and productively invade hepatocytes, and discuss the role of environmental sensing in switching from a migratory to an invasive state. We propose that timely controlled secretion of distinct microneme subsets could play a key role in successful migration and infection of hepatocytes. A better understanding of these essential biological features of the Plasmodium sporozoite may contribute to the development of new strategies to fight against the very first and asymptomatic stage of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manon Loubens
- Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies InfectieusesSorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, CIMI‐ParisParisFrance
| | - Laetitia Vincensini
- Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies InfectieusesSorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, CIMI‐ParisParisFrance
| | - Priyanka Fernandes
- Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies InfectieusesSorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, CIMI‐ParisParisFrance
| | - Sylvie Briquet
- Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies InfectieusesSorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, CIMI‐ParisParisFrance
| | - Carine Marinach
- Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies InfectieusesSorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, CIMI‐ParisParisFrance
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies InfectieusesSorbonne Université, INSERM, CNRS, CIMI‐ParisParisFrance
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9
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Arredondo SA, Schepis A, Reynolds L, Kappe SHI. Secretory Organelle Function in the Plasmodium Sporozoite. Trends Parasitol 2021; 37:651-663. [PMID: 33589364 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites exhibit a complex infection biology in the mosquito and mammalian hosts. The sporozoite apical secretory organelles, the micronemes and rhoptries, store protein mediators of parasite/host/vector interactions and must secrete them in a temporally and spatially well orchestrated manner. Micronemal proteins are critical for sporozoite motility throughout its journey from the mosquito midgut oocyst to the mammalian liver, and also for cell traversal (CT) and hepatocyte invasion. Rhoptry proteins, until recently thought to be only important for hepatocyte invasion, appear to also play an unexpected role in motility and in the interaction with mosquito tissue. Therefore, navigating the different microenvironments with secretion likely requires the sporozoite to have a more complex system of secretory organelles than previously appreciated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia A Arredondo
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Antonino Schepis
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Laura Reynolds
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105, USA.
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10
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Mello-Vieira J, Enguita FJ, de Koning-Ward TF, Zuzarte-Luís V, Mota MM. Plasmodium translocon component EXP2 facilitates hepatocyte invasion. Nat Commun 2020; 11:5654. [PMID: 33159090 PMCID: PMC7648069 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-19492-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium parasites possess a translocon that exports parasite proteins into the infected erythrocyte. Although the translocon components are also expressed during the mosquito and liver stage of infection, their function remains unexplored. Here, using a combination of genetic and chemical assays, we show that the translocon component Exported Protein 2 (EXP2) is critical for invasion of hepatocytes. EXP2 is a pore-forming protein that is secreted from the sporozoite upon contact with the host cell milieu. EXP2-deficient sporozoites are impaired in invasion, which can be rescued by the exogenous administration of recombinant EXP2 and alpha-hemolysin (an S. aureus pore-forming protein), as well as by acid sphingomyelinase. The latter, together with the negative impact of chemical and genetic inhibition of acid sphingomyelinase on invasion, reveals that EXP2 pore-forming activity induces hepatocyte membrane repair, which plays a key role in parasite invasion. Overall, our findings establish a novel and critical function for EXP2 that leads to an active participation of the host cell in Plasmodium sporozoite invasion, challenging the current view of the establishment of liver stage infection. While the role of Plasmodium EXP2 protein as translocon component of blood stage parasites is established, its functional role in liver stage parasites remains unclear. Here, Mello-Vieira et al. reveal that EXP2 pore-forming activity induces hepatocyte membrane repair and hence is critical for hepatocyte invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Mello-Vieira
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Francisco J Enguita
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal
| | | | - Vanessa Zuzarte-Luís
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Maria M Mota
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal.
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11
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Bindschedler A, Wacker R, Egli J, Eickel N, Schmuckli-Maurer J, Franke-Fayard BM, Janse CJ, Heussler VT. Plasmodium berghei sporozoites in nonreplicative vacuole are eliminated by a PI3P-mediated autophagy-independent pathway. Cell Microbiol 2020; 23:e13271. [PMID: 32979009 PMCID: PMC7757174 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The protozoan parasite Plasmodium, causative agent of malaria, invades hepatocytes by invaginating the host cell plasma membrane and forming a parasitophorous vacuole membrane (PVM). Surrounded by this PVM, the parasite undergoes extensive replication. Parasites inside a PVM provoke the Plasmodium‐associated autophagy‐related (PAAR) response. This is characterised by a long‐lasting association of the autophagy marker protein LC3 with the PVM, which is not preceded by phosphatidylinositol 3‐phosphate (PI3P)‐labelling. Prior to productive invasion, sporozoites transmigrate several cells and here we describe that a proportion of traversing sporozoites become trapped in a transient traversal vacuole, provoking a host cell response that clearly differs from the PAAR response. These trapped sporozoites provoke PI3P‐labelling of the surrounding vacuolar membrane immediately after cell entry, followed by transient LC3‐labelling and elimination of the parasite by lysosomal acidification. Our data suggest that this PI3P response is not only restricted to sporozoites trapped during transmigration but also affects invaded parasites residing in a compromised vacuole. Thus, host cells can employ a pathway distinct from the previously described PAAR response to efficiently recognise and eliminate Plasmodium parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annina Bindschedler
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Rahel Wacker
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jessica Egli
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Nina Eickel
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.,Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Blandine M Franke-Fayard
- Leiden malaria group, Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Chris J Janse
- Leiden malaria group, Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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12
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Detection of the Rhoptry Neck Protein Complex in Plasmodium Sporozoites and Its Contribution to Sporozoite Invasion of Salivary Glands. mSphere 2020; 5:5/4/e00325-20. [PMID: 32817376 PMCID: PMC7440843 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00325-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporozoites are the motile infectious stage that mediates malaria parasite transmission from mosquitoes to the mammalian host. This study addresses the question whether the rhoptry neck protein complex forms and functions in sporozoites, in addition to its role in merozoites. By applying coimmunoprecipitation and sporozoite stage-specific gene knockdown assays, it was demonstrated that RON2, RON4, and RON5 form a complex and are involved in sporozoite invasion of salivary glands via their attachment ability. These findings shed light on the conserved invasion mechanisms among apicomplexan infective stages. In addition, the sporozoite stage-specific gene knockdown system has revealed for the first time in Plasmodium that the RON2 and RON4 interaction reciprocally affects their stability and trafficking to rhoptries. Our study raises the possibility that the RON complex functions during sporozoite maturation as well as migration toward and invasion of target cells. In the Plasmodium life cycle, two infectious stages of parasites, merozoites and sporozoites, share rhoptry and microneme apical structures. A crucial step during merozoite invasion of erythrocytes is the discharge to the host cell membrane of some rhoptry neck proteins as a complex, followed by the formation of a moving junction involving the parasite-secreted protein AMA1 on the parasite membrane. Components of the merozoite rhoptry neck protein complex are also expressed in sporozoites, namely, RON2, RON4, and RON5, suggesting that invasion mechanism elements might be conserved between these infective stages. Recently, we demonstrated that RON2 is required for sporozoite invasion of mosquito salivary gland cells and mammalian hepatocytes, using a sporozoite stage-specific gene knockdown strategy in the rodent malaria parasite model, Plasmodium berghei. Here, we use a coimmunoprecipitation assay and oocyst-derived sporozoite extracts to demonstrate that RON2, RON4, and RON5 also form a complex in sporozoites. The sporozoite stage-specific gene knockdown strategy revealed that both RON4 and RON5 have crucial roles during sporozoite invasion of salivary glands, including a significantly reduced attachment ability required for the onset of gliding. Further analyses indicated that RON2 and RON4 reciprocally affect trafficking to rhoptries in developing sporozoites, while RON5 is independently transported. These findings indicate that the interaction between RON2 and RON4 contributes to their stability and trafficking to rhoptries, in addition to involvement in sporozoite attachment. IMPORTANCE Sporozoites are the motile infectious stage that mediates malaria parasite transmission from mosquitoes to the mammalian host. This study addresses the question whether the rhoptry neck protein complex forms and functions in sporozoites, in addition to its role in merozoites. By applying coimmunoprecipitation and sporozoite stage-specific gene knockdown assays, it was demonstrated that RON2, RON4, and RON5 form a complex and are involved in sporozoite invasion of salivary glands via their attachment ability. These findings shed light on the conserved invasion mechanisms among apicomplexan infective stages. In addition, the sporozoite stage-specific gene knockdown system has revealed for the first time in Plasmodium that the RON2 and RON4 interaction reciprocally affects their stability and trafficking to rhoptries. Our study raises the possibility that the RON complex functions during sporozoite maturation as well as migration toward and invasion of target cells.
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13
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Vijayan K, Cestari I, Mast FD, Glennon EKK, McDermott SM, Kain HS, Brokaw AM, Aitchison JD, Stuart K, Kaushansky A. Plasmodium Secretion Induces Hepatocyte Lysosome Exocytosis and Promotes Parasite Entry. iScience 2019; 21:603-611. [PMID: 31731198 PMCID: PMC6889558 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The invasion of a suitable host hepatocyte by Plasmodium sporozoites is an essential step in malaria infection. We demonstrate that in infected hepatocytes, lysosomes are redistributed away from the nucleus, and surface exposure of lysosome-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP1) is increased. Lysosome exocytosis in infected cells occurs independently of sporozoite traversal. Instead, a sporozoite-secreted factor is sufficient for the process. Knockdown of SNARE proteins involved in lysosome-plasma membrane fusion reduces lysosome exocytosis and Plasmodium infection. In contrast, promoting fusion between the lysosome and plasma membrane dramatically increases infection. Our work demonstrates parallels between Plasmodium sporozoite entry of hepatocytes and infection by the excavate pathogen Trypanosoma cruzi and raises the question of whether convergent evolution has shaped host cell invasion by divergent pathogens. Plasmodium sporozoites induce host lysosome exocytosis during invasion Hepatocyte lysosome exocytosis occurs in a SPECT2-independent manner Inhibition of lysosome-plasma membrane fusion inhibits sporozoite invasion Secreted parasite factors are sufficient to induce lysosome exocytosis
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamalakannan Vijayan
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Igor Cestari
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Ste Anne de Bellevue, QC H9X 3V9, Canada
| | - Fred D Mast
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Systems Biology, 401 Terry Avenue, N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Elizabeth K K Glennon
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Suzanne M McDermott
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Heather S Kain
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Alyssa M Brokaw
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Harris Hydraulics Laboratory Box 357965, Seattle, WA 98195-7965, USA
| | - John D Aitchison
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Institute for Systems Biology, 401 Terry Avenue, N, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Kenneth Stuart
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Harris Hydraulics Laboratory Box 357965, Seattle, WA 98195-7965, USA
| | - Alexis Kaushansky
- Center for Global Infectious Disease Research, Seattle Children's Research Institute, 307 Westlake Avenue, N. Suite 500, Seattle, WA 98109, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Harris Hydraulics Laboratory Box 357965, Seattle, WA 98195-7965, USA.
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14
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Tokunaga N, Nozaki M, Tachibana M, Baba M, Matsuoka K, Tsuboi T, Torii M, Ishino T. Expression and Localization Profiles of Rhoptry Proteins in Plasmodium berghei Sporozoites. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2019; 9:316. [PMID: 31552198 PMCID: PMC6746830 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In the Plasmodium lifecycle two infectious stages of parasites, merozoites, and sporozoites, efficiently infect mammalian host cells, erythrocytes, and hepatocytes, respectively. The apical structure of merozoites and sporozoites contains rhoptry and microneme secretory organelles, which are conserved with other infective forms of apicomplexan parasites. During merozoite invasion of erythrocytes, some rhoptry proteins are secreted to form a tight junction between the parasite and target cell, while others are discharged to maintain subsequent infection inside the parasitophorous vacuole. It has been questioned whether the invasion mechanisms mediated by rhoptry proteins are also involved in sporozoite invasion of two distinct target cells, mosquito salivary glands and mammalian hepatocytes. Recently we demonstrated that rhoptry neck protein 2 (RON2), which is crucial for tight junction formation in merozoites, is also important for sporozoite invasion of both target cells. With the aim of comprehensively describing the mechanisms of sporozoite invasion, the expression and localization profiles of rhoptry proteins were investigated in Plasmodium berghei sporozoites. Of 12 genes representing merozoite rhoptry molecules, nine are transcribed in oocyst-derived sporozoites at a similar or higher level compared to those in blood-stage schizonts. Immuno-electron microscopy demonstrates that eight proteins, namely RON2, RON4, RON5, ASP/RON1, RALP1, RON3, RAP1, and RAMA, localize to rhoptries in sporozoites. It is noteworthy that most rhoptry neck proteins in merozoites are localized throughout rhoptries in sporozoites. This study demonstrates that most rhoptry proteins, except components of the high-molecular mass rhoptry protein complex, are commonly expressed in merozoites and sporozoites in Plasmodium spp., which suggests that components of the invasion mechanisms are basically conserved between infective forms independently of their target cells. Combined with sporozoite-stage specific gene silencing strategies, the contribution of rhoptry proteins in invasion mechanisms can be described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naohito Tokunaga
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Mamoru Nozaki
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Mayumi Tachibana
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Minami Baba
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Kazuhiro Matsuoka
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
| | - Motomi Torii
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ishino
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
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15
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Dundas K, Shears MJ, Sinnis P, Wright GJ. Important Extracellular Interactions between Plasmodium Sporozoites and Host Cells Required for Infection. Trends Parasitol 2018; 35:129-139. [PMID: 30583849 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2018.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 11/22/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is an infectious disease, caused by Plasmodium parasites, that remains a major global health problem. Infection begins when salivary gland sporozoites are transmitted through the bite of an infected mosquito. Once within the host, sporozoites navigate through the dermis, into the bloodstream, and eventually invade hepatocytes. While we have an increasingly sophisticated cellular description of this journey, our molecular understanding of the extracellular interactions between the sporozoite and mammalian host that regulate migration and invasion remain comparatively poor. Here, we review the current state of our understanding, highlight the technical limitations that have frustrated progress, and outline how new approaches will help to address this knowledge gap with the ultimate aim of improving malaria treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten Dundas
- Cell Surface Signalling Laboratory and Parasites and Microbes Programme, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Melanie J Shears
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Photini Sinnis
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Gavin J Wright
- Cell Surface Signalling Laboratory and Parasites and Microbes Programme, Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, UK.
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16
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Ishino T, Murata E, Tokunaga N, Baba M, Tachibana M, Thongkukiatkul A, Tsuboi T, Torii M. Rhoptry neck protein 2 expressed in Plasmodium sporozoites plays a crucial role during invasion of mosquito salivary glands. Cell Microbiol 2018; 21:e12964. [PMID: 30307699 PMCID: PMC6587811 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Malaria parasite transmission to humans is initiated by the inoculation of Plasmodium sporozoites into the skin by mosquitoes. Sporozoites develop within mosquito midgut oocysts, first invade the salivary glands of mosquitoes, and finally infect hepatocytes in mammals. The apical structure of sporozoites is conserved with the infective forms of other apicomplexan parasites that have secretory organelles, such as rhoptries and micronemes. Because some rhoptry proteins are crucial for Plasmodium merozoite infection of erythrocytes, we examined the roles of rhoptry proteins in sporozoites. Here, we demonstrate that rhoptry neck protein 2 (RON2) is also localized to rhoptries in sporozoites. To elucidate RON2 function in sporozoites, we applied a promoter swapping strategy to restrict ron2 transcription to the intraerythrocytic stage in the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei. Ron2 knockdown sporozoites were severely impaired in their ability to invade salivary glands, via decreasing the attachment capacity to the substrate. This is the first rhoptry protein demonstrated to be involved in salivary gland invasion. In addition, ron2 knockdown sporozoites showed less infectivity to hepatocytes, possibly due to decreased attachment/gliding ability, indicating that parts of the parasite invasion machinery are conserved, but their contribution might differ among infective forms. Our sporozoite stage‐specific knockdown system will help to facilitate understanding the comprehensive molecular mechanisms of parasite invasion of target cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Ishino
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Eri Murata
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan.,Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
| | - Naohito Tokunaga
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Minami Baba
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | - Mayumi Tachibana
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
| | | | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
| | - Motomi Torii
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon, Japan
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17
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Oda-Yokouchi Y, Tachibana M, Iriko H, Torii M, Ishino T, Tsuboi T. Plasmodium RON12 localizes to the rhoptry body in sporozoites. Parasitol Int 2018; 68:17-23. [PMID: 30290224 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2018] [Revised: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Invasion of host cells by apicomplexan parasites is mediated by proteins released from microneme, rhoptry, and dense granule secretory organelles located at the apical end of parasite invasive forms. Microneme secreted proteins establish interactions with host cell receptors and induce exocytosis of the rhoptry organelle. Rhoptry proteins are involved in target cell invasion as well as the formation of the parasitophorous vacuole in which parasites reside during development within the host cell. In Plasmodium merozoites, the rhoptry neck protein (RON) complex consists of RON2, RON4, and RON5, and interacts with apical membrane antigen 1 (AMA1) as a critical structure of the invasion moving junction. PfRON12 is known to localize to the rhoptry neck of merozoites, but its function remains obscure. The roles of RON proteins are largely unknown in sporozoites, the second invasive form of Plasmodium which possesses a conserved apical end secretory structure. Here, we confirm that RON12 is expressed in the rhoptry neck of merozoites in rodent malaria parasites, whereas in contrast we show that RON12 is localized to the rhoptry body in sporozoites. Phenotypic analysis of Plasmodium berghei ron12-disrupted mutants revealed that RON12 is dispensable for sporogony, invasion of mosquito salivary glands and mouse hepatocytes, and development in hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Oda-Yokouchi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan; Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | - Mayumi Tachibana
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Iriko
- Division of Global Infectious Diseases, Department of Public Health, Kobe University Graduate School of Health Sciences, 7-10-2 Tomogaoka, Suma-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 654-0142, Japan
| | - Motomi Torii
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon Ehime 791-0295, Japan
| | - Tomoko Ishino
- Division of Molecular Parasitology, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Toon Ehime 791-0295, Japan.
| | - Takafumi Tsuboi
- Division of Malaria Research, Proteo-Science Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Ehime 790-8577, Japan.
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18
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Pewkliang Y, Rungin S, Lerdpanyangam K, Duangmanee A, Kanjanasirirat P, Suthivanich P, Sa-Ngiamsuntorn K, Borwornpinyo S, Sattabongkot J, Patrapuvich R, Hongeng S. A novel immortalized hepatocyte-like cell line (imHC) supports in vitro liver stage development of the human malarial parasite Plasmodium vivax. Malar J 2018; 17:50. [PMID: 29370800 PMCID: PMC5785895 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-018-2198-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2017] [Accepted: 01/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Eradication of malaria is difficult because of the ability of hypnozoite, the dormant liver-stage form of Plasmodium vivax, to cause relapse in patients. Research efforts to better understand the biology of P. vivax hypnozoite and design relapse prevention strategies have been hampered by the lack of a robust and reliable model for in vitro culture of liver-stage parasites. Although the HC-04 hepatoma cell line is used for culturing liver-stage forms of Plasmodium, these cells proliferate unrestrictedly and detach from the culture dish after several days, which limits their usefulness in a long-term hypnozoite assay. Methods A novel immortalized hepatocyte-like cell line (imHC) was evaluated for the capability to support P. vivax sporozoite infection. First, expression of basic hepatocyte markers and all major malaria sporozoite-associated host receptors in imHC was investigated. Next, in vitro hepatocyte infectivity and intracellular development of sporozoites in imHC were determined using an indirect immunofluorescence assay. Cytochrome P450 isotype activity was also measured to determine the ability of imHC to metabolize drugs. Finally, the anti-liver-stage agent primaquine was used to test this model for a drug sensitivity assay. Results imHCs maintained major hepatic functions and expressed the essential factors CD81, SR-BI and EphA2, which are required for host entry and development of the parasite in the liver. imHCs could be maintained long-term in a monolayer without overgrowth and thus served as a good, supportive substrate for the invasion and growth of P. vivax liver stages, including hypnozoites. The observed high drug metabolism activity and potent responses in liver-stage parasites to primaquine highlight the potential use of this imHC model for antimalarial drug screening. Conclusions imHCs, which maintain a hepatocyte phenotype and drug-metabolizing enzyme expression, constitute an alternative host for in vitro Plasmodium liver-stage studies, particularly those addressing the biology of P. vivax hypnozoite. They potentially offer a novel, robust model for screening drugs against liver-stage parasites. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12936-018-2198-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongyut Pewkliang
- Excellent Center for Drug Discovery (ECDD), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Siriwan Rungin
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Siriraj Initiative in System Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Kaewta Lerdpanyangam
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Apisak Duangmanee
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Phongthon Kanjanasirirat
- Excellent Center for Drug Discovery (ECDD), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Phichaya Suthivanich
- Excellent Center for Drug Discovery (ECDD), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Suparerk Borwornpinyo
- Excellent Center for Drug Discovery (ECDD), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.,Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jetsumon Sattabongkot
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Rapatbhorn Patrapuvich
- Mahidol Vivax Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. .,Center for Emerging and Neglected Infectious Diseases, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. .,Drug Research Unit for Malaria, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
| | - Suradej Hongeng
- Excellent Center for Drug Discovery (ECDD), Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand. .,Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine Ramathibodi Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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19
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Vaughan AM, Kappe SHI. Malaria Parasite Liver Infection and Exoerythrocytic Biology. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2017; 7:cshperspect.a025486. [PMID: 28242785 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In their infection cycle, malaria parasites undergo replication and population expansions within the vertebrate host and the mosquito vector. Host infection initiates with sporozoite invasion of hepatocytes, followed by a dramatic parasite amplification event during liver stage parasite growth and replication within hepatocytes. Each liver stage forms up to 90,000 exoerythrocytic merozoites, which are in turn capable of initiating a blood stage infection. Liver stages not only exploit host hepatocyte resources for nutritional needs but also endeavor to prevent hepatocyte cell death and detection by the host's immune system. Research over the past decade has identified numerous parasite factors that play a critical role during liver infection and has started to delineate a complex web of parasite-host interactions that sustain successful parasite colonization of the mammalian host. Targeting the parasites' obligatory infection of the liver as a gateway to the blood, with drugs and vaccines, constitutes the most effective strategy for malaria eradication, as it would prevent clinical disease and onward transmission of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley M Vaughan
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109
| | - Stefan H I Kappe
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, formerly Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, Washington 98109.,Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
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20
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Yang ASP, Lopaticki S, O'Neill MT, Erickson SM, Douglas DN, Kneteman NM, Boddey JA. AMA1 and MAEBL are important for Plasmodium falciparum sporozoite infection of the liver. Cell Microbiol 2017; 19. [PMID: 28371168 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The malaria sporozoite injected by a mosquito migrates to the liver by traversing host cells. The sporozoite also traverses hepatocytes before invading a terminal hepatocyte and developing into exoerythrocytic forms. Hepatocyte infection is critical for parasite development into merozoites that infect erythrocytes, and the sporozoite is thus an important target for antimalarial intervention. Here, we investigated two abundant sporozoite proteins of the most virulent malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum and show that they play important roles during cell traversal and invasion of human hepatocytes. Incubation of P. falciparum sporozoites with R1 peptide, an inhibitor of apical merozoite antigen 1 (AMA1) that blocks merozoite invasion of erythrocytes, strongly reduced cell traversal activity. Consistent with its inhibitory effect on merozoites, R1 peptide also reduced sporozoite entry into human hepatocytes. The strong but incomplete inhibition prompted us to study the AMA-like protein, merozoite apical erythrocyte-binding ligand (MAEBL). MAEBL-deficient P. falciparum sporozoites were severely attenuated for cell traversal activity and hepatocyte entry in vitro and for liver infection in humanized chimeric liver mice. This study shows that AMA1 and MAEBL are important for P. falciparum sporozoites to perform typical functions necessary for infection of human hepatocytes. These two proteins therefore have important roles during infection at distinct points in the life cycle, including the blood, mosquito, and liver stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie S P Yang
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sash Lopaticki
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Matthew T O'Neill
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sara M Erickson
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Donna N Douglas
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Norman M Kneteman
- Department of Surgery, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Justin A Boddey
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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21
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Manzoni G, Marinach C, Topçu S, Briquet S, Grand M, Tolle M, Gransagne M, Lescar J, Andolina C, Franetich JF, Zeisel MB, Huby T, Rubinstein E, Snounou G, Mazier D, Nosten F, Baumert TF, Silvie O. Plasmodium P36 determines host cell receptor usage during sporozoite invasion. eLife 2017; 6:e25903. [PMID: 28506360 PMCID: PMC5470872 DOI: 10.7554/elife.25903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites, the mosquito-transmitted forms of the malaria parasite, first infect the liver for an initial round of replication before the emergence of pathogenic blood stages. Sporozoites represent attractive targets for antimalarial preventive strategies, yet the mechanisms of parasite entry into hepatocytes remain poorly understood. Here we show that the two main species causing malaria in humans, Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax, rely on two distinct host cell surface proteins, CD81 and the Scavenger Receptor BI (SR-BI), respectively, to infect hepatocytes. By contrast, CD81 and SR-BI fulfil redundant functions during infection by the rodent parasite P. berghei. Genetic analysis of sporozoite factors reveals the 6-cysteine domain protein P36 as a major parasite determinant of host cell receptor usage. Our data provide molecular insights into the invasion pathways used by different malaria parasites to infect hepatocytes, and establish a functional link between a sporozoite putative ligand and host cell receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Manzoni
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Carine Marinach
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Selma Topçu
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Sylvie Briquet
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Morgane Grand
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Matthieu Tolle
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Marion Gransagne
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Julien Lescar
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Chiara Andolina
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Mae Sot, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Mirjam B Zeisel
- INSERM, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Thierry Huby
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition, UMR_S 1166, Paris, France
| | - Eric Rubinstein
- INSERM, U935, Villejuif, France
- Université Paris Sud, Institut André Lwoff, Villejuif, France
| | - Georges Snounou
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Mazier
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
- Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - François Nosten
- Shoklo Malaria Research Unit, Mahidol-Oxford Tropical Medicine Research Unit, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Mae Sot, Thailand
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas F Baumert
- INSERM, U1110, Institut de Recherche sur les Maladies Virales et Hépatiques, Strasbourg, France
- Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
- Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire, Pôle Hépato-digestif, Hopitaux Universitaires de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, CNRS, Centre d’Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses, U1135, ERL8255, Paris, France
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22
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Miyado K, Kang W, Yamatoya K, Hanai M, Nakamura A, Mori T, Miyado M, Kawano N. Exosomes versus microexosomes: Shared components but distinct functions. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2017; 130:479-483. [PMID: 28160150 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-017-0907-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
In multicellular organisms, cellular components are constantly translocated within cells and are also transported exclusively between limited cells, regardless of their physical distance. Exosomes function as one of the key mediators of intercellular transportation. External vesicles were identified 50 years ago in plants and now reconsidered to be exosome-like vesicles. Meanwhile, a well-known exosomal component, tetraspanin CD9, regulates sperm-egg fusion in mammals. A number of Arabidopsis tetraspanins are also expressed in reproductive tissues at fertilization, and are localized at the plasma membrane of protoplasts. Moreover, CD9-containing structures (or 'microexosomes') are released from mouse eggs during their maturation and promote the sperm-egg fusion. This phenomenon implies that two types of shared-component intercellular carriers might be released from multiple types of plant and animal cells, which widely regulate biological phenomena. We herein highlight their discrete structures, formation processes, and functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Miyado
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan.
| | - Woojin Kang
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan
- Department of Perinatal Medicine and Maternal Care, National Center for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan
| | - Kenji Yamatoya
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Tokyo University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda, Chiba, 278-8510, Japan
| | - Maito Hanai
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 214-8571, Japan
| | - Akihiro Nakamura
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 214-8571, Japan
| | - Toshiyuki Mori
- Department of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Juntendo University, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8421, Japan
| | - Mami Miyado
- Department of Molecular Endocrinology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan
| | - Natsuko Kawano
- Department of Reproductive Biology, National Research Institute for Child Health and Development, 2-10-1 Okura, Setagaya, Tokyo, 157-8535, Japan.
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Agriculture, Meiji University, Kawasaki, Kanagawa, 214-8571, Japan.
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23
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Frischknecht F, Matuschewski K. Plasmodium Sporozoite Biology. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2017; 7:cshperspect.a025478. [PMID: 28108531 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a025478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoite transmission is a critical population bottleneck in parasite life-cycle progression and, hence, a target for prophylactic drugs and vaccines. The recent progress of a candidate antisporozoite subunit vaccine formulation to licensure highlights the importance of sporozoite transmission intervention in the malaria control portfolio. Sporozoites colonize mosquito salivary glands, migrate through the skin, penetrate blood vessels, breach the liver sinusoid, and invade hepatocytes. Understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms that mediate the remarkable sporozoite journey in the invertebrate vector and the vertebrate host can inform evidence-based next-generation drug development programs and immune intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friedrich Frischknecht
- Integrative Parasitology, Center for Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University Berlin, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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24
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Yang ASP, Boddey JA. Molecular mechanisms of host cell traversal by malaria sporozoites. Int J Parasitol 2016; 47:129-136. [PMID: 27825827 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a pernicious infectious disease caused by apicomplexan parasites of the genus Plasmodium. Each year, malaria afflicts over 200million people, causing considerable morbidity, loss to gross domestic product of endemic countries, and more than 420,000 deaths. A central feature of the virulence of malaria parasites is the ability of sporozoite forms injected by a mosquito to navigate from the inoculation site in the skin through host tissues to infect the liver. The ability for sporozoites to traverse through different host cell types is very important for the successful development of parasites within the mammalian host. Over the past decade, our understanding of the role of host cell traversal has become clearer through important studies with rodent models of malaria. However, we still do not understand the stepwise process of host cell entry and exit or know the molecular mechanisms governing each step. We know even less about cell traversal by malaria parasite species that infect humans. Here, we review current knowledge regarding the role and molecular mechanisms of sporozoite cell traversal and highlight recent advances that prompt new ways of thinking about this important process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annie S P Yang
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia
| | - Justin A Boddey
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia.
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25
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Risco-Castillo V, Topçu S, Marinach C, Manzoni G, Bigorgne A, Briquet S, Baudin X, Lebrun M, Dubremetz JF, Silvie O. Malaria Sporozoites Traverse Host Cells within Transient Vacuoles. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 18:593-603. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 10/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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