Biomineralization changes with food supply confer juvenile scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) resistance to ocean acidification

Environmental correlates of oyster farming in an upwelling system: Implication upon growth, biomass production, shell strength and organic composition

Comprehending the potential effects of environmental variability on bivalves aquaculture becomes crucial for its sustainability under climate change scenarios, specially in the Humboldt Current System (HCS) where upwelling intensification leading to frequent hypoxia and acidification is expected. In a year-long study, Pacific oysters (Magallana gigas) were monitored at two depths (1.5m, 6.5m) in a bay affected by coastal upwelling. Surface waters exhibited warmer, well-oxygenated conditions and higher chlorophyll-a concentrations, while at depth greater hypoxia and acidification events occur, especially during upwelling. Surface cultured oysters exhibited 60 % larger size and 35% greater weight due to faster growth rate during the initial month of cultivation. The condition index (CI) increases in surface oysters after 10 months, whereas those at the bottom maintain a lower index. Food availability, temperature, and oxygen, correlates with higher growth rates, while pH associates with morphometric variables, indicating that larger oysters tend to develop under higher pH. Increased upwelling generally raises CI, but bottom oysters face stressful conditions such as hypoxia and acidification, resulting in lower performance. However, they acclimate by changing the organic composition of their shells and making them stronger. This study suggests that under intensified upwelling scenario, oysters would grow slowly, resulting in smaller sizes and lower performance, but the challenges may be confronted through complex compensation mechanisms among biomass production and maintenance of the shell structure and function. This poses a significant challenge for the sustainability of the aquaculture industry, emphasizing the need for adaptive strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change.

Archival records of the Antarctic clam shells from Marian Cove, King George Island suggest a protective mechanism against ocean acidification

Continuous emissions of anthropogenic CO2 are changing the atmospheric and oceanic environment. Although some species may have compensatory mechanisms to acclimatize or adapt to the changing environment, most marine organisms are negatively influenced by climate change. In this study, we aimed to understand the compensatory mechanisms of the Antarctic clam, Laternula elliptica, to climate-related stressors by using archived shells from 1995 to 2018. Principal component analysis revealed that seawater pCO2 and salinity in the Antarctic Ocean, which have increased since the 2000's, are the most influential factors on the characteristics of the shell. The periostracum thickness ratio and nitrogen on the outermost surface have increased, and the dissolution area (%) has decreased. Furthermore, the calcium content and mechanical properties of the shells have not changed. The results suggest that L. elliptica retains the mechanism of protecting the shell from high pCO2 by thickening the periostracum as a phenotype plasticity.

Combination of RNAseq and RADseq to Identify Physiological and Adaptive Responses to Acidification in the Eastern Oyster (Crassostrea virginica)

Ocean acidification (OA) is a major stressor threatening marine calcifiers, including the eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica). In this paper, we provide insight into the molecular mechanisms associated with resilience to OA, with the dual intentions of probing both acclimation and adaptation potential in this species. C. virginica were spawned, and larvae were reared in control or acidified conditions immediately after fertilization. RNA samples were collected from larvae and juveniles, and DNA samples were collected from juveniles after undergoing OA-induced mortality and used to contrast gene expression (RNAseq) and SNP (ddRADseq) profiles from animals reared under both conditions. Results showed convergence of evidence from both approaches, particularly in genes involved in biomineralization that displayed significant changes in variant frequencies and gene expression levels among juveniles that survived acidification as compared to controls. Downregulated genes were related to immune processes, supporting previous studies demonstrating a reduction in immunity from exposure to OA. Acclimation to OA via regulation of gene expression might confer short-term resilience to immediate threats; however, the costs may not be sustainable, underscoring the importance of selection of resilient genotypes. Here, we identified SNPs associated with survival under OA conditions, suggesting that this commercially and ecologically important species might have the genetic variation needed for adaptation to future acidification. The identification of genetic features associated with OA resilience is a highly-needed step for the development of marker-assisted selection of oyster stocks for aquaculture and restoration activities.

Impact of ocean acidification on shells of the abalone species Haliotis diversicolor and Haliotis discus hannai

Ocean acidification (OA) results from the absorption of anthropogenic CO2 emissions by the ocean and threatens the survival of many marine calcareous organisms including molluscs. We studied OA effects on adult shells of the abalone species Haliotis diversicolor and Haliotis discus hannai that were exposed to three pCO2 conditions (ambient, ∼880, and ∼1600 μatm) for 1 year. Shell periostracum corrosion under OA was observed for both species. OA reduced shell hardness and altered the nacre ultrastructure in H. diversicolor, making its shells more vulnerable to crushing force. OA exposure did not reduce the shell hardness of H. discus hannai and did not alter nacre ultrastructure. However, the reduced calcification also decreased its resistance to crushing force. Sr/Ca in the shell increased with rising calcification rate. Mg/Ca increased upon OA exposure could be due to a complimentary mechanism of preventing shell hardness further reduced. The Na/Ca distribution between the aragonite and calcite of abalone shells was also changed by OA. In general, both abalone species are at a greater risk in a more acidified ocean. Their shells may not provide sufficient protection from predators or to transportation stress in aquaculture.

Increased Food Resources Help Eastern Oyster Mitigate the Negative Impacts of Coastal Acidification

Oceanic absorption of atmospheric CO2 results in alterations of carbonate chemistry, a process coined ocean acidification (OA). The economically and ecologically important eastern oyster (Crassostrea virginica) is vulnerable to these changes because low pH hampers CaCO3 precipitation needed for shell formation. Organisms have a range of physiological mechanisms to cope with altered carbonate chemistry; however, these processes can be energetically expensive and necessitate energy reallocation. Here, the hypothesis that resilience to low pH is related to energy resources was tested. In laboratory experiments, oysters were reared or maintained at ambient (400 ppm) and elevated (1300 ppm) pCO2 levels during larval and adult stages, respectively, before the effect of acidification on metabolism was evaluated. Results showed that oysters exposed to elevated pCO2 had significantly greater respiration. Subsequent experiments evaluated if food abundance influences oyster response to elevated pCO2. Under high food and elevated pCO2 conditions, oysters had less mortality and grew larger, suggesting that food can offset adverse impacts of elevated pCO2, while low food exacerbates the negative effects. Results also demonstrated that OA induced an increase in oyster ability to select their food particles, likely representing an adaptive strategy to enhance energy gains. While oysters appeared to have mechanisms conferring resilience to elevated pCO2, these came at the cost of depleting energy stores, which can limit the available energy for other physiological processes. Taken together, these results show that resilience to OA is at least partially dependent on energy availability, and oysters can enhance their tolerance to adverse conditions under optimal feeding regimes.

Molecular Features Associated with Resilience to Ocean Acidification in the Northern Quahog, Mercenaria mercenaria

The increasing concentration of CO₂ in the atmosphere and resulting flux into the oceans will further exacerbate acidification already threatening coastal marine ecosystems. The subsequent alterations in carbonate chemistry can have deleterious impacts on many economically and ecologically important species including the northern quahog (Mercenaria mercenaria). The accelerated pace of these changes requires an understanding of how or if species and populations will be able to acclimate or adapt to such swift environmental alterations. Thus far, studies have primarily focused on the physiological effects of ocean acidification (OA) on M. mercenaria, including reductions in growth and survival. However, the molecular mechanisms of resilience to OA in this species remains unclear. Clam gametes were fertilized under normal pCO₂ and reared under acidified (pH ~ 7.5, pCO₂ ~ 1200 ppm) or control (pH ~ 7.9, pCO₂ ~ 600 ppm) conditions before sampled at 2 days (larvae), 32 days (postsets), 5 and 10 months (juveniles) and submitted to RNA and DNA sequencing to evaluate alterations in gene expression and genetic variations. Results showed significant shift in gene expression profiles among clams reared in acidified conditions as compared to their respective controls. At 10 months of exposure, significant shifts in allele frequency of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) were identified. Both approaches highlighted genes coding for proteins related to shell formation, bicarbonate transport, cytoskeleton, immunity/stress, and metabolism, illustrating the role these pathways play in resilience to OA.

Effects of one-year exposure to ocean acidification on two species of abalone

Ocean acidification (OA) resulting from the absorption of excess atmospheric CO₂ by the ocean threatens the survival of marine calcareous organisms, including mollusks. This study investigated the effects of OA on adults of two abalone species (Haliotis diversicolor, a subtropical species, and Haliotis discus hannai, a temperate species). Abalone were exposed to three pCO₂ conditions for 1 year (ambient, ~ 880, and ~ 1600 μatm), and parameters, including mortality, physiology, immune system, biochemistry, and carry-over effects, were measured. Survival decreased significantly at ~ 800 μatm pCO₂ for H. diversicolor, while H. discus hannai survival was negatively affected only at a higher OA level (~ 1600 μatm pCO₂). H. diversicolor exhibited depressed metabolic and excretion rates and a higher O:N ratio under OA, indicating a shift to lipids as a metabolism substrate, while these physiological parameters in H. discus hannai were robust to OA. Both abalone failed to compensate for the pH decrease of their internal fluids because of the lowered hemolymph pH under OA. However, the reduced hemolymph pH did not affect total hemocyte counts or tested biomarkers. Additionally, H. discus hannai increased its hemolymph protein content under OA, which could indicate enhanced immunity. Larvae produced by adults exposed to the three pCO₂ levels were cultured in the same pCO₂ conditions and larval deformation and shell length were measured to observe carry-over effects. Enhanced OA tolerance was observed for H. discus hannai exposed under both of the OA treatments, while that was only observed following parental pCO₂ ~ 880 μatm exposure for H. diversicolor. Following pCO₂ ~ 1600 μatm parental exposure, H. diversicolor offspring exhibited higher deformation and lower shell growth in all pCO₂ treatments. In general, H. diversicolor were more susceptible to OA compared with H. discus hannai, suggesting that H. diversicolor could be unable to adapt to acidified oceans in the future.

Metabolic rate allometry in intertidal mussels across environmental gradients: The role of coastal carbonate system parameters in mediating the effects of latitude and temperature

We assess the role of direct and indirect effects of coastal environmental drivers (including the parameters of the carbonate system) on energy expenditure (MR) and body mass (M) of the intertidal mussel, Perumytilus purpuratus, across 10 populations distributed over 2800 km along the Southern Eastern Pacific (SEP) coast. We find biogeographic and local variation in carbonate system variables mediates the effects of latitude and temperature on metabolic rate allometry along the SEP coast. Also, the fitted Piecewise Structural Equation models (PSEM) have greater predictive ability (conditional R² = 0.95) relative to the allometric scaling model (R² = 0.35). The largest standardized coefficients for MR and M were determined by the influence of temperature and latitude, followed by pCO₂, pH, total alkalinity, and salinity. Thus, physiological diversity of P. purpuratus along the SEP coast emerges as the result of direct and indirect effects of biogeographic and local environmental variables.

Is Ocean Acidification Really a Threat to Marine Calcifiers? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of 980+ Studies Spanning Two Decades

Ocean acidification is considered detrimental to marine calcifiers, but mounting contradictory evidence suggests a need to revisit this concept. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to critically re-evaluate the prevailing paradigm of negative effects of ocean acidification on calcifiers. Based on 5153 observations from 985 studies, many calcifiers (e.g., echinoderms, crustaceans, and cephalopods) are found to be tolerant to near-future ocean acidification (pH ≈ 7.8 by the year 2100), but coccolithophores, calcifying algae, and corals appear to be sensitive. Calcifiers are generally more sensitive at the larval stage than adult stage. Over 70% of the observations in growth and calcification are non-negative, implying the acclimation capacity of many calcifiers to ocean acidification. This capacity can be mediated by phenotypic plasticity (e.g., physiological, mineralogical, structural, and molecular adjustments), transgenerational plasticity, increased food availability, or species interactions. The results suggest that the impacts of ocean acidification on calcifiers are less deleterious than initially thought as their adaptability has been underestimated. Therefore, in the forthcoming era of ocean acidification research, it is advocated that studying how marine organisms persist is as important as studying how they perish, and that future hypotheses and experimental designs are not constrained within the paradigm of negative effects.

Parasitism by metacercariae modulates the morphological, organic and mechanical responses of the shell of an intertidal bivalve to environmental drivers

Environmental variation alters biological interactions and their ecological and evolutionary consequences. In coastal systems, trematode parasites affect their hosts by disrupting their life-history traits. However, the effects of parasitism could be variable and dependent on the prevailing environmental conditions where the host-parasite interaction occurs. This study compared the effect of a trematode parasite in the family Renicolidae (metacercariae) on the body size and the shell organic and mechanical characteristics of the intertidal mussels Perumytilus purpuratus, inhabiting two environmentally contrasting localities in northern and central Chile (ca. 1600 km apart). Congruent with the environmental gradient along the Chilean coast, higher levels of temperature, salinity and pCO₂, and a lower pH characterise the northern locality compared to that of central Chile. In the north, parasitised individuals showed lower body size and shell resistance than non-parasitised individuals, while in central Chile, the opposite pattern was observed. Protein level in the organic matter of the shell was lower in the parasitised hosts than in the non-parasitised ones regardless of the locality. However, an increase in polysaccharide levels was observed in the parasitised individuals from central Chile. These results evidence that body size and shell properties of P. purpuratus vary between local populations and that they respond differently when confronting the parasitism impacts. Considering that the parasite prevalence reaches around 50% in both populations, if parasitism is not included in the analysis, the true response of the host species would be masked by the effects of the parasite, skewing our understanding of how environmental variables will affect marine species. Considering parasitism and identifying its effects on host species faced with environmental drivers is essential to understand and accurately predict the ecological consequences of climate change.

Polymorphism of CaCO3 and the variability of elemental composition of the calcareous skeletons secreted by invertebrates along the salinity gradient of the Baltic Sea

Biomineralization is of great importance in ecosystem functioning and for the use of carbonate skeleton as environmental proxies. Skeletal formation is controlled to different degrees by environmental parameters and biological mechanisms. While salinity is one of the most important factors affecting ecological processes and ocean physiochemistry, the goal of this investigation was to identify how salinity influences the mineral type and the concentrations of chemical elements in the whole skeleton of invertebrates from the Baltic Sea. In this model system, the surface salinity decreases from marine values (27.2) to almost fresh water (6.1). The selected organisms, mussels (Mytilus spp.), bryozoans (Einhornia crustulenta, Cribrilina cryptooecium, Cryptosula pallasiana, Electra pilosa, Escharella immersa), barnacles (Amphibalanus improvisus, Semibalanus balanoides), and polychaetes (Spirorbis tridentatus), precipitated skeleton composed of calcite and aragonite, most likely as a result of various interacting environmental and biological factors. The concentrations of all elements in bulk skeleton were highly variable between species from the same location, underlining the role of the biological mechanisms in skeletal formation. The concentration of Ca, Mg, Sr, and Na increased in the bulk skeleton of stenohaline organisms with increasing salinity, while in the bulk skeleton of euryhaline species, only the concentration of Na increased with increasing salinity. The concentrations of Mn, Ba, Cu, Pb, Y, V, Cd, and U in the skeleton of euryhaline species generally decreased at higher salinities, most likely reflecting the lower bioavailability of elements at higher salinity. However, the concentrations of elements in the skeleton of stenohaline organisms were highly variable with no clear salinity impact. This study suggests that, although the composition of skeleton of calcifying organisms along the salinity gradient of the Baltic Sea is to a large extent affected by biological mechanisms, it also reflects the responses to environmental conditions.

Effect of low pH on growth and shell mechanical properties of the Peruvian scallop Argopecten purpuratus (Lamarck, 1819)

Dissolution of anthropogenic CO₂ modifies seawater pH, leading to ocean acidification, which might affect calcifying organisms such as bivalve mollusks. Along the Peruvian coast, however, natural conditions of low pH (7.6-8.0) are encountered in the habitat of the Peruvian scallop (Argopecten purpuratus), as a consequence of the nearby coastal upwelling influence. To understand the effects of low pH in a species adapted to these environmental conditions, an experiment was performed to test its consequences on growth, calcification, dissolution, and shell mechanical properties in juvenile Peruvian scallops. During 28 days, scallops (initial mean height = 14 mm) were exposed to two contrasted pH conditions: a control with unmanipulated seawater presenting pH conditions similar to those found in situ (pH_T = 7.8) and a treatment, in which CO₂ was injected to reduce pH to 7.4. At the end of the experiment, shell height and weight, and growth and calcification rates were reduced about 6%, 20%, 9%, and 10% respectively in the low pH treatment. Mechanical properties, such as microhardness were positively affected in the low pH condition and crushing force did not show differences between pH treatments. Final soft tissue weights were not significantly affected by low pH. This study provides evidence of low pH change shell properties increasing the shell microhardness in Peruvian scallops, which implies protective functions. However, the mechanisms behind this response need to be studied in a global change context.

Climate vulnerability assessment of key fishery resources in the Northern Humboldt Current System

The Northern Humboldt Current System sustains one of the most productive fisheries in the world. However, climate change is anticipated to negatively affect fish production in this region over the next few decades, and detailed analyses for many fishery resources are unavailable. We implemented a trait-based Climate Vulnerability Assessment based on expert elicitation to estimate the relative vulnerability of 28 fishery resources (benthic, demersal, and pelagic) to the impacts of climate change by 2055; ten exposure factors (e.g., temperature, salinity, pH, chlorophyll) and 13 sensitivity attributes (biological and population-level traits) were used. Nearly 36% of the species assessed had “high” or “very high” vulnerability. Benthic species were ranked the most vulnerable (gastropod and bivalve species). The pelagic group was the second most vulnerable; the Pacific chub mackerel and the yellowfin tuna were amongst the most vulnerable pelagic species. The demersal group had the relatively lowest vulnerability. This study allowed identification of vulnerable fishery resources, research and monitoring priorities, and identification of the key exposure factors and sensitivity attributes which are driving that vulnerability. Our findings can help fishery managers incorporate climate change into harvest level and allocation decisions, and assist stakeholders plan for and adapt to a changing future.

Effects of tralopyril on histological, biochemical and molecular impacts in Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas

Recently, the toxic effects of tralopyril, as a new antifouling biocide, on aquatic organisms have aroused widespread attention about the potential toxicity. However, the mechanism of tralopyril on marine mollusks has not been elaborated clearly. In this study, the histological, biochemical and molecular impacts of tralopyril on adult Crassostrea gigas were investigated. The results indicated that the 96 h LC50 of tralopyril to adult Crassostrea gigas was 911 μg/L. After exposure to tralopyril (0, 40, 80 and 160 μg/L) for 6 days, the mantle mucus secretion coverage ratio of Crassostrea gigas was increased with a dose-dependent pattern. Catalase (CAT) activity was significantly increased, amylase (AMS) activity, acid phosphatase (ACP) activity and calcium ion (Ca²⁺) concentration significantly decreased. Meanwhile, integrated biomarker responses (IBR) index suggested that higher concentrations of tralopyril caused severer damage to Crassostrea gigas. In addition, the mRNA expression levels of biomineralization related genes in the mantle were significantly upregulated. Collectively, this study firstly revealed the histological, biochemical and molecular impacts of tralopyril exposure on adult Crassostrea gigas, which provided new insights for understanding the toxicity of tralopyril in marine mollusks.

Biomechanical Characterization of Scallop Shells Exposed to Ocean Acidification and Warming

Increased carbon dioxide levels (CO₂) in the atmosphere triggered a cascade of physical and chemical changes in the ocean surface. Marine organisms producing carbonate shells are regarded as vulnerable to these physical (warming), and chemical (acidification) changes occurring in the oceans. In the last decade, the aquaculture production of the bivalve scallop Argopecten purpuratus (AP) showed declined trends along the Chilean coast. These negative trends have been ascribed to ecophysiological and biomineralization constraints in shell carbonate production. This work experimentally characterizes the biomechanical response of AP scallop shells subjected to climate change scenarios (acidification and warming) via quasi-static tensile and bending tests. The experimental results indicate the adaptation of mechanical properties to hostile growth scenarios in terms of temperature and water acidification. In addition, the mechanical response of the AP subjected to control climate conditions was analyzed with finite element simulations including an anisotropic elastic constitutive model for a two-fold purpose: Firstly, to calibrate the material model parameters using the tensile test curves in two mutually perpendicular directions (representative of the mechanical behavior of the material). Secondly, to validate this characterization procedure in predicting the material’s behavior in two mechanical tests.

Morphological, physiological and behavioral responses of an intertidal snail, Acanthina monodon (Pallas), to projected ocean acidification and cooling water conditions in upwelling ecosystems

Ocean acidification (OA) is expected to rise towards the end of the 21st century altering the life history traits in marine organisms. Upwelling systems will not escape OA, but unlike other areas of the ocean, cooling effects are expected to intensify in these systems. Regardless, studies evaluating the combined effects of OA and cooling remain scarce. We addressed this gap using a mesocosm system, where we exposed juveniles of the intertidal muricid snail Acanthina monodon to current and projected pCO₂ (500 vs. 1500 ppm) and temperature (15 vs. 10 °C) from the southeast Pacific upwelling system. After 9 weeks of experimental exposure to those conditions, we conducted three estimations of growth (wet weight, shell length and shell peristomal length), in addition to measuring calcification, metabolic and feeding rates and the ability of these organisms to return to the normal upright position after being overturned (self-righting). Growth, feeding and calcification rates increased in projected cooling conditions (10 °C) but were unaffected by pCO₂ or the interaction between pCO₂ and temperature. Instead, metabolic rates were driven by pCO₂, but a significant interaction with temperature suggests that in cooler conditions, metabolic rates will increase when associated with high pCO₂ levels. Snail self-righting times were not affected across treatments. These results suggest that colder temperatures projected for this area would drive this species growth, feeding and calcification, and consequently, some of its population biology and productivity. However, the snails may need to compensate for the increase in metabolic rates under the effects of ocean acidification. Although A. monodon ability to adjust to individual or combined stressors will likely account for some of the changes described here, our results point to a complex dynamic to take place in intertidal habitats associated with upwelling systems.

Evaluation of remodeling and geometry on the biomechanical properties of nacreous bivalve shells

Mollusks have developed a broad diversity of shelled structures to protect against challenges imposed by biological interactions(e.g., predation) and constraints (e.g., [Formula: see text]-induced ocean acidification and wave-forces). Although the study of shell biomechanical properties with nacreous microstructure has provided understanding about the role of shell integrity and functionality on mollusk performance and survival, there are no studies, to our knowledge, that delve into the variability of these properties during the mollusk ontogeny, between both shells of bivalves or across the shell length. In this study, using as a model the intertidal mussel Perumytilus purpuratus to obtain, for the first time, the mechanical properties of its shells with nacreous microstructure; we perform uniaxial compression tests oriented in three orthogonal axes corresponding to the orthotropic directions of the shell material behavior (thickness, longitudinal, and transversal). Thus, we evaluated whether the shell material's stress and strain strength and elastic modulus showed differences in mechanical behavior in mussels of different sizes, between valves, and across the shell length. Our results showed that the biomechanical properties of the material building the P. purpuratus shells are symmetrical in both valves and homogeneous across the shell length. However, uniaxial compression tests performed across the shell thickness showed that biomechanical performance depends on the shell size (aging); and that mechanical properties such as the elastic modulus, maximum stress, and strain become degraded during ontogeny. SEM observations evidenced that compression induced a tortuous fracture with a delamination effect on the aragonite mineralogical structure of the shell. Findings suggest that P. purpuratus may become vulnerable to durophagous predators and wave forces in older stages, with implications in mussel beds ecology and biodiversity of intertidal habitats.

Plasticity in organic composition maintains biomechanical performance in shells of juvenile scallops exposed to altered temperature and pH conditions

The exposure to environmental variations in pH and temperature has proven impacts on benthic ectotherms calcifiers, as evidenced by tradeoffs between physiological processes. However, how these stressors affect structure and functionality of mollusk shells has received less attention. Episodic events of upwelling of deep cold and low pH waters are well documented in eastern boundary systems and may be stressful to mollusks, impairing both physiological and biomechanical performance. These events are projected to become more intense, and extensive in time with ongoing global warming. In this study, we evaluate the independent and interactive effects of temperature and pH on the biomineral and biomechanical properties of Argopecten purpuratus scallop shells. Total organic matter in the shell mineral increased under reduced pH (~ 7.7) and control conditions (pH ~ 8.0). The periostracum layer coating the outer shell surface showed increased protein content under low pH conditions but decreasing sulfate and polysaccharides content. Reduced pH negatively impacts shell density and increases the disorder in the orientation of calcite crystals. At elevated temperatures (18 °C), shell microhardness increased. Other biomechanical properties were not affected by pH/temperature treatments. Thus, under a reduction of 0.3 pH units and low temperature, the response of A. purpuratus was a tradeoff among organic compounds (biopolymer plasticity), density, and crystal organization (mineral plasticity) to maintain shell biomechanical performance, while increased temperature ameliorated the impacts on shell hardness. Biopolymer plasticity was associated with ecophysiological performance, indicating that, under the influence of natural fluctuations in pH and temperature, energetic constraints might be critical in modulating the long-term sustainability of this compensatory mechanism.

Acquiring an evolutionary perspective in marine ecotoxicology to tackle emerging concerns in a rapidly changing ocean

Tens of thousands of anthropogenic chemicals and wastes enter the marine environment each year as a consequence of the ever-increasing anthropogenic activities and demographic growth of the human population, which is majorly concentrated along coastal areas. Marine ecotoxicology has had a crucial role in helping shed light on the fate of chemicals in the environment, and improving our understanding of how they can affect natural ecosystems. However, chemical contamination is not occurring in isolation, but rather against a rapidly changing environmental horizon. Most environmental studies have been focusing on short-term within-generation responses of single life stages of single species to single stressors. As a consequence, one-dimensional ecotoxicology cannot enable us to appreciate the degree and magnitude of future impacts of chemicals on marine ecosystems. Current approaches that lack an evolutionary perspective within the context of ongoing and future local and global stressors will likely lead us to under or over estimations of the impacts that chemicals will exert on marine organisms. It is therefore urgent to define whether marine organisms can acclimate, i.e. adjust their phenotypes through transgenerational plasticity, or rapidly adapt, i.e. realign the population phenotypic performances to maximize fitness, to the new chemical environment within a selective horizon defined by global changes. To foster a significant advancement in this research area, we review briefly the history of ecotoxicology, synthesis our current understanding of the fate and impact of contaminants under global changes, and critically discuss the benefits and challenges of integrative approaches toward developing an evolutionary perspective in marine ecotoxicology: particularly through a multigenerational approach. The inclusion of multigenerational studies in Ecological Risk Assessment framework (ERA) would provide significant and more accurately information to help predict the risks of pollution in a rapidly changing ocean.

Ervilia castanea (Mollusca, Bivalvia) populations adversely affected at CO2 seeps in the North Atlantic

Sites with naturally high CO₂ conditions provide unique opportunities to forecast the vulnerability of coastal ecosystems to ocean acidification, by studying the biological responses and potential adaptations to this increased environmental variability. In this study, we investigated the bivalve Ervilia castanea in coastal sandy sediments at reference sites and at volcanic CO₂ seeps off the Azores, where the pH of bottom waters ranged from average oceanic levels of 8.2, along gradients, down to 6.81, in carbonated seawater at the seeps. The bivalve population structure changed markedly at the seeps. Large individuals became less abundant as seawater CO₂ levels rose and were completely absent from the most acidified sites. In contrast, small bivalves were most abundant at the CO₂ seeps. We propose that larvae can settle and initially live in high abundances under elevated CO₂ levels, but that high rates of post-settlement dispersal and/or mortality occur. Ervilia castanea were susceptible to elevated CO₂ levels and these effects were consistently associated with lower food supplies. This raises concerns about the effects of ocean acidification on the brood stock of this species and other bivalve molluscs with similar life history traits.

Upwelling intensity modulates the fitness and physiological performance of coastal species: Implications for the aquaculture of the scallop Argopecten purpuratus in the Humboldt Current System

Understanding how marine species cope with the natural environmental variability of their native habitats will provide significant information about their sensitivity to the potential environmental changes driven by climate change. In particular, marine species inhabiting upwelling ecosystems are experiencing low seawater temperatures, as well as, acidic and low oxygen conditions as a consequence of the nature of the deep upwelled waters. Our study is focused on one of the most important socio-economical resources of the Humboldt Current System (HCS): the scallop Argopecten purpuratus which has been historically subjected to intensive aquaculture in areas influenced by upwelling processes. Here, a long-term field experiment was performed to understand how tolerant and well-locally-adapted is A. purpuratus to upwelling conditions by studying a set of fitness, physiological, and biomineralogical traits. Stronger upwelling generated a minor water column stratification, with lower temperatures, pH, and oxygen conditions. On the contrary, as upwelling weakened, temperature, pH, and oxygen availability increased. Finally, upwelling intensity also determined the number, duration, and intensity of the cooling and de-oxygenation events occurring in A. purpuratus habitat, as well as, the food availability (chlorophyll-a concentration, Chl-a). Physiologically, A. purpuratus was able to cope with stressful environmental conditions imposed by higher upwelling intensities by enhancing its metabolic and calcification rates, as well, producing higher concentrations of the shell organic matter. These physiological changes impacted the total energy budget, which was highly dependent on Chl-a concentration, and revealed important traits trade-offs with significant fitness costs (higher mortalities emerged when longer and more intense upwelling events succeed). Our study increases the knowledge about the physiological performance and tolerance of this important resource to the ocean acidification and ocean-deoxygenation imposed by variable upwelling intensities, as well as, its potential vulnerability under future changing conditions driven by a potential upwelling intensification.

Geographical variability and parasitism on body size, reproduction and shell characteristics of the keyhole limpet Fissurella crassa (Mollusca: Vetigastropoda)

Environmental variation may alter biological interactions and their ecological consequences. For instance, in marine ecosystems hosts and parasites are subject to environmental variability across latitudinal gradients, and their co-evolutionary dynamics may be the result of the interplay with local physical-chemical variables in seawater. Thus, assessing the environmental conditions required for a host in order to improve their survival is essential to understand the host-parasite interaction and dynamics. In this study, we evaluated the impact of parasitism by Proctoeces humboldti on the body size and reproduction of the intertidal keyhole limpet Fissurella crassa collected from three populations spanning ca. 1500 km along the latitudinal gradient of the Chilean coast. In addition, for the first time, we explore whether the effect of parasitism can be extended to changes in the organic composition and mechanical properties of the host shell. Our results show that parasitism prevalence and intensity, and body size of F. crassa increased in central Chile (ca. 33°S). Unlike body size, which was greater in parasitized limpets than in non-parasitized limpets at the three study sites, reproductive performance followed this trend only in central Chile populations, with no differences between parasitized and non-parasitized limpets collected in the northern Chilean (ca. 23°S), and lower in parasitized than non-parasitized individuals from the south-central Chile (ca. 37°S). The organic composition of F. crassa shells showed significant differences between parasite conditions (e.g. polysaccharides and water decreased in parasitized limpets) and across sites (e.g. proteins levels increase in shell of parasitized limpets from central Chile, but decreased at south-central Chile). However, variability in shell mechanical properties (e.g. toughness and elastic module) do not showed significant differences across sites and parasitism condition. These results suggest the interplay of both parasitism and environmental fluctuations upon the reproductive performance and morphology of the host. In addition, our result highlight that the host may also trade-offs reproduction, growth and shell organic composition to maintain the shell functionality (e.g. protection for mechanical forces and durophagous predators).

The combined effects of salinity and pH on shell biomineralization of the edible mussel Mytilus chilensis

Coastal ecosystems influenced by river discharges are subjected to important environmental changes. Understanding how marine biota cope with its environment is relevant in predicting the responses to future conditions imposed by climate change. To date, a large number of studies have addressed the role of pH on shell and biomineralization properties on multiple calcifying species; however the role of salinity in combination with other stressors has been poorly studied. In particular, the edible mussel Mytilus chilensis, an important marine resource of the Chilean coasts, inhabits estuarine areas which show high natural variability in terms of pH and salinity. Here, we studied how M. chilensis shell periostracum, shell organic matrix and crystal orientation are affected by different pH (8.1 and 7.7) and salinity conditions (30, 25 and 20 psu), isolated and in combination, at different time intervals. Our results show differences in the plasticity of the different biomineralogical properties studied during the experiment under the different pH and salinity treatments. While the periostracum thickness and the total shell organic matter were not affected by pH and salinity, the periostracum organic composition did. Higher amounts of polysaccharides were observed under low pH conditions after 20 days of experiment, while after 60 days, low salinity was responsible for the decrease of the polysaccharides and proteins in the periostracum. Low salinity also produced a major disorder in crystal organization at the outer shell surface. Finally, total shell weight was only affected by low pH conditions under lower salinity conditions (20 psu). From the results, in the majority of the shell properties observed we did not observe any combined effect of pH and salinity. Also, we detected that the magnitude of the impacts of salinity and pH are variable and time-dependent. This would be suggesting some level of acclimatization of M. chilensis to lower pH and salinity conditions.

CO2-driven ocean acidification weakens mussel shell defense capacity and induces global molecular compensatory responses

Oceanic uptake of atmospheric CO₂ is reducing seawater pH and shifting carbonate chemistry within, a process termed as ocean acidification (OA). Marine mussels are a family of ecologically and economically significant bivalves that are widely distributed along coastal areas worldwide. Studies have demonstrated that OA greatly disrupts mussels' physiological functions. However, the underlying molecular responses (e.g., whether there were any molecular compensation mechanisms) and the extent to which OA affects mussel shell defense capacity remain largely unknown. In this study, the thick shell mussels Mytilus coruscus were exposed to the ambient pH (8.1) or one of two lowered pH levels (7.8 and 7.4) for 40 days. The results suggest that future OA will damage shell structure and weaken shell strength and shell closure strength, ultimately reducing mussel shell defense capacity. In addition, future OA will also disrupt haemolymph pH and Ca²⁺ homeostasis, leading to extracellular acidosis and Ca²⁺ deficiency. Mantle transcriptome analyses indicate that mussels will adopt a series of molecular compensatory responses to mitigate these adverse effects; nevertheless, weakened shell defense capacity will increase mussels' susceptibility to predators, parasites and pathogens, and thereby reduce their fitness. Overall, the findings of this study have significant ecological and economic implications, and will enhance our understanding of the future of the mussel aquaculture industry and coastal ecosystems.

Ocean acidification and hypoxia alter organic carbon fluxes in marine soft sediments

Anthropogenic stressors can alter the structure and functioning of infaunal communities, which are key drivers of the carbon cycle in marine soft sediments. Nonetheless, the compounded effects of anthropogenic stressors on carbon fluxes in soft benthic systems remain largely unknown. Here, we investigated the cumulative effects of ocean acidification (OA) and hypoxia on the organic carbon fate in marine sediments, through a mesocosm experiment. Isotopically labelled macroalgal detritus (¹³ C) was used as a tracer to assess carbon incorporation in faunal tissue and in sediments under different experimental conditions. In addition, labelled macroalgae (¹³ C), previously exposed to elevated CO₂ , were also used to assess the organic carbon uptake by fauna and sediments, when both sources and consumers were exposed to elevated CO₂ . At elevated CO₂ , infauna increased the uptake of carbon, likely as compensatory response to the higher energetic costs faced under adverse environmental conditions. By contrast, there was no increase in carbon uptake by fauna exposed to both stressors in combination, indicating that even a short-term hypoxic event may weaken the ability of marine invertebrates to withstand elevated CO₂ conditions. In addition, both hypoxia and elevated CO₂ increased organic carbon burial in the sediment, potentially affecting sediment biogeochemical processes. Since hypoxia and OA are predicted to increase in the face of climate change, our results suggest that local reduction of hypoxic events may mitigate the impacts of global climate change on marine soft-sediment systems.

Robustness of Adamussium colbecki shell to ocean acidification in a short-term exposure

Atmospheric pCO₂ has increased since the industrial revolution leading to a lowering of the ocean surface water pH, a phenomenon called ocean acidification (OA). OA is claimed to be a major threat for marine organisms and ecosystems and, particularly, for Polar regions. We explored the impact of OA on the shell mechanical properties of the Antarctic scallop Adamussium colbecki exposed for one month to acidified (pH 7.6) and natural conditions (unmanipulated littoral water), by performing Scanning Electron Microscopy, nanoindentation and Vickers indentation on the scallop shell. No effect of pH could be detected either in crystal deposition or in the mechanical properties. A. colbecki shell was found to be resistant to OA, which suggests this species to be able to face a climate change scenario that may threat the persistence of the endemic Antarctic species. Further investigation should be carried out in order to elucidate the destiny of this key species in light of global change.

Legacy of Multiple Stressors: Responses of Gastropod Larvae and Juveniles to Ocean Acidification and Nutrition

Ocean acidification poses a significant threat to calcifying invertebrates by negatively influencing shell deposition and growth. An organism's performance under ocean acidification is not determined by the susceptibility of one single life-history stage, nor is it solely controlled by the direct physical consequences of ocean acidification. Shell development by one life-history stage is sometimes a function of the pH or pCO₂ levels experienced during earlier developmental stages. Furthermore, environmental factors such as access to nutrition can buffer organismal responses of calcifying invertebrates to ocean acidification, or they can function as a co-occurring stressor when access is low. We reared larvae and juveniles of the planktotrophic marine gastropod Crepidula fornicata through combined treatments of nutritional stress and low pH, and we monitored how multiple stressors endured during the larval stage affected juvenile performance. Shell growth responded non-linearly to decreasing pH, significantly declining between pH 7.6 and pH 7.5 in larvae and juveniles. Larval rearing at pH 7.5 reduced juvenile growth as a carryover effect. Larval rearing at pH 7.6 reduced subsequent juvenile growth despite the absence of a negative impact on larval growth, demonstrating a latent effect. Low larval pH magnified the impact of larval nutritional stress on competence for metamorphosis and increased carryover effects of larval nutrition on juvenile growth. Trans-life-cycle effects of larval nutrition were thus modulated by larval exposure to ocean acidification.

Deciphering carbon sources of mussel shell carbonate under experimental ocean acidification and warming

Ocean acidification and warming is widely reported to affect the ability of marine bivalves to calcify, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms. In particular, the response of their calcifying fluid carbonate chemistry to changing seawater carbonate chemistry remains poorly understood. The present study deciphers sources of the dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in the calcifying fluid of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis) reared at two pH (8.1 and 7.7) and temperature (16 and 22 °C) levels for five weeks. Stable carbon isotopic ratios of seawater DIC, mussel soft tissues and shells were measured to determine the relative contribution of seawater DIC and metabolically generated carbon to the internal calcifying DIC pool. At pH 8.1, the percentage of seawater DIC synthesized into shell carbonate decreases slightly from 83.8% to 80.3% as temperature increases from 16 to 22 °C. Under acidified conditions, estimates of percent seawater DIC incorporation decreases clearly to 65.6% at 16 °C and to 62.3% at 22 °C, respectively. These findings indicate that ongoing ocean acidification and warming may interfere with the calcification physiology of M. edulis through interfering with its ability to efficiently extract seawater DIC to the calcifying front.

Projected impacts of future climate change, ocean acidification, and management on the US Atlantic sea scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) fishery

Ocean acidification has the potential to significantly impact both aquaculture and wild-caught mollusk fisheries around the world. In this work, we build upon a previously published integrated assessment model of the US Atlantic Sea Scallop (Placopecten magellanicus) fishery to determine the possible future of the fishery under a suite of climate, economic, biological, and management scenarios. We developed a 4x4x4x4 hypercube scenario framework that resulted in 256 possible combinations of future scenarios. The study highlights the potential impacts of ocean acidification and management for a subset of future climate scenarios, with a high CO2 emissions case (RCP8.5) and lower CO2 emissions and climate mitigation case (RCP4.5). Under RCP4.5 and the highest impact and management scenario, ocean acidification has the potential to reduce sea scallop biomass by approximately 13% by the end of century; however, the lesser impact scenarios cause very little change. Under RCP8.5, sea scallop biomass may decline by more than 50% by the end of century, leading to subsequent declines in industry landings and revenue. Management-set catch limits improve the outcomes of the fishery under both climate scenarios, and the addition of a 10% area closure increases future biomass by more than 25% under the highest ocean acidification impacts. However, increased management still does not stop the projected long-term decline of the fishery under ocean acidification scenarios. Given our incomplete understanding of acidification impacts on P. magellanicus, these declines, along with the high value of the industry, suggest population-level effects of acidification should be a clear research priority. Projections described in this manuscript illustrate both the potential impacts of ocean acidification under a business-as-usual and a moderately strong climate-policy scenario. We also illustrate the importance of fisheries management targets in improving the long-term outcome of the P. magellanicus fishery under potential global change.

Bivalve shell formation in a naturally CO2-enriched habitat: Unraveling the resilience mechanisms from elemental signatures

Marine bivalves inhabiting naturally pCO₂-enriched habitats can likely tolerate high levels of acidification. Consequently, elucidating the mechanisms behind such resilience can help to predict the fate of this economically and ecologically important group under near-future scenarios of CO₂-driven ocean acidification. Here, we assess the effects of four environmentally realistic pCO₂ levels (900, 1500, 2900 and 6600 μatm) on the shell production rate of Mya arenaria juveniles originating from a periodically pCO₂-enriched habitat (Kiel Fjord, Western Baltic Sea). We find a significant decline in the rate of shell growth as pCO₂ increases, but also observe unchanged shell formation rates at moderate pCO₂ levels of 1500 and 2900 μatm, the latter illustrating the capacity of the juveniles to partially mitigate the impact of high pCO₂. Using recently developed geochemical tracers we show that M. arenaria exposed to a natural pCO₂ gradient from 900 to 2900 μatm can likely concentrate HCO₃^- in the calcifying fluid through the exchange of HCO₃^-/Cl^- and simultaneously maintain the pH homeostasis through active removal of protons, thereby being able to sustain the rate of shell formation to a certain extent. However, with increasing pCO₂ beyond natural maximum the bivalves may have limited capacity to compensate for changes in the calcifying fluid chemistry, showing significant shell growth reduction. Findings of the present study may pave the way for elucidating the underlying mechanisms by which marine bivalves acclimate and adapt to high seawater pCO₂.

Increased food supply mitigates ocean acidification effects on calcification but exacerbates effects on growth

Because many of the negative effects of ocean acidification on marine life may result from underlying energetic short-falls associated with increased metabolic demands, several studies have hypothesized that negative responses to high CO₂ could be reduced by energy input. Although this hypothesis was supported by a recent meta-analysis, we believe that the meta-analytic calculation used was not appropriate to test the stated hypothesis. Here, we first clarify the hypothesis put forward, the crux being that the effects of increased food supply and CO₂ interact statistically. We then test this hypothesis by examining the available data in a more appropriate analytical framework. Using factorial meta-analysis, we confirm that food addition has a positive effect and CO₂ has a negative effect on both growth and calcification. For calcification, food addition did indeed reduce CO₂ impacts. Surprisingly, however, we found that food addition actually exacerbated the effects of acidification on growth, perhaps due to increased scope upon which CO₂ effects can act in food-replete situations. These interactive effects were undetectable using a multilevel meta-analytic approach. Ongoing changes in food supply and carbonate chemistry, coupled with under-described, poorly understood, and potentially surprising interactive outcomes for these two variables, suggest that the role of food should remain a priority in ocean acidification research.

Arising from: L. Ramajo et al., Sci. Rep. 6: 19374 (2016).

Elevated seawater temperature, not pCO2, negatively affects post-spawning adult mussels (Mytilus edulis) under food limitation

Pre-spawning blue mussels (Mytilus edulis) appear sensitive to elevated temperature and robust to elevated pCO₂; however, the effects of these stressors soon after investing energy into spawning remain unknown. Furthermore, while studies suggest that elevated pCO₂ affects the byssal attachment strength of Mytilus trossulus from southern latitudes, pCO₂ and temperature impacts on the byssus strength of other species at higher latitudes remain undocumented. In a 90 day laboratory experiment, we exposed post-spawning adult blue mussels (M. edulis) from Atlantic Canada to three pCO₂ levels (pCO₂ ~625, 1295 and 2440 μatm) at two different temperatures (16°C and 22°C) and assessed energetic reserves on Day 90, byssal attachment strength on Days 30 and 60, and condition index and mortality on Days 30, 60 and 90. Results indicated that glycogen content was negatively affected under elevated temperature, but protein, lipid, and overall energy content were unaffected. Reduced glycogen content under elevated temperature was associated with reduced condition index, reduced byssal thread attachment strength, and increased mortality; elevated pCO₂ had no effects. Overall, these results suggest that the glycogen reserves of post-spawning adult M. edulis are sensitive to elevated temperature, and can result in reduced health and byssal attachment strength, leading to increased mortality. These results are similar to those reported for pre-spawning mussels and suggest that post-spawning blue mussels are tolerant to elevated pCO₂ and sensitive to elevated temperature. In contrast to previous studies, however, elevated pCO₂ did not affect byssus strength, suggesting that negative effects of elevated pCO₂ on byssus strength are not universal.

Resilience of the larval slipper limpet Crepidula onyx to direct and indirect-diet effects of ocean acidification

Ocean acidification (OA) is known to directly impact larval physiology and development of many marine organisms. OA also affects the nutritional quality and palatability of algae, which are principal food sources for many types of planktonic larvae. This potential indirect effect of OA via trophic interactions, however, has not been fully explored. In this study, veligers of Crepidula onyx were exposed to different pH levels representing the ambient (as control) and low pH values (pH 7.7 and pH 7.3) for 14 days, and were fed with Isochrysis galbana cultured at these three respective pHs. pH, diet, nor their interactions had no effect on larval mortality. Decrease in pH alone had a significant effect on growth rate and shell size. Structural changes (increased porosity) in larval shells were also observed in the low pH treatments. Interactions between acidification and reduced diet quality promoted earlier settlement. Unlike other calcifying molluscs, this population of slipper limpets introduced to Hong Kong in 1960s appeared to be resilient to OA and decreased algal nutritional value. If this robustness observed in the laboratory applies to the field, competition with native invertebrates may intensify and this non-native snail could flourish in acidified coastal ecosystems.