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Meliopoulos V, Honce R, Livingston B, Hargest V, Freiden P, Lazure L, Brigleb PH, Karlsson E, Sheppard H, Allen EK, Boyd D, Thomas PG, Schultz-Cherry S. Diet-induced obesity affects influenza disease severity and transmission dynamics in ferrets. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadk9137. [PMID: 38728395 PMCID: PMC11086619 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adk9137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Obesity, and the associated metabolic syndrome, is a risk factor for increased disease severity with a variety of infectious agents, including influenza virus. Yet, the mechanisms are only partially understood. As the number of people, particularly children, living with obesity continues to rise, it is critical to understand the role of host status on disease pathogenesis. In these studies, we use a diet-induced obese ferret model and tools to demonstrate that, like humans, obesity resulted in notable changes to the lung microenvironment, leading to increased clinical disease and viral spread to the lower respiratory tract. The decreased antiviral responses also resulted in obese animals shedding higher infectious virus for a longer period, making them more likely to transmit to contacts. These data suggest that the obese ferret model may be crucial to understanding obesity's impact on influenza disease severity and community transmission and a key tool for therapeutic and intervention development for this high-risk population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria Meliopoulos
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Rebekah Honce
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Brandi Livingston
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Virginia Hargest
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Pamela Freiden
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Lauren Lazure
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Pamela H. Brigleb
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Erik Karlsson
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Heather Sheppard
- Veterinary Pathology Core, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - E. Kaity Allen
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - David Boyd
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Paul G. Thomas
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
| | - Stacey Schultz-Cherry
- Department of Host-Microbe Interactions, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN, USA
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2
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Malherbe DC, Kimble JB, Atyeo C, Fischinger S, Meyer M, Cody SG, Hyde M, Alter G, Bukreyev A. A Single-Dose Intranasal Combination Panebolavirus Vaccine. J Infect Dis 2023; 228:S648-S659. [PMID: 37469133 PMCID: PMC10651208 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ebolaviruses Ebola (EBOV), Sudan (SUDV), and Bundibugyo (BDBV) cause severe human disease, which may be accompanied by hemorrhagic syndrome, with high case fatality rates. Monovalent vaccines do not offer cross-protection against these viruses whose endemic areas overlap. Therefore, development of a panebolavirus vaccine is a priority. As a vaccine vector, human parainfluenza virus type 3 (HPIV3) has the advantages of needle-free administration and induction of both systemic and local mucosal antibody responses in the respiratory tract. METHODS To minimize the antivector immunity, genes encoding the HPIV3 envelope proteins F and HN were removed from the vaccine constructs, resulting in expression of only the ebolavirus envelope protein-glycoprotein. These second-generation vaccine constructs were used to develop a combination vaccine against EBOV, SUDV, and BDBV. RESULTS A single intranasal vaccination of guinea pigs or ferrets with the trivalent combination vaccine elicited humoral responses to each of the targeted ebolaviruses, including binding and neutralizing antibodies, as well as Fc-mediated effector functions. This vaccine protected animals from death and disease caused by lethal challenges with EBOV, SUDV, or BDBV. CONCLUSIONS The combination vaccine elicited protection that was comparable to that induced by the monovalent vaccines, thus demonstrating the value of this combination trivalent vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine C Malherbe
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Galveston National Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - J Brian Kimble
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Galveston National Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Caroline Atyeo
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Stephanie Fischinger
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Michelle Meyer
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Galveston National Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - S Gabrielle Cody
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Matthew Hyde
- Galveston National Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, USA
| | - Galit Alter
- Ragon Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Alexander Bukreyev
- Department of Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Galveston National Laboratory, Galveston, Texas, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, USA
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3
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Anderson-Mondella CJJ, Maines TR, Tansey CM, Belser JA. Meeting Ferret Enrichment Needs in Infectious Disease Laboratory Settings. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR LABORATORY ANIMAL SCIENCE : JAALAS 2023; 62:518-524. [PMID: 37857467 PMCID: PMC10772907 DOI: 10.30802/aalas-jaalas-23-000057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment is a necessary component of all research vivarium settings. However, appropriate enrichment decisions vary greatly depending on the species involved and the research use of the animals. The increasing use of ferrets in research settings-notably for modeling the pathogenicity and transmissibility of viral pathogens that require containment in ABSL-2 to -4 environments-presents a particular challenge for veterinary and research staff to ensure that enrichment needs for these animals are met consistently. Here, we discuss the species-specific enrichment needs of ferrets, enrichment considerations for ferrets housed in research settings, and the challenges and importance of providing appropriate enrichment during experimentation, including when ferrets are housed in high-containment facilities. This article is organized to support the easy availability of information that will facilitate the design and implementation of optimal environmental enrichment for ferrets used in diverse research efforts in vivarium settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Challie JJ Anderson-Mondella
- Comparative Medicine Branch, Division of Scientific Resources, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
- Georgia Gwinnett College, Lawrenceville, Georgia; and
| | - Taronna R Maines
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Cassandra M Tansey
- Comparative Medicine Branch, Division of Scientific Resources, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jessica A Belser
- Immunology and Pathogenesis Branch, Influenza Division, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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4
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Meliopoulos V, Honce R, Livingston B, Hargest V, Freiden P, Lazure L, Brigleb PH, Karlsson E, Tillman H, Allen EK, Boyd D, Thomas PG, Schultz-Cherry S. Diet-induced obesity impacts influenza disease severity and transmission dynamics in ferrets. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.26.558609. [PMID: 37808835 PMCID: PMC10557597 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.26.558609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2023]
Abstract
Obesity, and the associated metabolic syndrome, is a risk factor for increased disease severity with a variety of infectious agents, including influenza virus. Yet the mechanisms are only partially understood. As the number of people, particularly children, living with obesity continues to rise, it is critical to understand the role of host status on disease pathogenesis. In these studies, we use a novel diet-induced obese ferret model and new tools to demonstrate that like humans, obesity resulted in significant changes to the lung microenvironment leading to increased clinical disease and viral spread to the lower respiratory tract. The decreased antiviral responses also resulted in obese animals shedding higher infectious virus for longer making them more likely to transmit to contacts. These data suggest the obese ferret model may be crucial to understanding obesity's impact on influenza disease severity and community transmission, and a key tool for therapeutic and intervention development for this high-risk population. Teaser A new ferret model and tools to explore obesity's impact on respiratory virus infection, susceptibility, and community transmission.
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5
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Mao C, Li J, Feng L, Gao W. Beyond antibody fucosylation: α-(1,6)-fucosyltransferase (Fut8) as a potential new therapeutic target for cancer immunotherapy. Antib Ther 2023; 6:87-96. [PMID: 37077473 PMCID: PMC10108557 DOI: 10.1093/abt/tbad004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aberrant post-translational glycosylation is a well-established hallmark of cancer. Altered core fucosylation mediated by α-(1,6)-fucosyltransferase (Fut8) is one of the key changes in tumor glycan patterns that contributes to neoplastic transformation, tumor metastasis, and immune evasion. Increased Fut8 expression and activity are associated with many types of human cancers, including lung, breast, melanoma, liver, colorectal, ovarian, prostate, thyroid, and pancreatic cancer. In animal models, inhibition of Fut8 activity by gene knockout, RNA interference, and small analogue inhibitors led to reduced tumor growth/metastasis, downregulation of immune checkpoint molecules PD-1, PD-L1/2, and B7-H3, and reversal of the suppressive state of tumor microenvironment. Although the biologics field has long benefited tremendously from using FUT8 -/- Chinese hamster ovary cells to manufacture IgGs with greatly enhanced effector function of antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity for therapy, it is only in recent years that the roles of Fut8 itself in cancer biology have been studied. Here, we summarize the pro-oncogenic mechanisms involved in cancer development that are regulated by Fut8-mediated core fucosylation, and call for more research in this area where modifying the activity of this sole enzyme responsible for core fucosylation could potentially bring rewarding surprises in fighting cancer, infections, and other immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jun Li
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, FL 33199, USA
| | - Lili Feng
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Shandong Cancer Hospital and Institute, Shandong First Medical University and Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, Shandong, 250117, P. R. China
| | - Wenda Gao
- Antagen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Canton, MA 02021, USA
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6
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Zhao Y, Wang CL, Gao ZY, Qiao HX, Wang WJ, Liu XY, Chuai X. Ferrets: A powerful model of SARS-CoV-2. Zool Res 2023; 44:323-330. [PMID: 36799224 PMCID: PMC10083223 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2022.351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The rapid spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) in recent years not only caused a global pandemic but resulted in enormous social, economic, and health burdens worldwide. Despite considerable efforts to combat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), various SARS-CoV-2 variants have emerged, and their underlying mechanisms of pathogenicity remain largely unknown. Furthermore, effective therapeutic drugs are still under development. Thus, an ideal animal model is crucial for studying the pathogenesis of COVID-19 and for the preclinical evaluation of vaccines and antivirals against SARS-CoV-2 and variant infections. Currently, several animal models, including mice, hamsters, ferrets, and non-human primates (NHPs), have been established to study COVID-19. Among them, ferrets are naturally susceptible to SARS-CoV-2 infection and are considered suitable for COVID-19 study. Here, we summarize recent developments and application of SARS-CoV-2 ferret models in studies on pathogenesis, therapeutic agents, and vaccines, and provide a perspective on the role of these models in preventing COVID-19 spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Zhao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
- Institute of Medicine and Healthy of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
| | - Chang-Le Wang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
| | - Zhi-Yun Gao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
- Institute of Medicine and Healthy of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
| | - Hong-Xiu Qiao
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
- Institute of Medicine and Healthy of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
| | - Wei-Jie Wang
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
- Institute of Medicine and Healthy of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
| | - Xin-Yan Liu
- Department of Oncology, Hebei Provincial Thoracic Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050010, China
| | - Xia Chuai
- Department of Pathogenic Biology, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China
- Institute of Medicine and Healthy of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050017, China. E-mail:
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7
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Braun KM, Haddock III LA, Crooks CM, Barry GL, Lalli J, Neumann G, Watanabe T, Imai M, Yamayoshi S, Ito M, Moncla LH, Koelle K, Kawaoka Y, Friedrich TC. Avian H7N9 influenza viruses are evolutionarily constrained by stochastic processes during replication and transmission in mammals. Virus Evol 2023; 9:vead004. [PMID: 36814938 PMCID: PMC9939568 DOI: 10.1093/ve/vead004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
H7N9 avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have caused over 1,500 documented human infections since emerging in 2013. Although wild-type H7N9 AIVs can be transmitted by respiratory droplets in ferrets, they have not yet caused widespread outbreaks in humans. Previous studies have revealed molecular determinants of H7N9 AIV host switching, but little is known about potential evolutionary constraints on this process. Here, we compare patterns of sequence evolution for H7N9 AIV and mammalian H1N1 viruses during replication and transmission in ferrets. We show that three main factors-purifying selection, stochasticity, and very narrow transmission bottlenecks-combine to severely constrain the ability of H7N9 AIV to effectively adapt to mammalian hosts in isolated, acute spillover events. We find rare evidence of natural selection favoring new, potentially mammal-adapting mutations within ferrets but no evidence of natural selection acting during transmission. We conclude that human-adapted H7N9 viruses are unlikely to emerge during typical spillover infections. Our findings are instead consistent with a model in which the emergence of a human-transmissible virus would be a rare and unpredictable, though highly consequential, 'jackpot' event. Strategies to control the total number of spillover infections will limit opportunities for the virus to win this evolutionary lottery.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chelsea M Crooks
- AIDS Vaccine Research Institute, Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 585 Science Dr. Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Gabrielle L Barry
- AIDS Vaccine Research Institute, Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 585 Science Dr. Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Joseph Lalli
- Department of Genetics, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 425 Henry Mall Madison, WI 53706, US
| | - Gabriele Neumann
- Influenza Research Institute, Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 575 Science Dr. Madison, WI 53711, USA
| | - Tokiko Watanabe
- Division of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, 4 Chome-6-1 Shirokanedai Minato City, Tokyo 108-0071, Japan,Department of Molecular Virology, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, 3-1 Yamadaoka Suita City, Osaka 565-0871, Japan,Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research (CiDER), Osaka University, 2-8 Yamadaoka Suita City, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masaki Imai
- Division of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, 4 Chome-6-1 Shirokanedai Minato City, Tokyo 108-0071, Japan,The Research Center for Global Viral Diseases, National Center for Global Health and Medicine Research Institute, 1 Chome-21-1 Toyama Shinjuku City, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
| | | | - Mutsumi Ito
- Division of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, 4 Chome-6-1 Shirokanedai Minato City, Tokyo 108-0071, Japan
| | | | | | - Yoshihiro Kawaoka
- Influenza Research Institute, Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 575 Science Dr. Madison, WI 53711, USA,Division of Virology, Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, 4 Chome-6-1 Shirokanedai Minato City, Tokyo 108-0071, Japan,The Research Center for Global Viral Diseases, National Center for Global Health and Medicine Research Institute, 1 Chome-21-1 Toyama Shinjuku City, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan
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8
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Wang Q, Zeng X, Tang S, Lan L, Wang X, Lai Z, Liu Z, Hou X, Gao L, Yun C, Zhang Z, Leng J, Fan X. Pathogenicity and anti-infection immunity of animal H3N2 and H6N6 subtype influenza virus cross-species infection with tree shrews. Virus Res 2023; 324:199027. [PMID: 36543317 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2022.199027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Animal influenza viruses can spread across species and pose a fatal threat to human health due to the high pathogenicity and mortality. Animal models are crucial for studying cross-species infection and the pathogenesis of influenza viruses. Tupaia belangeri (tree shrew) has been emerging as an animal model for multiple human virus infections recently because of the close genetic relationship and phylogeny with humans. So far, tree shrew has been reported to be susceptible to human influenza virus subtype H1N1, avian influenza viruses subtype H9N2, subtype H5N1, and subtype H7N9. However, the pathogenicity, infection, and immunity of swine and land avian influenza viruses with low pathogenicity and the potential to jump to humans remain largely unexplored in the tree shrew model. Previously, our team has successfully isolated the newly emerging swine influenza virus subtype H3N2 (A/Swine/GX/NS2783/2010, SW2783) and avian influenza virus subtype H6N6 (A/CK/ZZ/346/2014, ZZ346). In this study, we observed the pathogenicity, immune characteristics, and cross-species infection potential ability of SW2783 and ZZ346 strains in tree shrew model with 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID50), hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining, immunohistochemistry (IHC), real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR) and other experimental methods. Both animal-borne influenza viruses had a strong ability on tissue infection in the turbinate and the trachea of tree shrews in vitro, in which SW2783 showed stronger replication ability than in ZZ346. SW2783 and ZZ346 both showed pathogenic ability with infected tree shrews model in vivo without prior adaptive culture, which mainly happened in the upper respiratory tract. However, the infection ability was weak, the clinical symptoms were mild, and the histopathological changes in the respiratory tract were relatively light. Furthermore, innate immune responses and adaptive immunity were observed in the tree shrew model after the infection of SW2783 and ZZ346 strains. We observed that the unadapted SW2783 and ZZ346 virus could transmit among tree shrews by direct contact. We also observed that SW2783 virus could transmit from tree shrews to guinea pigs. These results indicated that both animal-borne influenza viruses could induce similar pathogenicity and immune response to those caused by human-common influenza viruses. Tree shrews may be an excellent animal model for studying the interaction between the influenza virus and the host and the cross-species infection mechanism of the animal influenza virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qihui Wang
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China; Guangxi Colleges and Universities Key Laboratory of Preclinical Medicine, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Xia Zeng
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China; Guangxi Colleges and Universities Key Laboratory of Preclinical Medicine, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Shen Tang
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China; Guangxi Colleges and Universities Key Laboratory of Preclinical Medicine, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Li Lan
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Xinhang Wang
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Zhenping Lai
- Department of Microbiology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Zihe Liu
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Xiaoqiong Hou
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Lingxi Gao
- Department of Microbiology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Chenxia Yun
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Treating High-Incidence Infectious Diseases with Integrative Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530200, China
| | - Zengfeng Zhang
- Guangxi Colleges and Universities Key Laboratory of Preclinical Medicine, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China; Department of Microbiology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China.
| | - Jing Leng
- Department of Immunology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China; Guangxi Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Treating High-Incidence Infectious Diseases with Integrative Medicine, Guangxi University of Chinese Medicine, Nanning 530200, China.
| | - Xiaohui Fan
- Guangxi Colleges and Universities Key Laboratory of Preclinical Medicine, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China; Department of Microbiology, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China.
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9
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Khoury O, Clouse C, McSwain MK, Applegate J, Kock ND, Atala A, Murphy SV. Ferret acute lung injury model induced by repeated nebulized lipopolysaccharide administration. Physiol Rep 2022; 10:e15400. [PMID: 36268626 PMCID: PMC9585421 DOI: 10.14814/phy2.15400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory lung diseases affect millions of people worldwide. These diseases are caused by a number of factors such as pneumonia, sepsis, trauma, and inhalation of toxins. Pulmonary function testing (PFT) is a valuable functional methodology for better understanding mechanisms of lung disease, measuring disease progression, clinical diagnosis, and evaluating therapeutic interventions. Animal models of inflammatory lung diseases are needed that accurately recapitulate disease manifestations observed in human patients and provide an accurate prediction of clinical outcomes using clinically relevant pulmonary disease parameters. In this study, we evaluated a ferret lung inflammation model that closely represents multiple clinical manifestations of acute lung inflammation and injury observed in human patients. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Pseudomonas aeruginosa was nebulized into ferrets for 7 repeated daily doses. Repeated exposure to nebulized LPS resulted in a restrictive pulmonary injury characterized using Buxco forced maneuver PFT system custom developed for ferrets. This is the first study to report repeated forced maneuver PFT in ferrets, establishing lung function measurements pre- and post-injury in live animals. Bronchoalveolar lavage and histological analysis confirmed that LPS exposure elicited pulmonary neutrophilic inflammation and structural damage to the alveoli. We believe this ferret model of lung inflammation, with clinically relevant disease manifestations and parameters for functional evaluation, is a useful pre-clinical model for understanding human inflammatory lung disease and for the evaluation of potential therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oula Khoury
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative MedicineWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Cara Clouse
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative MedicineWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Malcolm K. McSwain
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative MedicineWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Jeffrey Applegate
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary MedicineNorth Carolina State UniversityRaleighNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Nancy D. Kock
- Department of Pathology/Comparative MedicineWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Anthony Atala
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative MedicineWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
| | - Sean V. Murphy
- Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative MedicineWake Forest University School of MedicineWinston‐SalemNorth CarolinaUSA
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10
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Lynch TJ, Ahlers BA, Swatek AM, Ievlev V, Pai AC, Brooks L, Tang Y, Evans IA, Meyerholz DK, Engelhardt JF, Parekh KR. Ferret Lung Transplantation Models Differential Lymphoid Aggregate Morphology Between Restrictive and Obstructive Forms of Chronic Lung Allograft Dysfunction. Transplantation 2022; 106:1974-1989. [PMID: 35442232 PMCID: PMC9529760 DOI: 10.1097/tp.0000000000004148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Long-term survival after lung transplantation remains limited by chronic lung allograft dysfunction (CLAD). CLAD has 2 histologic phenotypes, namely obliterative bronchiolitis (OB) and restrictive alveolar fibroelastosis (AFE), which have distinct clinical presentations, pathologies, and outcomes. Understanding of OB versus AFE pathogenesis would improve with better animal models. METHODS We utilized a ferret orthotopic single-lung transplantation model to characterize allograft fibrosis as a histologic measure of CLAD. Native lobes and "No CLAD" allografts lacking aberrant histology were used as controls. We used morphometric analysis to evaluate the size and abundance of B-cell aggregates and tertiary lymphoid organs (TLOs) and their cell composition. Quantitative RNA expression of 47 target genes was performed simultaneously using a custom QuantiGene Plex Assay. RESULTS Ferret lung allografts develop the full spectrum of human CLAD histology including OB and AFE subtypes. While both OB and AFE allografts developed TLOs, TLO size and number were greater with AFE histology. More activated germinal center cells marked by B-cell lymphoma 6 Transcription Repressor, (B-cell lymphoma 6) expression and fewer cells expressing forkhead box P3 correlated with AFE, congruent with greater diffuse immunoglobulin, plasma cell abundance, and complement 4d staining. Furthermore, forkhead box P3 RNA induction was significant in OB allografts specifically. RNA expression changes were seen in native lobes of animals with AFE but not OB when compared with No CLAD native lobes. CONCLUSIONS The orthotopic ferret single-lung transplant model provides unique opportunities to better understand factors that dispose allografts to OB versus AFE. This will help develop potential immunomodulatory therapies and antifibrotic approaches for lung transplant patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J. Lynch
- Department of Surgery, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Bethany A. Ahlers
- Department of Surgery, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Anthony M. Swatek
- Department of Surgery, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Vitaly Ievlev
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Albert C. Pai
- Department of Surgery, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Leonard Brooks
- Department of Surgery, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Yinghua Tang
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Idil A. Evans
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - David K. Meyerholz
- Department of Pathology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - John F. Engelhardt
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
| | - Kalpaj R. Parekh
- Department of Surgery, Carver College of Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa
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11
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Gupta T, Somanna N, Rowe T, LaGatta M, Helms S, Owino SO, Jelesijevic T, Harvey S, Jacobs W, Voss T, Sakamoto K, Day C, Whalen C, Karls R, He B, Tompkins SM, Bakre A, Ross T, Quinn FD. Ferrets as a model for tuberculosis transmission. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:873416. [PMID: 36051240 PMCID: PMC9425069 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.873416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Even with the COVID-19 pandemic, tuberculosis remains a leading cause of human death due to a single infectious agent. Until successfully treated, infected individuals may continue to transmit Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacilli to contacts. As with other respiratory pathogens, such as SARS-CoV-2, modeling the process of person-to-person transmission will inform efforts to develop vaccines and therapies that specifically impede disease transmission. The ferret (Mustela furo), a relatively inexpensive, small animal has been successfully employed to model transmissibility, pathogenicity, and tropism of influenza and other respiratory disease agents. Ferrets can become naturally infected with Mycobacterium bovis and are closely related to badgers, well known in Great Britain and elsewhere as a natural transmission vehicle for bovine tuberculosis. Herein, we report results of a study demonstrating that within 7 weeks of intratracheal infection with a high dose (>5 x 103 CFU) of M. tuberculosis bacilli, ferrets develop clinical signs and pathological features similar to acute disease reported in larger animals, and ferrets infected with very-high doses (>5 x 104 CFU) develop severe signs within two to four weeks, with loss of body weight as high as 30%. Natural transmission of this pathogen was also examined. Acutely-infected ferrets transmitted M. tuberculosis bacilli to co-housed naïve sentinels; most of the sentinels tested positive for M. tuberculosis in nasal washes, while several developed variable disease symptomologies similar to those reported for humans exposed to an active tuberculosis patient in a closed setting. Transmission was more efficient when the transmitting animal had a well-established acute infection. The findings support further assessment of this model system for tuberculosis transmission including the testing of prevention measures and vaccine efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuhina Gupta
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Naveen Somanna
- Molecular Analytics R&D, GlaxoSmithKline Vaccines, Rockville, MD, United States
| | - Thomas Rowe
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Influenza Division, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Monica LaGatta
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Shelly Helms
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Simon Odera Owino
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Tomislav Jelesijevic
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
| | - Stephen Harvey
- Animal Resources Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Wayne Jacobs
- Animal Resources Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Thomas Voss
- Merck Research Laboratories, West Point, PA, United States
| | - Kaori Sakamoto
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Cheryl Day
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Christopher Whalen
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Russell Karls
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Biao He
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - S. Mark Tompkins
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Abhijeet Bakre
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Ted Ross
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Frederick D. Quinn
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- *Correspondence: Frederick D. Quinn,
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12
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Renn M, Bartok E, Zillinger T, Hartmann G, Behrendt R. Animal models of SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 for the development of prophylactic and therapeutic interventions. Pharmacol Ther 2021; 228:107931. [PMID: 34171328 PMCID: PMC8219947 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Infections of the Coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 continue to spread around the globe, causing Coronavirus Disease (COVID)-19. Infected people are at risk of developing acute interstitial pneumonia, which can result in lethal complications, particularly in patients with pre-existing co-morbidities. Novel prophylactic and therapeutic interventions are urgently needed to limit the infection-associated health risk for the population and to contain the pandemic. Animal models are indispensable to assessing the efficacy and safety of potential new antivirals, vaccines, and other innovative therapies, such as nucleic acid agonists of innate immune sensing receptors. In this review, we provide an overview of the commonly used animal models to study SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19, including a summary of their susceptibility to infection, the spectrum of symptoms elicited, and the potential for drug development in each model. We hope that this review will help researchers to decide on the right model organism to quickly address their specific scientific questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Renn
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; Mildred Scheel School of Oncology, University Hospital Bonn, Medical Faculty, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Eva Bartok
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; Unit of Experimental Immunology, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Thomas Zillinger
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany; Institute of Immunology, School of Medicine, Philipps University Marburg, 35043 Marburg, Germany
| | - Gunther Hartmann
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Hospital Bonn, 53127 Bonn, Germany
| | - Rayk Behrendt
- Institute for Immunology, Technische Universität Dresden, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, 01307 Dresden, Germany.
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13
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Hundakova A, Leva L, Toman M, Knotek Z. A ferret model of immunosuppression induced with dexamethasone. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2021; 243:110362. [PMID: 34826685 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2021.110362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Ferrets are nowadays frequently used as animal models for biomedical purposes; in many cases, immunosuppression of experimental animals is necessary. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of intramuscular dexamethasone administration (2 mg/kg as the initiation dose continued with 1 mg/kg q 12 h applied 5 times) on ferret's immune system. In comparison with ferrets which received the saline (n = 5), significantly lower total counts of leukocytes (P < 0.01), lymphocytes (P < 0.01) and monocyte (P < 0.05), as well as absolute numbers of CD4+CD8- (P < 0.01) and CD4-CD8+ (P < 0.01) subsets were noted in dexamethasone treated ferrets (n = 5) the first day after the treatment (D1). Absolute number of CD79+ lymphocytes remained unchanged throughout the experiment. The proliferation activity of lymphocytes in dexamethasone treated ferrets was lower only in D1 using concanavalin A (conA), phytohemagglutinin (PHA) and pokeweed mitogen (PWM); statistical significance was noted using PHA 40 (P < 0.05) and PWM 10 (P < 0.01). Lower neutrophil activity (P < 0.01) was detected in D1 after the dexamethasone treatment in both production of reactive oxygen species (chemiluminescence test) and ingestion of particles (phagocytosis assay). The dexamethasone treatment proved to be useful for short-term immunosuppression in ferrets. The results closely resembled data previously reported in human studies and indicate classification of ferrets as steroid-resistant species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Hundakova
- Avian and Exotic Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackeho trida 1946/1, 612 42, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Lenka Leva
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslav Toman
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, Veterinary Research Institute, Hudcova 296/70, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic; Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackeho trida 1946/1, 612 42, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Zdenek Knotek
- Avian and Exotic Animal Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary Sciences Brno, Palackeho trida 1946/1, 612 42, Brno, Czech Republic
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14
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Mao C, Near R, Zhong X, Gao W. Cross-species higher sensitivities of FcγRIIIA/FcγRIV to afucosylated IgG for enhanced ADCC. Antib Ther 2021; 4:159-170. [PMID: 34485821 PMCID: PMC8408537 DOI: 10.1093/abt/tbab016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Expressing afucosylated human IgG1 antibodies with Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells deficient of α-(1,6)-fucosyltransferase (FUT8) is being more and more accepted as a routine method to enhance antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) of therapeutic antibodies, especially for anti-cancer regimens. However, in pre-clinical studies relying on disease models other than mice and primates, e.g., those underrepresented species for infectious diseases, it is less clear whether such afucosylated antibodies can demonstrate enhanced therapeutic index. This is because the orthologues of human FcγRIIIA or mouse FcγRIV from those species have not been well characterized. Methods We set up a luciferase-based ADCC assay with Jurkat reporter cells expressing FcγRIIIA/FcγRIV from human, mouse, rat, hamster, guinea pig, ferret, rabbit, cat, dog, pig and monkey, and also produced human, mouse, hamster, rabbit and pig IgG from wild type and Fut8−/− CHO cells or hybridomas. Results We confirmed that enhanced stimulation through FcγRIIIA/FcγRIV by afucosylated IgG, as compared with wild type IgG, is a cross-species phenomenon. Conclusions Thus, efficacy and toxicology studies of the next generation afucosylated therapeutic IgG and Fc fusion proteins in these underrepresented animal models should be expected to generate translatable data for treating human diseases, leading to the expanded applications of this new class of glycoengineered biologics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Near
- Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Xuemei Zhong
- Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Wenda Gao
- Antagen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Canton, MA 02021, USA
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15
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Patel DR, Field CJ, Septer KM, Sim DG, Jones MJ, Heinly TA, Vanderford TH, McGraw EA, Sutton TC. Transmission and Protection against Reinfection in the Ferret Model with the SARS-CoV-2 USA-WA1/2020 Reference Isolate. J Virol 2021; 95:e0223220. [PMID: 33827954 PMCID: PMC8315962 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02232-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has initiated a global pandemic, and several vaccines have now received emergency use authorization. Using the reference strain SARS-CoV-2 USA-WA1/2020, we evaluated modes of transmission and the ability of prior infection or vaccine-induced immunity to protect against infection in ferrets. Ferrets were semipermissive to infection with the USA-WA1/2020 isolate. When transmission was assessed via the detection of viral RNA (vRNA) at multiple time points, direct contact transmission was efficient to 3/3 and 3/4 contact animals in 2 respective studies, while respiratory droplet transmission was poor to only 1/4 contact animals. To determine if previously infected ferrets were protected against reinfection, ferrets were rechallenged 28 or 56 days postinfection. Following viral challenge, no infectious virus was recovered in nasal wash samples. In addition, levels of vRNA in the nasal wash were several orders of magnitude lower than during primary infection, and vRNA was rapidly cleared. To determine if intramuscular vaccination protected ferrets, ferrets were vaccinated using a prime-boost strategy with the S protein receptor-binding domain formulated with an oil-in-water adjuvant. Upon viral challenge, none of the mock or vaccinated animals were protected against infection, and there were no significant differences in vRNA or infectious virus titers in the nasal wash. Combined, these studies demonstrate direct contact is the predominant mode of transmission of the USA-WA1/2020 isolate in ferrets and that immunity to SARS-CoV-2 is maintained for at least 56 days. Our studies also indicate protection of the upper respiratory tract against SARS-CoV-2 will require vaccine strategies that mimic natural infection or induce site-specific immunity. IMPORTANCE The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) USA-WA1/2020 strain is a CDC reference strain used by multiple research laboratories. Here, we show that the predominant mode of transmission of this isolate in ferrets is by direct contact. We further demonstrate ferrets are protected against reinfection for at least 56 days even when levels of neutralizing antibodies are low or undetectable. Last, we show that when ferrets were vaccinated by the intramuscular route to induce antibodies against SARS-CoV-2, ferrets remain susceptible to infection of the upper respiratory tract. Collectively, these studies suggest that protection of the upper respiratory tract will require vaccine approaches that mimic natural infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devanshi R. Patel
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Cassandra J. Field
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Emory-UGA Center of Excellence of Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Kayla M. Septer
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Derek G. Sim
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biology, The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Matthew J. Jones
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Biology, The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Talia A. Heinly
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Emory-UGA Center of Excellence of Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Thomas H. Vanderford
- Division of Microbiology and Immunology, Yerkes National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Elizabeth A. McGraw
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Department of Entomology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Troy C. Sutton
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Science, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
- Emory-UGA Center of Excellence of Influenza Research and Surveillance (CEIRS), University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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16
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Schiffman Z, Liu G, Cao W, Zhu W, Emeterio K, Qiu X, Banadyga L. The Ferret as a Model for Filovirus Pathogenesis and Countermeasure Evaluation. ILAR J 2021; 61:62-71. [PMID: 33951727 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilab011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) has long been a popular animal model for evaluating viral pathogenesis and transmission as well as the efficacy of candidate countermeasures. Without question, the ferret has been most widely implemented for modeling respiratory viruses, particularly influenza viruses; however, in recent years, it has gained attention as a novel animal model for characterizing filovirus infections. Although ferrets appear resistant to infection and disease caused by Marburg and Ravn viruses, they are highly susceptible to lethal disease caused by Ebola, Sudan, Bundibugyo, and Reston viruses. Notably, unlike the immunocompetent rodent models of filovirus infection, ferrets are susceptible to lethal disease caused by wild-type viruses, and they recapitulate many aspects of human filovirus disease, including systemic virus replication, coagulation abnormalities, and a dysregulated immune response. Along with the stringency with which they reproduce Ebola disease, their relatively small size and availability make ferrets an attractive choice for countermeasure evaluation and pathogenesis modeling. Indeed, they are so far the only small animal model available for Bundibugyo virus. Nevertheless, ferrets do have their limitations, including the lack of commercially available reagents to dissect host responses and their unproven predictive value in therapeutic evaluation. Although the use of the ferret model in ebolavirus research has been consistent over the last few years, its widespread use and utility remains to be fully proven. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the ferret models of filovirus infection and perspective on their ongoing use in pathogenesis modeling and countermeasure evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Schiffman
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.,Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Guodong Liu
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Wenguang Cao
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Wenjun Zhu
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Karla Emeterio
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.,Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Xiangguo Qiu
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Logan Banadyga
- Special Pathogens Program, National Microbiology Laboratory, Public Health Agency of Canada, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
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17
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Spruit CM, Nemanichvili N, Okamatsu M, Takematsu H, Boons GJ, de Vries RP. N-Glycolylneuraminic Acid in Animal Models for Human Influenza A Virus. Viruses 2021; 13:815. [PMID: 34062844 PMCID: PMC8147317 DOI: 10.3390/v13050815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The first step in influenza virus infection is the binding of hemagglutinin to sialic acid-containing glycans present on the cell surface. Over 50 different sialic acid modifications are known, of which N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) and N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) are the two main species. Animal models with α2,6 linked Neu5Ac in the upper respiratory tract, similar to humans, are preferred to enable and mimic infection with unadapted human influenza A viruses. Animal models that are currently most often used to study human influenza are mice and ferrets. Additionally, guinea pigs, cotton rats, Syrian hamsters, tree shrews, domestic swine, and non-human primates (macaques and marmosets) are discussed. The presence of NeuGc and the distribution of sialic acid linkages in the most commonly used models is summarized and experimentally determined. We also evaluated the role of Neu5Gc in infection using Neu5Gc binding viruses and cytidine monophosphate-N-acetylneuraminic acid hydroxylase (CMAH)-/- knockout mice, which lack Neu5Gc and concluded that Neu5Gc is unlikely to be a decoy receptor. This article provides a base for choosing an appropriate animal model. Although mice are one of the most favored models, they are hardly naturally susceptible to infection with human influenza viruses, possibly because they express mainly α2,3 linked sialic acids with both Neu5Ac and Neu5Gc modifications. We suggest using ferrets, which resemble humans closely in the sialic acid content, both in the linkages and the lack of Neu5Gc, lung organization, susceptibility, and disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cindy M. Spruit
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.M.S.); (G.-J.B.)
| | - Nikoloz Nemanichvili
- Division of Pathology, Department of Biomolecular Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands;
| | - Masatoshi Okamatsu
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Department of Disease Control, Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Sapporo 060-0818, Hokkaido, Japan;
| | - Hiromu Takematsu
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Faculty of Medical Technology, Graduate School of Health Sciences, Fujita Health University, 1-98 Dengakugakubo, Kutsukake, Toyoake 470-1192, Aichi, Japan;
| | - Geert-Jan Boons
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.M.S.); (G.-J.B.)
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Robert P. de Vries
- Department of Chemical Biology & Drug Discovery, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands; (C.M.S.); (G.-J.B.)
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18
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Danilenko DM, Eropkin MY, Leonenko VN, Konovalova NI, Petrova PA, Zheltukhina AI, Vassilieva AD. Assessment of rat polyclonal antisera's suitability in hemagglutination inhibition assay for influenza surveillance and antigenic mapping. J Virol Methods 2021; 293:114170. [PMID: 33901526 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2021.114170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents comparative hemagglutination inhibition (HI) assay data obtained using ferret or rat antisera to analyze influenza viruses. The results indicate that rat antisera can be successfully applied both for identification and for antigenic analysis of human influenza A and B viruses. Data gained with rat antisera were comparable to those obtained with ferret antisera. In-depth statistical analysis, based on Confusion Matrix analysis and Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis, confirmed good coincidence between ferret antisera-based and rat antisera-based results. Two-dimensional antigenic mapping, based on HI assays using rat and ferret antisera, supported these findings. Both antisera types yielded identical antigenic attributions for the viruses analyzed, and both permitted visualization of contemporary human influenza virus evolutionary trends.
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Affiliation(s)
- D M Danilenko
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - M Y Eropkin
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia.
| | - V N Leonenko
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia; ITMO University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - N I Konovalova
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - P A Petrova
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - A I Zheltukhina
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - A D Vassilieva
- Smorodintsev Research Institute of Influenza, Russian Ministry of Health, Saint Petersburg, Russia
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19
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T Cell Immunity against Influenza: The Long Way from Animal Models Towards a Real-Life Universal Flu Vaccine. Viruses 2021; 13:v13020199. [PMID: 33525620 PMCID: PMC7911237 DOI: 10.3390/v13020199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Current flu vaccines rely on the induction of strain-specific neutralizing antibodies, which leaves the population vulnerable to drifted seasonal or newly emerged pandemic strains. Therefore, universal flu vaccine approaches that induce broad immunity against conserved parts of influenza have top priority in research. Cross-reactive T cell responses, especially tissue-resident memory T cells in the respiratory tract, provide efficient heterologous immunity, and must therefore be a key component of universal flu vaccines. Here, we review recent findings about T cell-based flu immunity, with an emphasis on tissue-resident memory T cells in the respiratory tract of humans and different animal models. Furthermore, we provide an update on preclinical and clinical studies evaluating T cell-evoking flu vaccines, and discuss the implementation of T cell immunity in real-life vaccine policies.
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20
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Jiang W, Wong J, Tan HX, Kelly HG, Whitney PG, Barr I, Layton DS, Kent SJ, Wheatley AK, Juno JA. Screening and development of monoclonal antibodies for identification of ferret T follicular helper cells. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1864. [PMID: 33479388 PMCID: PMC7820401 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-81389-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The ferret is a key animal model for investigating the pathogenicity and transmissibility of important human viruses, and for the pre‐clinical assessment of vaccines. However, relatively little is known about the ferret immune system, due in part to a paucity of ferret‐reactive reagents. In particular, T follicular helper (Tfh) cells are critical in the generation of effective humoral responses in humans, mice and other animal models but to date it has not been possible to identify Tfh in ferrets. Here, we describe the screening and development of ferret-reactive BCL6, CXCR5 and PD-1 monoclonal antibodies. We found two commercial anti-BCL6 antibodies (clone K112-91 and clone IG191E/A8) had cross-reactivity with lymph node cells from influenza-infected ferrets. We next developed two murine monoclonal antibodies against ferret CXCR5 (clone feX5-C05) and PD-1 (clone fePD-CL1) using a single B cell PCR-based method. We were able to clearly identify Tfh cells in lymph nodes from influenza infected ferrets using these antibodies. The development of ferret Tfh marker antibodies and the identification of ferret Tfh cells will assist the evaluation of vaccine-induced Tfh responses in the ferret model and the design of novel vaccines against the infection of influenza and other viruses, including SARS-CoV2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbo Jiang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Julius Wong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Hyon-Xhi Tan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Hannah G Kelly
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Paul G Whitney
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research On Influenza, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Ian Barr
- WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research On Influenza, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Daniel S Layton
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratories, Geelong, VIC, Australia
| | - Stephen J Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.,Melbourne Sexual Health Clinic and Infectious Diseases Department, Alfred Hospital, Monash University Central Clinical School, Carlton, VIC, Australia.,ARC Centre for Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Adam K Wheatley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Jennifer A Juno
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
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21
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Abstract
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a pathogen of both humans and livestock in Africa and the Middle East. Severe human disease is associated with hepatitis and/or encephalitis. Current pathogenesis studies rely on rodents and nonhuman primates, which have advantages and disadvantages. We evaluated disease progression in Mustela putorius furo (the ferret) following intradermal (i.d.) or intranasal (i.n.) infection. Infected ferrets developed hyperpyrexia, weight loss, lymphopenia, and hypoalbuminemia. Three of four ferrets inoculated intranasally with RVFV developed central nervous system (CNS) disease that manifested as seizure, ataxia, and/or hind limb weakness at 8 to 11 days postinfection (dpi). Animals with clinical CNS disease had transient viral RNAemia, high viral RNA loads in the brain, and histopathological evidence of encephalitis. The ferret model will facilitate our understanding of how RVFV accesses the CNS and has utility for the evaluation of vaccines and/or therapeutics in preventing RVFV CNS disease.IMPORTANCE Animal models of viral disease are very important for understanding how viruses make people sick and for testing out drugs and vaccines to see if they can prevent disease. In this study, we identify the ferret as a model of encephalitis caused by Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV). This novel model will allow researchers to evaluate ways to prevent RVFV encephalitis.
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22
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Sherburn R, Tolbert WD, Gottumukkala S, Beaudoin-Bussières G, Finzi A, Pazgier M. Effects of gp120 Inner Domain (ID2) Immunogen Doses on Elicitation of Anti-HIV-1 Functional Fc-Effector Response to C1/C2 (Cluster A) Epitopes in Mice. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8101490. [PMID: 32998443 PMCID: PMC7650682 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8101490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Fc-mediated effector functions of antibodies, including antibody-dependent cytotoxicity (ADCC), have been shown to contribute to vaccine-induced protection from HIV-1 infection, especially those directed against non-neutralizing, CD4 inducible (CD4i) epitopes within the gp120 constant 1 and 2 regions (C1/C2 or Cluster A epitopes). However, recent passive immunization studies have not been able to definitively confirm roles for these antibodies in HIV-1 prevention mostly due to the complications of cross-species Fc–FcR interactions and suboptimal dosing strategies. Here, we use our stabilized gp120 Inner domain (ID2) immunogen that displays the Cluster A epitopes within a minimal structural unit of HIV-1 Env to investigate an immunization protocol that induces a fine-tuned antibody repertoire capable of an effective Fc-effector response. This includes the generation of isotypes and the enhanced antibody specificity known to be vital for maximal Fc-effector activities, while minimizing the induction of isotypes know to be detrimental for these functions. Although our studies were done in in BALB/c mice we conclude that when optimally titrated for the species of interest, ID2 with GLA-SE adjuvant will elicit high titers of antibodies targeting the Cluster A region with potent Fc-mediated effector functions, making it a valuable immunogen candidate for testing an exclusive role of non-neutralizing antibody response in HIV-1 protection in vaccine settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebekah Sherburn
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine of Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA; (R.S.); (W.D.T.); (S.G.)
| | - William D. Tolbert
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine of Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA; (R.S.); (W.D.T.); (S.G.)
| | - Suneetha Gottumukkala
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine of Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA; (R.S.); (W.D.T.); (S.G.)
| | | | - Andrés Finzi
- Centre de Recherche du CHUM, Montreal, QC H2X 0A9, Canada; (G.B.-B.); (A.F.)
- Département de Microbiologie, Infectiologie et Immunologie, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3C 3J7, Canada
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Marzena Pazgier
- Infectious Disease Division, Department of Medicine of Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4712, USA; (R.S.); (W.D.T.); (S.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +301-295-3291; Fax: +301-295-355
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23
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Wong J, Tai CM, Hurt AC, Tan HX, Kent SJ, Wheatley AK. Sequencing B cell receptors from ferrets (Mustela putorius furo). PLoS One 2020; 15:e0233794. [PMID: 32470013 PMCID: PMC7259655 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0233794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The domestic ferret (Mustela putorius furo) provides a critical animal model to study human respiratory diseases. However immunological insights are restricted due to a lack of ferret-specific reagents and limited genetic information about ferret B and T cell receptors. Here, variable, diversity and joining genes within the ferret kappa, lambda and heavy chain immunoglobulin loci were annotated using available genomic information. A multiplex PCR approach was derived that facilitated the recovery of paired heavy and light chain immunoglobulin sequences from single sorted ferret B cells, allowing validation of predicted germline gene sequences and the identification of putative novel germlines. Eukaryotic expression vectors were developed that enabled the generation of recombinant ferret monoclonal antibodies. This work advances the ferret as an informative immunological model for viral diseases by allowing the in-depth interrogation of antibody-based immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julius Wong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Celeste M. Tai
- World Health Organization (WHO) Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Aeron C. Hurt
- World Health Organization (WHO) Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Hyon-Xhi Tan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Stephen J. Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Melbourne Sexual Health Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- ARC Centre for Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (AKW); (SJK)
| | - Adam K. Wheatley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- ARC Centre for Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail: (AKW); (SJK)
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24
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Wong J, Layton D, Wheatley AK, Kent SJ. Improving immunological insights into the ferret model of human viral infectious disease. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2019; 13:535-546. [PMID: 31583825 PMCID: PMC6800307 DOI: 10.1111/irv.12687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2019] [Revised: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferrets are a well‐established model for studying both the pathogenesis and transmission of human respiratory viruses and evaluation of antiviral vaccines. Advanced immunological studies would add substantial value to the ferret models of disease but are hindered by the low number of ferret‐reactive reagents available for flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry. Nevertheless, progress has been made to understand immune responses in the ferret model with a limited set of ferret‐specific reagents and assays. This review examines current immunological insights gained from the ferret model across relevant human respiratory diseases, with a focus on influenza viruses. We highlight key knowledge gaps that need to be bridged to advance the utility of ferrets for immunological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julius Wong
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Daniel Layton
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratories, Geelong, Vic., Australia
| | - Adam K Wheatley
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Stephen J Kent
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,Melbourne Sexual Health Centre and Department of Infectious Diseases, Alfred Hospital and Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.,ARC Centre for Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia
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