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Bogacki-Rychlik W, Gawęda K, Bialy M. Neurophysiology of male sexual arousal-Behavioral perspective. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 17:1330460. [PMID: 38333545 PMCID: PMC10851294 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1330460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
In the presented review, we analyzed the physiology of male sexual arousal and its relation to the motivational aspects of this behavior. We highlighted the distinction between these processes based on observable physiological and behavioral parameters. Thus, we proposed the experimentally applicable differentiation between sexual arousal (SA) and sexual motivation (SM). We propose to define sexual arousal as an overall autonomic nervous system response leading to penile erection, triggered selectively by specific sexual cues. These autonomic processes include both spinal and supraspinal neuronal networks, activated by sensory pathways including information from sexual partner and sexual context, as well as external and internal genital organs. To avoid misinterpretation of experimental data, we also propose to precise the term "sexual motivation" as all actions performed by the individual that increase the probability of sexual interactions or increase the probability of exposition to sexual context cues. Neuronal structures such as the amygdala, bed nucleus of stria terminalis, hypothalamus, nucleus raphe, periaqueductal gray, and nucleus paragigantocellularis play crucial roles in controlling the level of arousal and regulating peripheral responses via specific autonomic effectors. On the highest level of CNS, the activity of cortical structures involved in the regulation of the autonomic nervous system, such as the insula and anterior cingulate cortex, can visualize an elevated level of SA in both animal and human brains. From a preclinical perspective, we underlie the usefulness of the non-contact erection test (NCE) procedure in understanding factors influencing sexual arousal, including studies of sexual preference in animal models. Taken together results obtained by different methods, we wanted to focus attention on neurophysiological aspects that are distinctly related to sexual arousal and can be used as an objective parameter, leading to higher translational transparency between basic, preclinical, and clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michal Bialy
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Physiology, Laboratory of Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
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2
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Detraux B, Vilella A, De Groote A, Schiffmann SN, Zoli M, de Kerchove d'Exaerde A. Dorsal and ventral striatal neuronal subpopulations differentially disrupt male mouse copulatory behavior. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 49:23-37. [PMID: 33780705 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The specific role of the striatum, especially its dorsolateral (DLS) and dorsomedial (DMS) parts, in male copulatory behavior is still debated. In order to clarify their contribution to male sexual behavior, we specifically ablated the major striatal neuronal subpopulations, direct and indirect medium spiny neurons (dMSNs and iMSNs) in DMS or DLS, and dMSNs, iMSNs and cholinergic interneurons in nucleus accumbens (NAc), The main results of this study can be summarized as follows: In DMS, dMSN ablation causes a reduction in the percent of mice that mount a receptive female, and a complex alteration in the parameters of the copulatory performance, that is largely opposite to the alterations induced by iMSN ablation. In DLS, dMSN ablation causes a widespread alteration in the copulatory behavior parameters, that tends to disappear at repetition of the test; iMSN ablation induces minor copulatory behavior alterations that are complementary to those observed after dMSN ablation. In NAc, dMSN ablation causes a marked reduction in the percent of mice that mount a receptive female and a disruption of copulatory behavior, while iMSN ablation induces minor copulatory behavior alterations that are opposite to those observed with dMSN ablation, and cholinergic neuron ablation induces a selective decrease in mount latency. Overall, present data point to a complex region and cell-specific contribution to copulatory behavior of the different neuronal subpopulations of both dorsal and ventral striatum, with a prominent role of the dMSNs of the different subregions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bérangère Detraux
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels B-1070, Belgium
| | - Antonietta Vilella
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology (CfNN), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Aurélie De Groote
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels B-1070, Belgium
| | - Serge N Schiffmann
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels B-1070, Belgium
| | - Michele Zoli
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Center for Neuroscience and Neurotechnology (CfNN), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Alban de Kerchove d'Exaerde
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, ULB Neuroscience Institute, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Brussels B-1070, Belgium.
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3
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Huijgens PT, Heijkoop R, Snoeren EMS. Silencing and stimulating the medial amygdala impairs ejaculation but not sexual incentive motivation in male rats. Behav Brain Res 2021; 405:113206. [PMID: 33639266 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The medial amygdala (MeA) is a sexually dimorphic brain region that integrates sensory information and hormonal signaling, and is involved in the regulation of social behaviors. Lesion studies have shown a role for the MeA in copulation, most prominently in the promotion of ejaculation. The role of the MeA in sexual motivation, but also in temporal patterning of copulation, has not been extensively studied in rats. Here, we investigated the effect of chemogenetic inhibition and stimulation of the MeA on sexual incentive motivation and copulation in sexually experienced male rats. AAV5-CaMKIIa viral vectors coding for Gi, Gq, or no DREADDs (sham) were bilaterally infused into the MeA. Rats were assessed in the sexual incentive motivation test and copulation test upon systemic clozapine N-oxide (CNO) or vehicle administration. We report that MeA stimulation and inhibition did not affect sexual incentive motivation. Moreover, both stimulation and inhibition of the MeA decreased the number of ejaculations in a 30 min copulation test and increased ejaculation latency and the number of mounts and intromissions preceding ejaculation, while leaving the temporal pattern of copulation intact. These results indicate that the MeA may be involved in the processing of sensory feedback required to reach ejaculation threshold. The convergence of the behavioral effects of stimulating as well as inhibiting the MeA may reflect opposing behavioral control of specific neuronal populations within the MeA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patty T Huijgens
- Department of Psychology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Roy Heijkoop
- Department of Psychology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Eelke M S Snoeren
- Department of Psychology, UiT the Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway.
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4
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Hull EM, Dominguez JM. Neuroendocrine Regulation of Male Sexual Behavior. Compr Physiol 2019; 9:1383-1410. [DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c180018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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5
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Quintana GR, Guizar A, Rassi S, Pfaus JG. First sexual experiences determine the development of conditioned ejaculatory preference in male rats. Learn Mem 2018; 25:522-532. [PMID: 30224555 PMCID: PMC6149951 DOI: 10.1101/lm.048090.118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
We have shown previously that male rats develop a conditioned ejaculatory preference (CEP) for females scented with a neutral odor like almond or lemon that is paired with the male's post-ejaculatory reward state during their first and subsequent early sexual experiences. However, preexposing males to the neutral odor alone prior to its pairing with sexual reward results in latent inhibition. Here, we examined the phenomenon of unconditioned stimulus (US) preexposure, in which male rats were preexposed to the ejaculatory reward state either one or five times with scented (ScF) versus unscented (UnScF) females prior to multiple ejaculatory trials with females in the opposite condition (e.g., ScF preexposure received 10 subsequent ejaculatory trials with UnScF, whereas UnScF preexposure received 10 subsequent ejaculatory trials with ScF). As before, mate and partner preference was evaluated in an open field where each male had access to two females, one ScF and the other UnScF. Males that underwent five trials of preexposure did not display a CEP for either female. Conversely, males preexposed once to a ScF, and later trained with UnScF developed a preference for the latter, whereas males preexposed once to the UnScF, and then trained with ScF did not show a preference for any of the females. Subsequent exposure to the odor cue alone revealed different patterns of brain activation in areas related to sexual behavior that depended on the animal's group membership. Altogether, these findings demonstrate the pivotal role of first sexual experiences in the establishment of future sexual partner preference in the male rat, and suggest an innate preference for estrous odors over neutral odors that can become conditioned subsequently as predictors of sexual reward.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrés Guizar
- CSBN/Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Sarah Rassi
- CSBN/Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - James G Pfaus
- CSBN/Psychology, Concordia University, Montréal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada
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6
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Seizert CA. The neurobiology of the male sexual refractory period. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 92:350-377. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Revised: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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7
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Giatti S, Diviccaro S, Panzica G, Melcangi RC. Post-finasteride syndrome and post-SSRI sexual dysfunction: two sides of the same coin? Endocrine 2018; 61:180-193. [PMID: 29675596 DOI: 10.1007/s12020-018-1593-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Sexual dysfunction is a clinical condition due to different causes including the iatrogenic origin. For instance, it is well known that sexual dysfunction may occur in patients treated with antidepressants like selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI). A similar side effect has been also reported during treatment with finasteride, an inhibitor of the enzyme 5alpha-reductase, for androgenetic alopecia. Interestingly, sexual dysfunction persists in both cases after drug discontinuation. These conditions have been named post-SSRI sexual dysfunction (PSSD) and post-finasteride syndrome (PFS). In particular, feeling of a lack of connection between the brain and penis, loss of libido and sex drive, difficulty in achieving an erection and genital paresthesia have been reported by patients of both conditions. It is interesting to note that the incidence of these diseases is probably so far underestimated and their etiopathogenesis is not sufficiently explored. To this aim, the present review will report the state of art of these two different pathologies and discuss, on the basis of the role exerted by three different neuromodulators such as dopamine, serotonin and neuroactive steroids, whether the persistent sexual dysfunction observed could be determined by common mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Giatti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Silvia Diviccaro
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Panzica
- Dipartimento di Neuroscienze "Rita Levi Montalcini", Università degli studi di Torino, Neuroscience Institute Cavallieri Ottolenghi (NICO), Orbassano, Italy
| | - Roberto Cosimo Melcangi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmacologiche e Biomolecolari, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
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8
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Canseco-Alba A, Rodríguez-Manzo G. Intra-VTA anandamide infusion produces dose-based biphasic effects on male rat sexual behavior expression. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2016; 150-151:182-189. [PMID: 27856203 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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9
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Steadman CJ, Hubscher CH. Sexual Function after Spinal Cord Injury: Innervation, Assessment, and Treatment. CURRENT SEXUAL HEALTH REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11930-016-0067-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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10
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Egecioglu E, Prieto‐Garcia L, Studer E, Westberg L, Jerlhag E. The role of ghrelin signalling for sexual behaviour in male mice. Addict Biol 2016; 21:348-59. [PMID: 25475101 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Ghrelin, a gut-brain signal, is well known to regulate energy homeostasis, food intake and appetite foremost via hypothalamic ghrelin receptors (GHS-R1A). In addition, ghrelin activates the reward systems in the brain, namely the mesolimbic dopamine system, and regulates thereby the rewarding properties of addictive drugs as well as of palatable foods. Given that the mesolimbic dopamine system mandates the reinforcing properties of addictive drugs and natural rewards, such as sexual behaviour, we hypothesize that ghrelin plays an important role for male sexual behaviour, a subject for the present studies. Herein we show that ghrelin treatment increases, whereas pharmacological suppression (using the GHSR-1A antagonist JMV2959) or genetic deletion of the GHS-R1A in male mice decreases the sexual motivation for as well as sexual behaviour with female mice in oestrus. Pre-treatment with L-dopa (a dopamine precursor) prior to treatment with JMV2959 significantly increased the preference for female mouse compared with vehicle treatment. On the contrary, treatment with 5-hydroxythyptohan (a precursor for serotonin) prior to treatment with JMV2959 decreased the sexual motivation compared to vehicle. In separate experiments, we show that ghrelin and GHS-R1A antagonism do not affect the time spent over female bedding as measured in the androgen-dependent bedding test. Collectively, these data show that the hunger hormone ghrelin and its receptor are required for normal sexual behaviour in male mice and that the effects of the ghrelin signalling system on sexual behaviour involve dopamine neurotransmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Egecioglu
- Department of Pharmacology Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Luna Prieto‐Garcia
- Department of Pharmacology Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Erik Studer
- Department of Pharmacology Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Lars Westberg
- Department of Pharmacology Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg Sweden
| | - Elisabet Jerlhag
- Department of Pharmacology Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg Sweden
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11
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Nucleus accumbens NMDA receptor activation regulates amphetamine cross-sensitization and deltaFosB expression following sexual experience in male rats. Neuropharmacology 2016; 101:154-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2015.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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12
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Gur S, Sikka SC. The characterization, current medications, and promising therapeutics targets for premature ejaculation. Andrology 2015; 3:424-42. [DOI: 10.1111/andr.12032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2014] [Revised: 02/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S. Gur
- Department of Pharmacology; School of Pharmacy; Ankara University; Ankara Turkey
- Department of Urology; Tulane University Health Sciences Center; New Orleans LA USA
| | - S. C. Sikka
- Department of Urology; Tulane University Health Sciences Center; New Orleans LA USA
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13
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Park JH, Ovbiagele B, Feng W. Stroke and sexual dysfunction - a narrative review. J Neurol Sci 2015; 350:7-13. [PMID: 25682327 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2015.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2014] [Revised: 01/09/2015] [Accepted: 02/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sexual function is an essential part of quality of life in adults. However, sexual dysfunction (SD) in stroke survivors is a common but under-recognized complication after stroke. It is frequently neglected by patients and clinicians. The etiology of post-stroke SD, which is multifactorial includes anatomical, physical and psychological factors. Complete return of sexual function is an important target for functional recovery after stroke, so clinicians need to be aware of this issue and take a lead role in addressing this challenge in stroke survivors. Accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment of post-stroke SD should be routinely incorporated into comprehensive stroke rehabilitation. This narrative review article, outlines the anatomy and physiology of sexual function, discusses various factors contributing to post-stroke SD, and proposes directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong-Ho Park
- Department of Neurology, Myongji Hospital, Goyang, South Korea; Department of Neurology, MUSC Stroke Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Bruce Ovbiagele
- Department of Neurology, MUSC Stroke Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Wuwei Feng
- Department of Neurology, MUSC Stroke Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States.
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14
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Clement P, Giuliano F. Anatomy and physiology of genital organs - men. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2015; 130:19-37. [PMID: 26003237 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63247-0.00003-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Male sexual functions involve a number of organs and structures in genitalia whose role is to produce fertilizing gametes and to allow female-partner insemination. The testes belong to the reproductive and endocrine systems as they synthesize spermatozoa and androgens, and are under finely regulated hormonal control by the hypothalamopituitary axis. Sexual responses are controlled by a complex and coordinated interplay of both the somatic and the autonomic nervous system in multiple components of the brain, spinal cord, and relevant peripheral organs. Erectile bodies are an essential element of the penis and engorgement of the penis with blood leads to penile tumescence. Blood engorgement is due to relaxation of smooth-muscle cells of erectile tissue and endothelium of the penile arteries. The penis gains additional rigidity when the ischiocavernosus muscles contract. Stimuli from peripheral and/or central origins activate particular spinal nuclei, causing penile erection. Ejaculation consists of two phases, emission and expulsion, which correspond, respectively, to secretion of the different components of the semen by sex glands and forceful expulsion of semen due to rhythmic contractions of the bulbospongiosus muscle. A spinal generator of ejaculation integrates genital stimuli and sexual cues and, when the excitatory threshold is reached, triggers ejaculation by orchestrating the activation of autonomic and somatic pathways commanding the peripheral events of ejaculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Clement
- School of Health Sciences, University of Versailles-St. Quentin en Yvelines, Montigny le Bretonneux, France; Pelvipharm Laboratories, Montigny le Bretonneux, France
| | - François Giuliano
- School of Health Sciences, University of Versailles-St. Quentin en Yvelines, Montigny le Bretonneux, France; Pelvipharm Laboratories, Montigny le Bretonneux, France; Neuro-Uro-Andrology, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Raymond Poincaré Hospital, Garches, France.
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15
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Facchinetti P, Giuliano F, Laurin M, Bernabé J, Clément P. Direct brain projections onto the spinal generator of ejaculation in the rat. Neuroscience 2014; 272:207-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.04.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Accepted: 04/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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16
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Snoeren EM, Veening JG, Olivier B, Oosting RS. Serotonin 1A receptors and sexual behavior in male rats: A review. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 121:102-14. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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17
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Oyarce K, Bongarzone ER, Nualart F. Unconventional Neurogenic Niches and Neurogenesis Modulation by Vitamins. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [PMID: 26203401 DOI: 10.4172/2157-7633.1000184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Although the generation of new neurons occurs in adult mammals, it has been classically described in two defined regions of the brain denominated neurogenic niches: the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricles and the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus. In these regions, neural stem cells give rise to new neurons and glia, which functionally integrate into the existing circuits under physiological conditions. However, accumulating evidence indicates the presence of neurogenic potential in other brain regions, from which multipotent precursors can be isolated and differentiated in vitro. In some of these regions, neuron generation occurs at low levels; however, the addition of growth factors, hormones or other signaling molecules increases the proliferation and differentiation of precursor cells. In addition, vitamins, which are micronutrients necessary for normal brain development, and whose deficiency produces neurological impairments, have a regulatory effect on neural stem cells in vitro and in vivo. In the present review, we will describe the progress that has been achieved in determining the neurogenic potential in other regions, known as unconventional niches, as well as the characteristics of the neural stem cells described for each region. Finally, we will revisit the roles of commonly known vitamins as modulators of precursor cell proliferation and differentiation, and their role in the complex and tight molecular signaling that impacts these neurogenic niches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Oyarce
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Stem Cells, Center for Advanced Microscopy CMA BIO BIO, Concepcion University, Concepción, Chile
| | - Ernesto R Bongarzone
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Illinois Chicago, USA
| | - Francisco Nualart
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Stem Cells, Center for Advanced Microscopy CMA BIO BIO, Concepcion University, Concepción, Chile
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18
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Huynh HK, Willemsen AT, Lovick TA, Holstege G. Pontine Control of Ejaculation and Female Orgasm. J Sex Med 2013; 10:3038-48. [DOI: 10.1111/jsm.12300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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19
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Brom M, Both S, Laan E, Everaerd W, Spinhoven P. The role of conditioning, learning and dopamine in sexual behavior: a narrative review of animal and human studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 38:38-59. [PMID: 24211372 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.10.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Many theories of human sexual behavior assume that sexual stimuli obtain arousing properties through associative learning processes. It is widely accepted that classical conditioning contributes to the etiology of both normal and maladaptive human behaviors. Despite the hypothesized importance of basic learning processes in sexual behavior, research on classical conditioning of the sexual response in humans is scarce. In the present paper, animal studies and studies in humans on the role of pavlovian conditioning on sexual responses are reviewed. Animal research shows robust, direct effects of conditioning processes on partner- and place preference. On the contrast, the empirical research with humans in this area is limited and earlier studies within this field are plagued by methodological confounds. Although recent experimental demonstrations of human sexual conditioning are neither numerous nor robust, sexual arousal showed to be conditionable in both men and women. The present paper serves to highlight the major empirical findings and to renew the insight in how stimuli can acquire sexually arousing value. Hereby also related neurobiological processes in reward learning are discussed. Finally, the connections between animal and human research on the conditionability of sexual responses are discussed, and suggestions for future directions in human research are given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirte Brom
- Institute of Psychology, Clinical, Health and Neuropsychology Unit, Leiden University, The Netherlands; Department of Psychosomatic Gynaecology and Sexology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Stephanie Both
- Department of Psychosomatic Gynaecology and Sexology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen Laan
- Department of Sexology and Psychosomatic Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Walter Everaerd
- Department Clinical Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Philip Spinhoven
- Institute of Psychology, Clinical, Health and Neuropsychology Unit, Leiden University, The Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Leiden University Medical Center, The Netherlands
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Bijlsma EY, Chan JSW, Olivier B, Veening JG, Millan MJ, Waldinger MD, Oosting RS. Sexual side effects of serotonergic antidepressants: mediated by inhibition of serotonin on central dopamine release? Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 121:88-101. [PMID: 24128918 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2013] [Accepted: 10/04/2013] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction adversely affects the quality of life of antidepressant users and reduces compliance with treatment. Animal models provide an instructive approach for examining potential sexual side effects of novel drugs. This review discusses the stability and reproducibility of our standardized test procedure that assesses the acute, subchronic and chronic effects of psychoactive compounds in a 30 minute mating test. In addition, we present an overview of the effects of several different (putative) antidepressants on male rat sexual behavior, as tested in our standardized test procedure. By comparing the effects of these mechanistically distinct antidepressants (paroxetine, venlafaxine, bupropion, buspirone, DOV 216,303 and S32006), this review discusses the putative mechanism underlying sexual side effects of antidepressants and their normalization. This review shows that sexual behavior is mainly inhibited by antidepressants that increase serotonin neurotransmission via blockade of serotonin transporters, while those that mainly increase the levels of dopamine and noradrenaline are devoid of sexual side effects. Those sexual disturbances cannot be normalized by simultaneously increasing noradrenaline neurotransmission, but are normalized by increasing both noradrenaline and dopamine neurotransmission. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the sexual side effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors may be mediated by their inhibitory effects on dopamine signaling in sex brain circuits. Clinical development of novel antidepressants should therefore focus on compounds that simultaneously increase both serotonin and dopamine signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Y Bijlsma
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CGUtrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Johnny S W Chan
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CGUtrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Berend Olivier
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CGUtrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jan G Veening
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CGUtrecht, The Netherlands; Department of Anatomy, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Mark J Millan
- Institut de Recherches Servier, Psychopharmacology Department, 125 Chemin de Ronde, 78290 Croissy-sur-Seine, France
| | - Marcel D Waldinger
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CGUtrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Ronald S Oosting
- Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CGUtrecht, The Netherlands
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Floody OR, Lusk LG. Responses to central oxotremorine and scopolamine support the cholinergic control of male mating behavior in hamsters. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 105:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 12/13/2012] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Toronchuk JA, Ellis GFR. Affective neuronal selection: the nature of the primordial emotion systems. Front Psychol 2013; 3:589. [PMID: 23316177 PMCID: PMC3540967 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on studies in affective neuroscience and evolutionary psychiatry, a tentative new proposal is made here as to the nature and identification of primordial emotional systems. Our model stresses phylogenetic origins of emotional systems, which we believe is necessary for a full understanding of the functions of emotions and additionally suggests that emotional organizing systems play a role in sculpting the brain during ontogeny. Nascent emotional systems thus affect cognitive development. A second proposal concerns two additions to the affective systems identified by Panksepp. We suggest there is substantial evidence for a primary emotional organizing program dealing with power, rank, dominance, and subordination which instantiates competitive and territorial behavior and is an evolutionary contributor to self-esteem in humans. A program underlying disgust reactions which originally functioned in ancient vertebrates to protect against infection and toxins is also suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith A Toronchuk
- Department of Psychology, Trinity Western University Langley, BC, Canada ; Department of Biology, Trinity Western University Langley, BC, Canada
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23
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The effect of nucleus accumbens lesions on appetite, sexual function, and nicotine dependence in recovering heroin addicts. Transl Neurosci 2013. [DOI: 10.2478/s13380-013-0146-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractThe nucleus accumbens (NAc) is a key part of the neural circuitry that creates reward, pleasure and motivation that facilitates human feeding, sexual and smoking behaviors. In the brain reward system, the NAc is a crucial component responsible for natural and drug-induced reinforcement behaviors. Yet it is unclear whether NAc is indispensible for all reward behaviors in human beings. The present study aimed to investigate the long-term effects of NAc ablation on sexual function, appetite, and nicotine dependence level in chronic heroin users. Eighteen former heroin-dependent patients (male) with bilateral NAc ablation via stereotactic radiofrequency surgery for alleviating drug psychological dependence were recruited. Their postoperative time ranged from 12 to 103 months. All subjects received MRI scans for assessing the accuracy of the lesion site. Evaluation of appetite, sexual function, and nicotine dependence were measured using the Simplified Nutrition Appetite Questionnaire, the Brief Sexual Function Inventory, and the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence, respectively. After precluding the potential confounding variables, such as drug use (dosage and duration), post-operation duration, age, body-weight, marital status and education level, ANOVA with repeated measures revealed that the NAc ablation improved the patients’ appetite, sexual drive and sexual satisfaction. Yet there was no change in male erectile function, ejaculatory function, or nicotine dependence levels compared to the preoperative. These may suggest that although NAc is a key part of the neural circuitry, the NAc surgical lesions left the fundamental aspects of natural and drug-induced reinforcement and motivation almost intact.
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Parada M, Vargas EB, Kyres M, Burnside K, Pfaus JG. The role of ovarian hormones in sexual reward states of the female rat. Horm Behav 2012; 62:442-7. [PMID: 22902894 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2012] [Revised: 07/30/2012] [Accepted: 07/31/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
To what extent does the reward value of sexual stimulation in females depend on ovarian hormones? The effects of estradiol benzoate (EB) and progesterone (P) were examined on the acquisition and expression of sexual reward induced by paced copulation and clitoral stimulation (CLS) in ovariectomized (OVX) rats. In experiment 1 we examined the expression of a pacing-induced conditioned place preference (CPP). Ovariectomized, hormone-primed rats were given experience with paced copulation associated with one side of a CPP apparatus. Changing hormonal status prior to the final CPP test did not alter pacing-induced CPP. However, subsequent partial extinction of CPP was observed only in rats primed with EB+P, a treatment previously shown to induce sexual desire and receptivity. In Experiment 2, significant CLS-induced CPP developed in ovariectomized rats regardless of hormone priming. Our results show that the expression of the sexual reward state induced by paced copulation, and CLS in particular, is independent of hormone priming. We propose that ovarian hormones sensitize sensory and motor pathways necessary for sexual behavior and stimulation to induce reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayte Parada
- Center for Studies in Behavioral Neurobiology, Department of Psychology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke W., Montréal, QC Canada.
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Georgiadis JR, Kringelbach ML, Pfaus JG. Sex for fun: a synthesis of human and animal neurobiology. Nat Rev Urol 2012; 9:486-98. [PMID: 22926422 DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2012.151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Sex is a fundamental pleasure, and crucial to the survival of our species. Though not many people would disagree with the proposition that sexual behaviour depends on the brain, the neuroscientific study of human sex is still relatively taboo and much remains to be discovered. On the contrary, excellent experimental animal models (mostly rat) are available that have uncovered major behavioural, neurochemical, and neuroanatomical characteristics of sexual behaviour. Restructuring sexual behaviour into broader terms reflecting behavioural states (wanting, liking, and inhibition) facilitates species comparison, revealing many similarities between animal and human sexual pleasure cycles, some of which can serve as potential avenues of new human sex research. In particular, behavioural and brain evidence clearly shows that motivational and consummatory phases are fundamentally distinct, and that genitally-induced sexual reward is a major factor in sexual learning mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janniko R Georgiadis
- Department of Neuroscience (Section Anatomy), University Medical Centre Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713AV, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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26
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Giuliano F, Clèment P. Pharmacology for the Treatment of Premature Ejaculation. Pharmacol Rev 2012; 64:621-44. [DOI: 10.1124/pr.111.004952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
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Matsumoto J, Urakawa S, Hori E, de Araujo MFP, Sakuma Y, Ono T, Nishijo H. Neuronal responses in the nucleus accumbens shell during sexual behavior in male rats. J Neurosci 2012; 32:1672-86. [PMID: 22302809 PMCID: PMC6703355 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5140-11.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2011] [Revised: 12/04/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous behavioral studies have indicated that the nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell of a male rat is involved in its sexual behavior; however, no previous studies have investigated neuronal activities in the male rat NAc shell during sexual behavior. To investigate this issue, we recorded single unit activities in the NAc shell of male rats during sexual behavior. Of 123 NAc shell neurons studied, 53, 47, and 40 neurons exhibited significantly changed firing rates at various times during intromission, genital auto-grooming, and sniffing of females, respectively. The two types of NAc shell neurons [putative fast spiking interneurons (pFSIs) and medium spiny neurons (pMSNs)] responded differently during sexual behavior. First, more pFSIs than pMSNs exhibited inhibitory responses to thrusting with intromission and genital grooming, while pFSIs and pMSNs responded similarly to sniffing of females. Second, both pFSIs and pMSNs responded differently to thrusting with and without intromission. Furthermore, NAc shell neuronal activity was significantly different across the different phases of sexual behavior, and the number of NAc shell neurons with delta oscillation, which is related to behavioral inhibition, and high gamma oscillation, which is related to reward perception, increased after ejaculation. Together, our results suggest that the NAc shell is deeply involved in sexual behavior, and changes in NAc shell neuronal activity are related to performance of sexual behavior, encoding cues or contexts related to sexual behavior, reward-related processing, and the inhibition of sexual behavior after ejaculation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Susumu Urakawa
- Department of Judo Neurophysiotherapy, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan, and
| | | | | | - Yasuo Sakuma
- Department of Physiology, Nippon Medical School, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8602, Japan
| | - Taketoshi Ono
- Department of Judo Neurophysiotherapy, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan, and
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Borja F, Fabre-Nys C. Brain structures involved in the sexual behaviour of Ile de France rams with different sexual preferences and levels of sexual activity. Behav Brain Res 2011; 226:411-9. [PMID: 21985862 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.09.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Revised: 09/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/26/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Using Fos, as a marker, we analysed the brain structures of rams, with different libidos or sexual preferences that had been activated by contact with males or females. Ile de France rams aged from 1.5 to 7 years were used. Fos immunoreactivity (Fos IR) was analysed in rams with high (HL) or low libido (LL) after 90 min of direct contact with females (HL DirF n=7 or LL DirF n=7) or in rams of high libido having indirect contact through a fence, with females (HL IndF n=6) or males (HL IndM n=5) and finally, in males who preferred other males as partners by indirect contact through a fence with males (MO IndM n=4). Direct or indirect contact with a preferred sexual partner (LL DirF, HL Dir F, HL IndF, MO IndM) induced the appearance of Fos-IR cells in several diencephalic and cortical structures. Conversely, indirect contact with males did not induce Fos-IR in males interested in females (HL IndM). In the medial preoptic area (MPOA), the paraventricular nucleus and the medial bed nucleus of the stria terminalis the cell density of Fos IR cells was higher in HL Dir F than in LL DirF suggesting involvement in sexual motivation whereas only the MPOA seemed involved the consummatory component of sexual behaviour (Fos IR density HL DirF>HL IndF). The enthorinal cortex was the only structure specifically activated by males attracted to other males (Fos IR density MO IndM>HL IndM) whereas Fos IR density did not differ between the HL IndF and HL IndM groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Borja
- UMR 6175 INRA Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, CNRS, Université de Tours, Institut du cheval et de l'équitation, 37380 Nouzilly, France
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Yeh KY, Wu CH, Tai MY, Tsai YF. Ginkgo biloba extract enhances noncontact erection in rats: the role of dopamine in the paraventricular nucleus and the mesolimbic system. Neuroscience 2011; 189:199-206. [PMID: 21640798 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2010] [Revised: 04/24/2011] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Penile erection is essential for successful copulation in males. Dopaminergic projections from the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) to the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens (NAc) are thought to exert a facilitatory effect on penile erection. Our previous study showed that treatment with an extract of Ginkgo biloba leaves (EGb 761) enhances noncontact erection (NCE) in male rats. However, the relationship between NCE and dopaminergic activity in the PVN, VTA, and NAc remains unknown. The present study examined the relationship between NCE and central dopaminergic activity following EGb 761 treatment. We report here that, in comparison with the controls, there was a significant increase in the number of NCEs in rats after treatment with 50 mg/kg of EGb 761 for 14 days. EGb 761-treated rats also showed more NCEs than the same group before EGb 761 treatment. A significant increase in the expression of catecholaminergic neurons in the PVN and the VTA was seen by means of tyrosine hydroxylase immunohistochemistry, and tissue levels of dopamine and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid in the NAc were also markedly increased in the EGb 761-treated animals. However, the norepinephrine tissue levels in the PVN and the NAc in the EGb 761-treated group were not significantly different from those in the controls. Together, these results suggest that administration of EGb 761 increases dopaminergic activity in the PVN and the mesolimbic system to facilitate NCE in male rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- K-Y Yeh
- Department of Physical Therapy, HungKuang University, Taichung County, Taiwan, ROC
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30
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Simmons DA, Hoffman NW, Yahr P. A forebrain-retrorubral pathway involved in male sex behavior is GABAergic and activated with mating in gerbils. Neuroscience 2011; 175:162-8. [PMID: 21118711 PMCID: PMC3029489 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.11.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 11/09/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The ventral bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (BST) and medial preoptic nucleus (MPN) of gerbils contain cells that regulate male sex behavior via a largely uncrossed pathway to the retrorubral field (RRF). Our goal was to learn more about cells at the pathway source and target. To determine if the pathway uses GABA as its transmitter, we used immunocytochemistry (ICC) to study glutamic acid decarboxlyase(67) (GAD(67)) colocalization with fluoro-gold (FG) in the ventral BST and MPN after applying FG to the RRF. To determine if the pathway is activated with mating, we studied FG-Fos colocalization in the ventral BST of recently mated males. The ventral BST expresses Fos with mating and is the major pathway source. To determine to what extent other GABAergic cells in the ventral BST are activated with mating, we studied Fos colocalization with GAD(67) mRNA visualized by in situ hybridization (ISH). We also looked for GAD(67) mRNA in RRF cells. Almost all ventral BST and MPNm cells projecting to the RRF (95-97%) and most ventral BST cells activated with mating (89%), were GABAergic. GABAergic cells were also seen in the RRF. RRF-projecting cells represented 37% of ventral BST cells activated with mating. Their activation may reflect arousal and anticipation of sexual reward. Among ventral BST cells that project to the RRF, 14% were activated with mating, consistent with how much of this pathway is needed for mating. The activated GABAergic cells that do not project to the RRF may release GABA locally and inhibit ejaculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D A Simmons
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4550, USA
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31
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Waldinger MD. Toward evidence-based genetic research on lifelong premature ejaculation: a critical evaluation of methodology. Korean J Urol 2011; 52:1-8. [PMID: 21344023 PMCID: PMC3037500 DOI: 10.4111/kju.2011.52.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2010] [Accepted: 12/16/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, four premature ejaculation (PE) subtypes have been distinguished on the basis of the duration of the intravaginal ejaculation latency time (IELT). These four PE subtypes have different etiologies and pathogeneses. Genetic research on PE should consider the existence of these PE subtypes and the accurate measurement of the IELT with a stopwatch. Currently, three methods of genetic research on PE have been used. They differ in the investigated population, tool of measurement, study design, and variables of PE. From animal and human research, it is derived that the central serotonergic system "modulates" ejaculation, whereas the ejaculation (reflex) itself is probably not under direct influence of the serotonergic system, but rather under the influence of other neurotransmitter systems in the spinal cord. For genetic research on PE, it is important to take into account that the (serotonergic) modulation of the IELT is variable among men and may even be absent. This means that serotonergic genetic polymorphisms may only be found in men with PE who respond with an ejaculation delay treatment with a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcel D Waldinger
- Department of Psychiatry and Neurosexology, HagaHospital, The Hague, The Netherlands
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32
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Gelez H, Poirier S, Facchinetti P, Allers KA, Wayman C, Bernabé J, Alexandre L, Giuliano F. Neuroanatomical distribution of the melanocortin-4 receptors in male and female rodent brain. J Chem Neuroanat 2010; 40:310-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2010.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2010] [Revised: 09/16/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Frohmader KS, Pitchers KK, Balfour ME, Coolen LM. Mixing pleasures: review of the effects of drugs on sex behavior in humans and animal models. Horm Behav 2010; 58:149-62. [PMID: 20004662 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2009] [Revised: 11/17/2009] [Accepted: 11/24/2009] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Drugs of abuse act on the brain circuits mediating motivation and reward associated with natural behaviors. There is ample evidence that drugs of abuse impact male and female sexual behavior. First, the current review discusses the effect of drugs of abuse on sexual motivation and performance in male and female humans. In particular, we discuss the effects of commonly abused drugs including psychostimulants, opiates, marijuana/THC, and alcohol. In general, drug use affects sexual motivation, arousal, and performance and is commonly associated with increased sexual risk behaviors. Second, studies on effects of systemic administration of drugs of abuse on sexual behavior in animals are reviewed. These studies analyze the effects on sexual performance and motivation but do not investigate the effects of drugs on risk-taking behavior, creating a disconnect between human and animal studies. For this reason, we discuss two studies that focus on the effects of alcohol and methamphetamine on inhibition of maladaptive sex-seeking behaviors in rodents. Third, this review discusses potential brain areas where drugs of abuse may be exerting their effect on sexual behavior with a focus on the mesolimbic system as the site of action. Finally, we discuss recent studies that have brought to light that sexual experience in turn can affect drug responsiveness, including a sensitized locomotor response to amphetamine in female and male rodents as well as enhanced drug reward in male rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karla S Frohmader
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
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Gelez H, Poirier S, Facchinetti P, Allers KA, Wayman C, Alexandre L, Giuliano F. Neuroanatomical Evidence for a Role of Central Melanocortin-4 Receptors and Oxytocin in the Efferent Control of the Rodent Clitoris and Vagina. J Sex Med 2010; 7:2056-2067. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1743-6109.2010.01760.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Frohmader KS, Wiskerke J, Wise RA, Lehman MN, Coolen LM. Methamphetamine acts on subpopulations of neurons regulating sexual behavior in male rats. Neuroscience 2010; 166:771-84. [PMID: 20045448 PMCID: PMC2837118 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.12.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2009] [Revised: 12/22/2009] [Accepted: 12/28/2009] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (Meth) is a highly addictive stimulant. Meth abuse is commonly associated with the practice of sexual risk behavior and increased prevalence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Meth users report heightened sexual desire, arousal, and sexual pleasure. The biological basis for this drug-sex nexus is unknown. The current study demonstrates that Meth administration in male rats activates neurons in brain regions of the mesolimbic system that are involved in the regulation of sexual behavior. Specifically, Meth and mating co-activate cells in the nucleus accumbens core and shell, basolateral amygdala, and anterior cingulate cortex. These findings illustrate that in contrast to current belief drugs of abuse can activate the same cells as a natural reinforcer, that is sexual behavior, and in turn may influence compulsive seeking of this natural reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Frohmader
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Western Ontario, London, ON, Canada, N6A 5C1
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Bai YJ, Li YH, Zheng XG, Han J, Yang XY, Sui N. Orexin A attenuates unconditioned sexual motivation in male rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2008; 91:581-9. [PMID: 18952120 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2008.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2007] [Revised: 09/12/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Orexins are neuropeptides involved in multiple neurophysiological functions such as reward and motivation. However, it is not clear whether orexins are implicated in sexual motivation. This study aims to evaluate the effects of orexin A and the OX(1)R antagonist SB334867 on unconditioned sexual motivation. Forty-five male Wistar rats are divided into four groups. The four groups are respectively administered intracerebroventricularly with saline, orexin A (1, 10 microg), 10% DMSO (cyclodextrin) and SB334867 (5, 15 microg) 10-15 min before sexual motivation tests. The preference for a receptive female to a male in an open arena with two tethered animals is designated as unconditioned sexual motivation. The results show that orexin A reduces the female preference (reducing time in the female zone and/or increasing time in the male zone), the number of visits for the female zone and the total distance traveled in sexually high-motivated males. SB334867 has no effect on the female preference, the number of visits and the distance traveled in either sexually high-motivated or low-motivated males. Our experiments reveal that centrally administered orexin A attenuates sexual motivation in high-motivated males although endogenous orexin A might not play an important role in the expression of unconditioned sexual motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y J Bai
- Key Laboratory of Mental Heath, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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Damasceno F, Skinner GO, Cordeiro JF, Ferraz MR, Almeida OM. Sleep deprivation affects sexual behavior and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) levels in sexually experienced male rats. Physiol Behav 2008; 94:405-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2007] [Revised: 12/20/2007] [Accepted: 02/06/2008] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Central neurophysiology and dopaminergic control of ejaculation. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2008; 32:438-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2007] [Revised: 07/31/2007] [Accepted: 07/31/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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40
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Temel Y, Hafizi S, Beuls E, Visser-Vandewalle V. The supraspinal network in the control of erection. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2007; 9:941-54. [PMID: 16185150 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.9.5.941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Penile erection is a complex event controlled by vascular, hormonal and neuronal systems. The neuronal system involved in erection is often divided into spinal and supraspinal networks. It is generally accepted that the spinal system directly controls erection and that the supraspinal network modulates this control mechanism through different ascending and descending pathways. In contrast to the spinal control of erection, relatively little is known about the supraspinal network. In the present review, the authors outline the supraspinal network involved in the control of penile erection. Firstly, the brain regions reported to be involved in erection are described and the brain circuit of erection is outlined. Subsequently, the neuromediators involved in erection are summarised. Finally, these data are discussed in the light of therapeutic possibilities in the management of erectile dysfunction by targeting the supraspinal system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasin Temel
- University Hospital Maastricht, Department of Neurosurgery, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
In contrast to the spinal control of erection, relatively little is known about the brain control. In the present review, we have outlined the role of brain structures involved in penile erection and provided a synopsis on the brain circuit of erection. Findings from both animal and human studies are discussed. Evidence suggests that the most important structures are the frontal lobe, cingulate gyrus, amygdala, thalamus and hypothalamus. Within the brain circuit of erection, the thalamus serves as a gate-controller in which all relevant information is evaluated and further processed to higher and lower centres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasin Temel
- Department of Neuro-surgery, European Graduate School of Neuroscience (EURON), University Hospital Maastricht, P. O. Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, Netherlands.
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Johnson RD. Descending pathways modulating the spinal circuitry for ejaculation: effects of chronic spinal cord injury. AUTONOMIC DYSFUNCTION AFTER SPINAL CORD INJURY 2006; 152:415-26. [PMID: 16198717 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(05)52028-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Sexual dysfunction is a common complication in men with chronic spinal cord injury. In particular, ejaculation is severely compromised or absent and the resulting infertility issues are important to this group of predominantly young men. To investigate the neural circuits and descending spinal pathways involved in ejaculation, animal models have been developed in normal and spinal cord-injured preparations. Primarily through studies in rats, spinal ejaculatory circuits have been described including (i) autonomic circuits at the thoracolumbar and lumbosacral levels mediating the emission phase of ejaculation, (ii) somatic circuits at the lumbosacral level controlling the expulsion phase of ejaculation through sequential and rhythmic contraction of perineal striated muscles (e.g. bulbospongiosus), and (iii) a proposed ejaculatory pattern generator in the lumbar cord. Midthoracic incomplete chronic spinal cord injury has revealed the dependency of spinal ejaculatory circuits on bilateral spinal pathways from the brainstem via modulation of pudendal motor neuron reflexes and pudendal nerve autonomic fibers. Accordingly, sensory input from the dorsal nerve of the penis, required to trigger the ejaculatory response in animals and humans, is no longer inhibited from the lateral paragigantocellularis nucleus in the ventrolateral medulla. This inhibitory effect, likely presynaptic through a serotonergic pathway, is thought to be necessary to provide the rhythmic, bursting, and sequential contractions of the perineal muscles during ejaculation. Chronic lateral hemisection injury, which severs half of the descending lateral funiculus-located pathways, results in new functional connections of the pudendal reflex inhibitory and pudendal sympathetic activation pathways across the midline, above and below the lesion, respectively. Clinical correlations in spinal cord-injured men have demonstrated the validity of the rodent animal for the study of ejaculatory dysfunction after chronic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard D Johnson
- Department of Physiological Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and the McKnight Brain Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0144, USA.
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Balfour ME, Brown JL, Yu L, Coolen LM. Potential contributions of efferents from medial prefrontal cortex to neural activation following sexual behavior in the male rat. Neuroscience 2006; 137:1259-76. [PMID: 16388908 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2005] [Revised: 10/19/2005] [Accepted: 11/01/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The limbic system plays an important role in the regulation of sexual motivation and reward. At the core of this system is an interconnected mesocorticolimbic circuit, comprised of the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens and medial prefrontal cortex. Previously, our laboratory showed that sexual behavior causes neural activation in the ventral tegmental area of male rats. The main goal of this study is to identify afferent inputs to ventral tegmental area neurons that may contribute to their activation during sexual behavior. Hence, the anterograde tracer biotinylated dextran amine was injected into subregions of the rat medial prefrontal cortex, which is known to project to the ventral tegmental area. Visualization of biotinylated dextran amine-labeled axons was combined with immunostaining for sex-induced Fos expression. Quantitative analysis showed that the majority of sex-activated ventral tegmental area neurons receive putative contacts from the infralimbic and prelimbic--but not the anterior cingulate--subregions of the medial prefrontal cortex. Thus, inputs from infralimbic area and prelimbic are in an anatomical position to provide a major source of input during sexual behavior. A second goal of this study was to determine if the medial prefrontal cortex projects to sex-activated neurons in other brain regions important for sexual behavior and motivation. Infralimbic area and prelimbic area sent projections to nucleus accumbens, medial preoptic area, principal nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, basolateral amygdala, and parvocellular subparafasicular thalamic nucleus. Thus, the infralimbic and prelimbic subregions of the medial prefrontal cortex may also influence sexual behavior and motivation via brain regions other than the ventral tegmental area.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Balfour
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, University of Cincinnati Medical Center, Vontz Center for Molecular Studies, University of Cincinnati, 3125 Eden Avenue, ML-521, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0521, USA
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de Jong TR, Pattij T, Veening JG, Dederen PJWC, Waldinger MD, Cools AR, Olivier B. Effects of chronic paroxetine pretreatment on (+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propyl-amino)tetralin induced c-fos expression following sexual behavior. Neuroscience 2005; 134:1351-61. [PMID: 16019152 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2005] [Revised: 05/04/2005] [Accepted: 05/06/2005] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chronic treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine impairs the functioning of 5-HT(1A) receptors involved in ejaculation. This could underlie the development of delayed ejaculation often reported by men treated with paroxetine. The neurobiological substrate linking the effects of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor-treatment and 5-HT(1A) receptor activation with ejaculation was investigated. Male Wistar rats that were pretreated with paroxetine (20 mg/kg/day p.o.) or vehicle for 22 days and had received an additional injection with the 5-HT(1A) receptor agonist 8-OH-DPAT ((+/-)-8-hydroxy-2-(di-n-propyl-amino)tetralin; 0.4 mg/kg s.c.) or saline on day 22, 30 min prior to a sexual behavior test, were perfused 1 h after the sexual behavior test. Brains were processed for Fos-, and oxytocin immunohistochemistry. The drug treatments markedly changed both sexual behavior and the pattern and number of Fos-immunoreactive cells in the brain. Chronic pretreatment with paroxetine caused delayed ejaculation. Acute injection with 8-OH-DPAT facilitated ejaculation in vehicle-pretreated rats, notably evident in a strongly reduced intromission frequency, whereas 8-OH-DPAT had no effects in paroxetine-pretreated rats. Chronic treatment with paroxetine reduced Fos-immunoreactivity in the locus coeruleus, and prevented the increase in Fos-immunoreactive neurons induced by 8-OH-DPAT in the oxytocinergic magnocellular part of the paraventricular nucleus as well as in the locus coeruleus. Since oxytocin and noradrenalin facilitate ejaculation, the alterations in Fos-IR in these areas could connect selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor treatment and 5-HT(1A) receptor activation to ejaculation. Chronic paroxetine treatment and 8-OH-DPAT changed c-fos expression in a number of other brain areas, indicating that Fos-immunohistochemistry is a useful tool to find locations where selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and 8-OH-DPAT exert their effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- T R de Jong
- Department of Anatomy, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, The Netherlands.
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Redouté J, Stoléru S, Pugeat M, Costes N, Lavenne F, Le Bars D, Dechaud H, Cinotti L, Pujol JF. Brain processing of visual sexual stimuli in treated and untreated hypogonadal patients. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2005; 30:461-82. [PMID: 15721058 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2004.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2004] [Revised: 12/07/2004] [Accepted: 12/08/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Although various brain regions have been shown to respond to the presentation of visual sexual stimuli (VSS), whether these regions are specifically mediating sexual arousal or whether they mediate general emotional or motivational arousal is unknown. To clarify this issue, our purpose was to map the regions where the response to VSS was related to plasma testosterone. Specific objectives were (i) to identify regions that respond differentially to VSS in untreated hypogonadal patients compared with healthy controls and (ii) to identify in hypogonadal patients the regions that respond differentially to VSS as a function of therapeutically induced increased testosterone levels. METHOD In nine male hypogonadal patients, in the same patients under treatment, and in eight healthy males, we used Positron Emission Tomography to investigate responses of regional cerebral blood flow to VSS. Statistical Parametric Mapping was used to locate regions that demonstrated a differential response. RESULTS Regions responding differentially both in untreated patients compared with controls and in untreated patients compared with themselves under treatment were the right orbitofrontal cortex, insula and claustrum, where the activation was higher in controls than in untreated patients and where activation increased under treatment, and the left inferior frontal gyrus, that demonstrated a deactivation only in controls and in patients under treatment. That these responses appear to depend on testosterone indicates that these regions mediate sexual arousal and not only a process of general emotional or motivational arousal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Redouté
- Inserm U 483, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Boite 23, 9 quai Saint-Bernard, 75252 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Carelli RM. Nucleus accumbens cell firing and rapid dopamine signaling during goal-directed behaviors in rats. Neuropharmacology 2004; 47 Suppl 1:180-9. [PMID: 15464136 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2004.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2004] [Revised: 07/16/2004] [Accepted: 07/20/2004] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The nucleus accumbens (Acb) is a key neural substrate underlying goal-directed behaviors for both drugs of abuse as well as 'natural' rewards. Here, I review electrophysiological and electrochemical studies completed in our laboratory that examined Acb cell firing and rapid dopamine signaling during behaviors directed toward reward procurement. Electrophysiological studies are reviewed showing that Acb neurons exhibit patterned discharges relative to operant responding for intravenous self-administration of cocaine versus 'natural' reinforcement in rodents. Importantly, subsequent studies showed that discrete subsets of Acb neurons are selectively activated during multiple schedules for a natural reward (water or food) versus cocaine self-administration. These later findings indicate that separate neural circuits selectively process information about goal-directed behaviors for cocaine versus natural reward. In addition, recent findings are reviewed showing that reinforcer selective firing of Acb neurons is not a direct consequence of chronic drug exposure. Next, electrochemical studies are summarized that used fast scan cyclic voltammetry to measure rapid (subsecond) changes in dopamine in the Acb during cocaine self-administration as well as 'natural' reinforcement in rodents. These findings are considered with respect to the role of dopamine in modulating the activity of Acb neurons that encode goal-directed behaviors, the functional organization of the Acb on a microcircuit level, and proposed directions for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Regina M Carelli
- Department of Psychology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB# 3270, Davie Hall, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3270, USA.
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Abstract
Ejaculation is a reflex mediated by a spinal control center, referred to as a spinal ejaculation generator. This spinal ejaculation generator coordinates sympathetic, parasympathetic and motor outflow to induce the two phases of ejaculation, i.e., emission and expulsion. In addition, the spinal ejaculation generator integrates this outflow with inputs that are related to the summation of sexual activity prior to ejaculation that are required to trigger ejaculation. Recently, a group of spinothalamic neurons in the lumbar spinal cord (LSt cells) were demonstrated to comprise an integral part of the spinal ejaculation generator. Specifically, lesions of LSt cells completely ablate ejaculatory function. Moreover, LSt cells are activated following ejaculation, but not following other components of sexual behavior. Furthermore, based on their relationship with autonomic nuclei, motoneurons and genital sensory inputs, LSt cells are also in the ideal anatomical position to integrate sensory inputs and autonomic and motor outflow. Additionally, the spinal ejaculation generator is under inhibitory and excitatory influence of supraspinal sites, including the nucleus paragigantocellularis (nPGi), the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) and the medial preoptic area (MPOA). Finally, sensory information related to ejaculation is processed in the spinal cord and brain, possibly contributing to the rewarding properties of ejaculation. One candidate pathway for relay of ejaculation-related cues consists of LSt cells and their projections to the parvocellular subparafascicular thalamic nucleus. Moreover, neural activation specifically related to ejaculation is observed in the brain and may reflect of processing of ejaculation-related sensory cues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lique M Coolen
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology, and Anatomy, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267-0521, USA.
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Paredes RG, Agmo A. Has dopamine a physiological role in the control of sexual behavior? A critical review of the evidence. Prog Neurobiol 2004; 73:179-226. [PMID: 15236835 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2004.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2003] [Accepted: 05/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The role of dopaminergic systems in the control of sexual behavior has been a subject of study for at least 40 years. Not surprisingly, reviews of the area have been published at variable intervals. However, the earlier reviews have been summaries of published research rather than a critical analysis of it. They have focused upon the conclusions presented in the original research papers rather than on evaluating the reliability and functional significance of the data reported to support these conclusions. During the last few years, important new knowledge concerning dopaminergic systems and their behavioral functions as well as the possible role of these systems in sexual behavior has been obtained. For the first time, it is now possible to integrate the data obtained in studies of sexual behavior into the wider context of general dopaminergic functions. To make this possible, we first present an analysis of the nature and organization of sexual behavior followed by a summary of current knowledge about the brain structures of crucial importance for this behavior. We then proceed with a description of the dopaminergic systems within or projecting to these structures. Whenever possible, we also try to include data on the electrophysiological actions of dopamine. Thereafter, we proceed with analyses of pharmacological data and release studies, both in males and in females. Consistently throughout this discussion, we make an effort to distinguish pharmacological effects on sexual behavior from a possible physiological role of dopamine. By pharmacological effects, we mean here drug-induced alterations in behavior that are not the result of the normal actions of synaptically released dopamine in the untreated animal. The conclusion of this endeavor is that pharmacological effects of dopaminergic drugs are variable in both males and females, independently of whether the drugs are administered systemically or intracerebrally. We conclude that the pharmacological data basically reinforce the notion that dopamine is important for motor functions and general arousal. These actions could, in fact, explain most of the effects seen on sexual behavior. Studies of dopamine release, in both males and females, have focused on the nucleus accumbens, a structure with at most a marginal importance for sexual behavior. Since accumbens dopamine release is associated with all kinds of events, aversive as well as appetitive, it can have no specific effect on sexual behavior but promotes arousal and activation of non-specific motor patterns. Preoptic and paraventricular nucleus release of dopamine may have some relationship to mechanisms of ejaculation or to the neuroendocrine consequences of sexual activity or they can be related to other autonomic processes associated with copulation. There is no compelling indication in existing experimental data that dopamine is of any particular importance for sexual motivation. There is experimental evidence showing that it is of no importance for sexual reward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl G Paredes
- Instituto de Neurobiología, Universidad Nacional Aunónoma de México-Campus Juriquilla, Querétaro, Mexico
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