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Amato S, Averna M, Farsetti E, Guidolin D, Pedrazzi M, Gatta E, Candiani S, Maura G, Agnati LF, Cervetto C, Marcoli M. Control of Dopamine Signal in High-Order Receptor Complex on Striatal Astrocytes. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8610. [PMID: 39201299 PMCID: PMC11354247 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25168610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2024] [Revised: 07/30/2024] [Accepted: 08/01/2024] [Indexed: 09/02/2024] Open
Abstract
The receptor-receptor interaction (RRI) of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) leads to new functional entities that are conceptually distinct from the simple addition of signals mediated by the activation of the receptors that form the heteromers. Focusing on astrocytes, there is evidence for the existence of inhibitory and facilitatory RRIs, including the heteromers formed by the adenosine A2A and the dopamine D2 receptors, by A2A and the oxytocin receptor (OTR), and the D2-OTR heteromers. The possible involvement of these receptors in mosaicism has never been investigated in striatal astrocytes. By biophysical and functional approaches, we focused our attention on the existence of an A2A-D2-OTR high-order receptor complex and its role in modulating cytosolic calcium levels and endogenous glutamate release, when striatal astrocyte processes were stimulated with 4-aminopyridine. Functional data indicate a permissive role of OTR on dopamine signaling in the regulation of the glutamatergic transmission, and an inhibitory control mediated by A2A on both the D2-mediated signaling and on the OTR-facilitating effect on D2. Imaging biochemical and bioinformatic evidence confirmed the existence of the A2A-D2-OTR complex and its ternary structure in the membrane. In conclusion, the D2 receptor appears to be a hotspot in the control of the glutamate release from the astrocytic processes and may contribute to the regulation and integration of different neurotransmitter-mediated signaling in the striatum by the A2A-D2-OTR heterotrimers. Considering the possible selectivity of allosteric interventions on GPCRs organized as receptor mosaics, A2A-D2-OTR heterotrimers may offer selective pharmacological targets in neuropsychiatric disorders and neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Amato
- Department of Pharmacy, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genova, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148 Genova, Italy
| | - Monica Averna
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Biochemistry, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV 1, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Elisa Farsetti
- Department of Pharmacy, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genova, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148 Genova, Italy
| | - Diego Guidolin
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Padova, Via Gabelli 63, 35122 Padova, Italy
| | - Marco Pedrazzi
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Biochemistry, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV 1, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Elena Gatta
- DIFILAB, Department of Physics, University of Genova, Via Dodecaneso 33, 16146 Genova, Italy
| | - Simona Candiani
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV 5, 16132 Genova, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Via Largo Benzi 10, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Guido Maura
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV 5, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - Luigi Francesco Agnati
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic Sciences and Neuroscience, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41121 Modena, Italy
| | - Chiara Cervetto
- Department of Pharmacy, Section of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Genova, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148 Genova, Italy
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Via Largo Benzi 10, 16132 Genova, Italy
- Interuniversity Center for the Promotion of the 3Rs Principles in Teaching and Research (Centro 3R), 56122 Pisa, Italy
| | - Manuela Marcoli
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV 5, 16132 Genova, Italy
- Interuniversity Center for the Promotion of the 3Rs Principles in Teaching and Research (Centro 3R), 56122 Pisa, Italy
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2
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Lillo J, García-Pérez I, Lillo A, Serrano-Marín J, Martínez-Pinilla E, Navarro G, Franco R. The olfactory Olfr-78/51E2 receptor interacts with the adenosine A 2A receptor. Effect of menthol and 1,8-cineole on A 2A receptor-mediated signaling. Front Pharmacol 2023; 14:1108617. [PMID: 37266149 PMCID: PMC10229766 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2023.1108617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Heteromer formation is unknown for the olfactory family of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We here identified, in a heterologous system, heteromers formed by the adenosine A2A receptor (A2AR), which is a target for neuroprotection, and an olfactory receptor. A2AR interacts with the receptor family 51, subfamily E, member 2 (OR51E2), the human ortholog of the mouse Olfr-78, whose mRNA is differentially expressed in activated microglia treated with adenosine receptor ligands. Bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assays were performed in HEK-293T cells expressing the human version of the receptors, OR51E2 and A2AR, fused, respectively, to Renilla luciferase (RLuc) and the yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). BRET data was consistent with a receptor-receptor interaction whose consequences at the functional level were measured by cAMP level determination in CHO cells. Results showed an olfactory receptor-mediated partial blockade of Gs coupling to the A2AR, i.e., the effect of the A2AR selective agonist on intracellular levels of cAMP was significantly reduced. Two odorants, menthol and 1,8-cineole, which failed to show Golf-mediated OR51E2 activation because they did not increase cytosolic cAMP levels, reduced the BRET readings in cells expressing A2AR-YFP and OR51E2-Rluc, most likely suggesting a conformational change of at least one receptor. These odorants led to an almost complete block of A2AR coupling to Gs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaume Lillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CiberNed, Network Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Spanish Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Irene García-Pérez
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Alejandro Lillo
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CiberNed, Network Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Spanish Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Joan Serrano-Marín
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eva Martínez-Pinilla
- Department of Morphology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
- Instituto de Neurociencias del Principado de Asturias (INEUROPA), Asturias, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias (ISPA), Asturias, Spain
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, School of Pharmacy and Food Science, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- CiberNed, Network Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Spanish Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael Franco
- CiberNed, Network Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, National Spanish Health Institute Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biomedicine, Faculty of Biology, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- School of Chemistry, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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3
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Olivero G, Grilli M, Marchi M, Pittaluga A. Metamodulation of presynaptic NMDA receptors: New perspectives for pharmacological interventions. Neuropharmacology 2023; 234:109570. [PMID: 37146939 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Metamodulation shifted the scenario of the central neuromodulation from a simplified unimodal model to a multimodal one. It involves different receptors/membrane proteins physically associated or merely colocalized that act in concert to control the neuronal functions influencing each other. Defects or maladaptation of metamodulation would subserve neuropsychiatric disorders or even synaptic adaptations relevant to drug dependence. Therefore, this "vulnerability" represents a main issue to be deeply analyzed to predict its aetiopathogenesis, but also to propose targeted pharmaceutical interventions. The review focusses on presynaptic release-regulating NMDA receptors and on some of the mechanisms of their metamodulation described in the literature. Attention is paid to the interactors, including both ionotropic and metabotropic receptors, transporters and intracellular proteins, which metamodulate their responsiveness in physiological conditions but also undergo adaptation that are relevant to neurological dysfunctions. All these structures are attracting more and more the interest as promising druggable targets for the treatment of NMDAR-related central diseases: these substances would not exert on-off control of the colocalized NMDA receptors (as usually observed with NMDAR full agonists/antagonists), but rather modulate their functions, with the promise of limiting side effects that would favor their translation from preclinic to clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guendalina Olivero
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148, Genoa, Italy
| | - Massimo Grilli
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148, Genoa, Italy; Inter-University Center for the Promotion of the 3Rs Principles in Teaching & Research (Centro 3R), 16148, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Mario Marchi
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148, Genoa, Italy
| | - Anna Pittaluga
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, Viale Cembrano 4, 16148, Genoa, Italy; Inter-University Center for the Promotion of the 3Rs Principles in Teaching & Research (Centro 3R), 16148, Genoa, Italy
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4
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Li M, Liu B, Li R, Yang P, Leng P, Huang Y. Exploration of the link between gut microbiota and purinergic signalling. Purinergic Signal 2023; 19:315-327. [PMID: 36121551 PMCID: PMC9984663 DOI: 10.1007/s11302-022-09891-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Growing evidence reveals that microorganisms in the gut are linked to metabolic health and disease risk in human beings to a considerable extent. The focus of research at this stage must tend to focus on cause-and-effect studies. In addition to being a component of DNA and RNA, purine metabolites can be involved in purine signalling in the body as chemical messengers. Abnormalities in purinergic signalling may lead to neuropathy, rheumatic immune diseases, inflammation, tumors, and a wide range of other diseases. It has proved that gut microbes are involved in purinergic signalling. The relationship between these gut-derived purinergic signalling molecules and host metabolism may be one of the important clues to our understanding of the mechanisms by which the microbiota affects host metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- MingJian Li
- College of Medical Technology, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - BoWen Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Rong Li
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Ping Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China
| | - Ping Leng
- College of Medical Technology, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
| | - Yong Huang
- Innovative Institute of Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, China.
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5
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Huang Z, Xie N, Illes P, Di Virgilio F, Ulrich H, Semyanov A, Verkhratsky A, Sperlagh B, Yu SG, Huang C, Tang Y. From purines to purinergic signalling: molecular functions and human diseases. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2021; 6:162. [PMID: 33907179 PMCID: PMC8079716 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-021-00553-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 185] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Purines and their derivatives, most notably adenosine and ATP, are the key molecules controlling intracellular energy homoeostasis and nucleotide synthesis. Besides, these purines support, as chemical messengers, purinergic transmission throughout tissues and species. Purines act as endogenous ligands that bind to and activate plasmalemmal purinoceptors, which mediate extracellular communication referred to as "purinergic signalling". Purinergic signalling is cross-linked with other transmitter networks to coordinate numerous aspects of cell behaviour such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, apoptosis and other physiological processes critical for the proper function of organisms. Pathological deregulation of purinergic signalling contributes to various diseases including neurodegeneration, rheumatic immune diseases, inflammation, and cancer. Particularly, gout is one of the most prevalent purine-related disease caused by purine metabolism disorder and consequent hyperuricemia. Compelling evidence indicates that purinoceptors are potential therapeutic targets, with specific purinergic agonists and antagonists demonstrating prominent therapeutic potential. Furthermore, dietary and herbal interventions help to restore and balance purine metabolism, thus addressing the importance of a healthy lifestyle in the prevention and relief of human disorders. Profound understanding of molecular mechanisms of purinergic signalling provides new and exciting insights into the treatment of human diseases.
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Grants
- National Key R&D Program of China (2019YFC1709101,2020YFA0509400, 2020YFC2002705), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81821002, 81790251, 81373735, 81972665), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2019B030302012), the Project First-Class Disciplines Development of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (CZYHW1901), São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP 2018/07366-4), Russian Science Foundation grant 20-14-00241, NSFC-BFBR;and Science and Technology Program of Sichuan Province, China (2019YFH0108)
- National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFA0509400, 2020YFC2002705), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81821002, 81790251).
- National Key R&D Program of China (2020YFA0509400, 2020YFC2002705), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (81821002, 81790251), Guangdong Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation (2019B030302012).
- the Project First-Class Disciplines Development of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (CZYHW1901) and Science and Technology Program of Sichuan Province, China (2019YFH0108).
- the Project First-Class Disciplines Development of Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (CZYHW1901), and Science and Technology Program of Sichuan Province, China (2019YFH0108).
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, China
| | - Na Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, China
| | - Peter Illes
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purinergic Signalling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Rudolf-Boehm-Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie, Universitaet Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | | | - Henning Ulrich
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purinergic Signalling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Alexey Semyanov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purinergic Signalling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Beata Sperlagh
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Shu-Guang Yu
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purinergic Signalling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China
- Acupuncture and Chronobiology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China
| | - Canhua Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu, China.
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
| | - Yong Tang
- International Collaborative Centre on Big Science Plan for Purinergic Signalling, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, China.
- Acupuncture and Chronobiology Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu, China.
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6
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Sadeghian A, Salari Z, Azizi H, Raoufy MR, Shojaei A, Kosarmadar N, Zare M, Rezaei M, Barkley V, Javan M, Fathollahi Y, Mirnajafi-Zadeh J. The role of dopamine D 2-like receptors in a "depotentiation-like effect" of deep brain stimulation in kindled rats. Brain Res 2020; 1738:146820. [PMID: 32251663 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.146820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2019] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms involved in the anti-seizure effects of low-frequency stimulation (LFS) have not been completely determined. However, Gi-protein-coupled receptors, including D2-like receptors, may have a role in mediating these effects. In the present study, the role of D2-like receptors in LFS' anti-seizure action was investigated. Rats were kindled with semi-rapid (6 stimulations per day), electrical stimulation of the hippocampal CA1 area. In LFS-treated groups, subjects received four trials of LFS at 5 min, 6 h, 24 h, and 30 h following the last kindling stimulation. Each LFS set occurred at 5 min intervals, and consisted of 4 trains. Each train contained 200, 0/1 ms long, monophasic square wave pulses at 1 Hz. Haloperidol (D2-like receptors antagonist, 2 µm) and/or bromocriptine (D2-like receptors agonist 2 µg/µlit) were microinjected into the lateral ventricle immediately after the last kindling, before applying LFS. Obtained results showed that applying LFS in fully-kindled subjects led to a depotentiation-like decrease in kindling-induced potentiation and reduced the amplitude and rise slope of excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic currents in whole-cell recordings from CA1 pyramidal neurons. In addition, LFS restored the kindling-induced, spatial learning and memory impairments in the Barnes maze test. A D2-like receptor antagonist inhibited these effects of LFS, while a D2-like receptor agonist mimicked these effects. In conclusion, a depotentiation-like mechanism may be involved in restoring LFS' effects on learning and memory, and synaptic plasticity. These effects depend on D2-like receptors activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azam Sadeghian
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zahra Salari
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hossein Azizi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Reza Raoufy
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Shojaei
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nastaran Kosarmadar
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Meysam Zare
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mahmoud Rezaei
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Victoria Barkley
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada
| | - Mohammad Javan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yaghoub Fathollahi
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Javad Mirnajafi-Zadeh
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Institute for Brain Sciences and Cognition, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
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Adenosine Receptor Profiling Reveals an Association between the Presence of Spare Receptors and Cardiovascular Disorders. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20235964. [PMID: 31783510 PMCID: PMC6928742 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20235964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 11/21/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Adenosine and its receptors exert a potent control on the cardiovascular system. This review aims to present emerging experimental evidence supporting the existence and implication in cardiovascular disorders of specific adenosinergic pharmacological profiles, conforming to the concept of "receptor reserve", also known as "spare receptors". This kind of receptors allow agonists to achieve their maximal effect without occupying all of the relevant cell receptors. In the cardiovascular system, spare adenosine receptors appear to compensate for a low extracellular adenosine level and/or a low adenosine receptor number, such as in coronary artery disease or some kinds of neurocardiogenic syncopes. In both cases, the presence of spare receptors appears to be an attempt to overcome a weak interaction between adenosine and its receptors. The identification of adenosine spare receptors in cardiovascular disorders may be helpful for diagnostic purposes.
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Kim JW, Han KR, Kim W, Jung HY, Nam SM, Yoo DY, Hwang IK, Seong JK, Yoon YS. Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis Can Be Enhanced by Cold Challenge Independently From Beigeing Effects. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:92. [PMID: 30890905 PMCID: PMC6411820 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Accepted: 01/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the effects of cold challenge on adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) and hippocampal gene expression and whether these are mediated by beigeing of peripheral fat tissues. Cold challenge (6 ± 2°C) for 1 and 4 weeks was found to induce beigeing effects in inguinal white adipose tissue based on hematoxylin and eosin staining as well as uncoupled protein-1 immunohistochemical staining. In the hippocampus, cold challenge for 1 or 4 weeks increased dentate gyrus neurogenesis and expression of genes related to AHN, including notch signaling, G protein-coupled receptor signaling, and adrenergic beta receptor-1. However, this enhancement of neurogenesis and gene expression by cold challenge was not shown by administration of CL 316,243, which induces peripheral beigeing similar to cold challenge but does not cross the blood-brain barrier. These results suggest that cold challenge promotes AHN and central expression of AHN-related, signaling, and β1-adrenergic receptors genes, and that peripheral beigeing by itself is not sufficient to mediate these effects. Considering the increase in AHN and gene expression changes, cold challenge may offer a novel approach to hippocampal modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Whi Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Kyu Ri Han
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Woosuk Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyo Young Jung
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sung Min Nam
- Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Dae Young Yoo
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Soonchunhyang University, Asan, South Korea
| | - In Koo Hwang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Korea Mouse Phenotyping Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Je Kyung Seong
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Korea Mouse Phenotyping Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Yeo Sung Yoon
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
- Korea Mouse Phenotyping Center, Seoul National University, Seoul, South Korea
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9
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Lewis MH, Primiani CT, Muehlmann AM. Targeting Dopamine D 2, Adenosine A 2A, and Glutamate mGlu 5 Receptors to Reduce Repetitive Behaviors in Deer Mice. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2019; 369:88-97. [PMID: 30745415 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.118.256081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Repetitive behaviors are seemingly purposeless patterns of behavior that vary little in form and are characteristic of many neurodevelopmental, psychiatric, and neurologic disorders. Our work has identified an association between hypofunctioning of the indirect basal ganglia pathway and the expression of repetitive behavior in the deer mouse model. In this study, we targeted indirect pathway cells of the striatum with single drugs and drug combinations that bind to dopamine D2, adenosine A2A, and glutamate mGlu5 receptors. These receptors function both individually and as receptor heteromers. We found that only the triple drug cocktail (L-741,626+CGS21680+CDPPB) that was designed to increase striatal indirect basal ganglia pathway cell function reduced repetitive behavior in adult male deer mice. No single drug or double drug combinations were effective at selectively reducing repetitive behavior. We found this triple drug cocktail reduced repetitive behavior in both short-acting and long-acting formulations and was effective throughout 7 days of daily administration. Conversely, another triple drug cocktail (quinpirole+SCH58261+MTEP) that was designed to further reduce striatal indirect basal ganglia pathway cell function caused a significant increase in repetitive behavior. Significant and behaviorally selective effects on repetitive behavior were only achieved with the triple drug cocktails that included doses of L-741,626 and quinpirole that have off-target effects (e.g., dopamine D3 receptors). These data further a role for decreased indirect basal ganglia pathway activation in repetitive behavior and suggest that targeting these receptors and/or heteromeric complexes on the indirect pathway neurons of the striatum may offer pharmacotherapeutic benefit for individuals with repetitive behavior disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark H Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | | | - Amber M Muehlmann
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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10
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Therapeutic targeting of HER2-CB 2R heteromers in HER2-positive breast cancer. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019; 116:3863-3872. [PMID: 30733293 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1815034116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Although human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2)-targeted therapies have dramatically improved the clinical outcome of HER2-positive breast cancer patients, innate and acquired resistance remains an important clinical challenge. New therapeutic approaches and diagnostic tools for identification, stratification, and treatment of patients at higher risk of resistance and recurrence are therefore warranted. Here, we unveil a mechanism controlling the oncogenic activity of HER2: heteromerization with the cannabinoid receptor CB2R. We show that HER2 physically interacts with CB2R in breast cancer cells, and that the expression of these heteromers correlates with poor patient prognosis. The cannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) disrupts HER2-CB2R complexes by selectively binding to CB2R, which leads to (i) the inactivation of HER2 through disruption of HER2-HER2 homodimers, and (ii) the subsequent degradation of HER2 by the proteasome via the E3 ligase c-CBL. This in turn triggers antitumor responses in vitro and in vivo. Selective targeting of CB2R transmembrane region 5 mimicked THC effects. Together, these findings define HER2-CB2R heteromers as new potential targets for antitumor therapies and biomarkers with prognostic value in HER2-positive breast cancer.
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11
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Borea PA, Gessi S, Merighi S, Vincenzi F, Varani K. Pharmacology of Adenosine Receptors: The State of the Art. Physiol Rev 2018; 98:1591-1625. [PMID: 29848236 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00049.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 475] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine is a ubiquitous endogenous autacoid whose effects are triggered through the enrollment of four G protein-coupled receptors: A1, A2A, A2B, and A3. Due to the rapid generation of adenosine from cellular metabolism, and the widespread distribution of its receptor subtypes in almost all organs and tissues, this nucleoside induces a multitude of physiopathological effects, regulating central nervous, cardiovascular, peripheral, and immune systems. It is becoming clear that the expression patterns of adenosine receptors vary among cell types, lending weight to the idea that they may be both markers of pathologies and useful targets for novel drugs. This review offers an overview of current knowledge on adenosine receptors, including their characteristic structural features, molecular interactions and cellular functions, as well as their essential roles in pain, cancer, and neurodegenerative, inflammatory, and autoimmune diseases. Finally, we highlight the latest findings on molecules capable of targeting adenosine receptors and report which stage of drug development they have reached.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pier Andrea Borea
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara , Ferrara , Italy
| | - Stefania Gessi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara , Ferrara , Italy
| | - Stefania Merighi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara , Ferrara , Italy
| | - Fabrizio Vincenzi
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara , Ferrara , Italy
| | - Katia Varani
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara , Ferrara , Italy
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12
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Di Liberto V, Mudò G, Belluardo N. Crosstalk between receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCR) in the brain: Focus on heteroreceptor complexes and related functional neurotrophic effects. Neuropharmacology 2018; 152:67-77. [PMID: 30445101 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2018.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Neuronal events are regulated by the integration of several complex signaling networks in which G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are considered key players of an intense bidirectional cross-communication in the cell, generating signaling mechanisms that, at the same time, connect and diversify the traditional signal transduction pathways activated by the single receptor. For this receptor-receptor crosstalk, the two classes of receptors form heteroreceptor complexes resulting in RTKs transactivation and in growth-promoting signals. In this review, we describe heteroreceptor complexes between GPCR and RTKs in the central nervous system (CNS) and their functional effects in controlling a variety of neuronal effects, ranging from development, proliferation, differentiation and migration, to survival, repair, synaptic transmission and plasticity. In this interaction, RTKs can also recruit components of the G protein signaling cascade, creating a bidirectional intricate interplay that provides complex control over multiple cellular events. These heteroreceptor complexes, by the integration of different signals, have recently attracted a growing interest as novel molecular target for depressive disorders. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Receptor heteromers and their allosteric receptor-receptor interactions'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Di Liberto
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Giuseppa Mudò
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Natale Belluardo
- Department of Experimental Biomedicine and Clinical Neurosciences, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy.
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13
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Borroto-Escuela DO, Hinz S, Navarro G, Franco R, Müller CE, Fuxe K. Understanding the Role of Adenosine A2AR Heteroreceptor Complexes in Neurodegeneration and Neuroinflammation. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:43. [PMID: 29467608 PMCID: PMC5808169 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adenosine is a nucleoside mainly formed by degradation of ATP, located intracellularly or extracellularly, and acts as a neuromodulator. It operates as a volume transmission signal through diffusion and flow in the extracellular space to modulate the activity of both glial cells and neurons. The effects of adenosine are mediated via four adenosine receptor subtypes: A1R, A2AR, A2BR, A3R. The A2AR has a wide-spread distribution but it is especially enriched in the ventral and dorsal striatum where it is mainly located in the striato-pallidal GABA neurons at a synaptic and extrasynaptic location. A number of A2AR heteroreceptor complexes exist in the striatum. The existence of A2AR-D2R heteroreceptor complexes with antagonistic A2AR-D2R interactions in the striato-pallidal GABA neurons is well-known with A2AR activation inhibiting Gi/o mediated signaling of D2Rs. A2AR-mGluR5 heteroreceptor complexes were also found in with synergistic receptor-receptor interactions enhancing the inhibition of the D2R protomer signaling. They are located mainly in extrasynaptic regions of the striato-pallidal GABA neurons. Results recently demonstrated the existence of brain A2AR-A2BR heteroreceptor complexes, in which A2BR protomer constitutively inhibited the function of the A2AR protomer. These adenosine A2AR heteroreceptor complexes may modulate alpha-synuclein aggregation and toxicity through postulated bidirectional direct interactions leading to marked increases in A2AR signaling both in nerve cells and microglia. It is of high interest that formation of A2AR-A2ABR heteroreceptor complexes provides a brake on A2AR recognition and signaling opening up a novel strategy for treatment of A2AR mediated neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dasiel O. Borroto-Escuela
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Section of Physiology, Department of Biomolecular Science, University of Urbino, Campus Scientifico Enrico Mattei, Urbino, Italy
- Observatorio Cubano de Neurociencias, Grupo Bohío-Estudio, Yaguajay, Cuba
| | - Sonja Hinz
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Gemma Navarro
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rafael Franco
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Christa E. Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical Chemistry I, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Kjell Fuxe
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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14
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Schonenbach NS, Rieth MD, Han S, O'Malley MA. Adenosine A2a receptors form distinct oligomers in protein detergent complexes. FEBS Lett 2016; 590:3295-306. [PMID: 27543907 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.12367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The human adenosine A2a receptor (A2aR) tunes its function by forming homo-oligomers and hetero-oligomers with other G protein-coupled receptors, but the biophysical characterization of these oligomeric species is limited. Here, we show that upon reconstitution into an optimized mixed micelle system, and purification via an antagonist affinity column, full-length A2aR exists as a distribution of oligomers. We isolated the dimer population from the other oligomers via size exclusion chromatography and showed that it is stable upon dilution, thus supporting the hypotheses that the A2aR dimer has a defined structure and function. This study presents a crucial enabling step to a detailed biophysical characterization of A2aR homodimers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S Schonenbach
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Monica D Rieth
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Songi Han
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Michelle A O'Malley
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California Santa Barbara, CA, USA.
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15
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Kimoto S, Glausier JR, Fish KN, Volk DW, Bazmi HH, Arion D, Datta D, Lewis DA. Reciprocal Alterations in Regulator of G Protein Signaling 4 and microRNA16 in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2016; 42:396-405. [PMID: 26424323 PMCID: PMC4753606 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbv139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) hypofunction in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) has been implicated in the pathology of schizophrenia. NMDAR activity is negatively regulated by some G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Signaling through these GPCRs is reduced by Regulator of G protein Signaling 4 (RGS4). Thus, lower levels of RGS4 would enhance GPCR-mediated reductions in NMDAR activity and could contribute to NMDAR hypofunction in schizophrenia. In this study, we quantified RGS4 mRNA and protein levels at several levels of resolution in the DLPFC from subjects with schizophrenia and matched healthy comparison subjects. To investigate molecular mechanisms that could contribute to altered RGS4 levels, we quantified levels of small noncoding RNAs, known as microRNAs (miRs), which regulate RGS4 mRNA integrity after transcription. RGS4 mRNA and protein levels were significantly lower in schizophrenia subjects and were positively correlated across all subjects. The RGS4 mRNA deficit was present in pyramidal neurons of DLPFC layers 3 and 5 of the schizophrenia subjects. In contrast, levels of miR16 were significantly higher in the DLPFC of schizophrenia subjects, and higher miR16 levels predicted lower RGS4 mRNA levels. These findings provide convergent evidence of lower RGS4 mRNA and protein levels in schizophrenia that may result from increased expression of miR16. Given the role of RGS4 in regulating GPCRs, and consequently the strength of NMDAR signaling, these findings could contribute to the molecular substrate for NMDAR hypofunction in DLPFC pyramidal cells in schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohei Kimoto
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Psychiatry, Nara Medical University, Nara, Japan
| | - Jill R Glausier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Kenneth N Fish
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - David W Volk
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - H Holly Bazmi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Dominique Arion
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - David A Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
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16
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García C, Palomo-Garo C, Gómez-Gálvez Y, Fernández-Ruiz J. Cannabinoid-dopamine interactions in the physiology and physiopathology of the basal ganglia. Br J Pharmacol 2015; 173:2069-79. [PMID: 26059564 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2015] [Revised: 05/05/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Endocannabinoids and their receptors play a modulatory role in the control of dopamine transmission in the basal ganglia. However, this influence is generally indirect and exerted through the modulation of GABA and glutamate inputs received by nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, which lack cannabinoid CB1 receptors although they may produce endocannabinoids. Additional evidence suggests that CB2 receptors may be located in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, and that certain eicosanoid-related cannabinoids may directly activate TRPV1 receptors, which have been found in nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons, thus allowing in both cases a direct regulation of dopamine transmission by specific cannabinoids. In addition, CB1 receptors form heteromers with dopaminergic receptors which provide another pathway to direct interactions between both systems, in this case at the postsynaptic level. Through these direct mechanisms or through indirect mechanisms involving GABA or glutamate neurons, cannabinoids may interact with dopaminergic transmission in the basal ganglia and this is likely to have important effects on dopamine-related functions in these structures (i.e. control of movement) and, particularly, on different pathologies affecting these processes, in particular, Parkinson's disease, but also dyskinesia, dystonia and other pathological conditions. The present review will address the current literature supporting these cannabinoid-dopamine interactions at the basal ganglia, with emphasis on aspects dealing with the physiopathological consequences of these interactions. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Updating Neuropathology and Neuropharmacology of Monoaminergic Systems. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v173.13/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concepción García
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Palomo-Garo
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Yolanda Gómez-Gálvez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Fernández-Ruiz
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain.,Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
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17
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Chen Y, Palczewski K. Systems Pharmacology Links GPCRs with Retinal Degenerative Disorders. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2015; 56:273-98. [PMID: 25839098 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010715-103033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In most biological systems, second messengers and their key regulatory and effector proteins form links between multiple cellular signaling pathways. Such signaling nodes can integrate the deleterious effects of genetic aberrations, environmental stressors, or both in complex diseases, leading to cell death by various mechanisms. Here we present a systems (network) pharmacology approach that, together with transcriptomics analyses, was used to identify different G protein-coupled receptors that experimentally protected against cellular stress and death caused by linked signaling mechanisms. We describe the application of this concept to degenerative and diabetic retinopathies in appropriate mouse models as an example. Systems pharmacology also provides an attractive framework for devising strategies to combat complex diseases by using (repurposing) US Food and Drug Administration-approved pharmacological agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Chen
- Yueyang Hospital and.,Clinical Research Institute of Integrative Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 200437, China
| | - Krzysztof Palczewski
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106;
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