Antitumor activity of type III interferon alone or in combination with type I interferon against human non-small cell lung cancer

Heterologous Expression of Human IFNγ and Anti-IL17 Antibody in Leishmania tarentolae Promastigote

BACKGROUND

Leishmania is an intracellular flagellate protozoan parasite that causes a wide range of clinical diseases in humans. The basis of immunological resistance against leishmaniasis depends on Thl reactions and is within the time period of cytokine function.

METHODS

In this study, human anti-IL17 antibody and IFNγ-producing promastigote were produced to be used in leishmanization. A sequence of light and heavy chains' gene of anti-IL17 antibody and human IFNγ (hIFNγ) was obtained from the NCBI database and synthesized in the ECORV reaction site in the plasmid pGH, which it's called pGH-hIFNγ-antiIL17. The synthesized part using the restriction enzyme ECORV was extracted from the plasmid and after purification by electroporation was transferred to Iranian lizard Leishmania (I.L.L). Evaluation of structural presence in the I.L.L genome at the level of DNA and mRNA was assessed. The expressions of hIFNγ and anti-IL17 were evaluated and confirmed using ELISA and western blot analysis. The hIFNγ secreted from the culture medium was collected at high concentrations of 124.36 ± 6.47 pg/mL.

RESULTS

Targeted gene replacement into the I.L.L genome was successfully performed for the first time using the pGH-hIFNγ-antiIL17 plasmid in an identical replacement process. Stabilized recombinant DNA contains a target gene that has no toxicity to the parasite.

CONCLUSIONS

The effective achievement of producing a recombinant gene was done for the first time by replacing the I.L.L-CPC gene with plasmid pGH-hIFNγ-antiIL17 by targeted gene replacement. This cab can regulate the production of hIFNγ and anti-IL17. This makes it a viable choice for eliminating leishmania.

New treatment alternatives for primary and metastatic colorectal cancer by an integrated transcriptome and network analyses

Metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) is still in need of effective treatments. This study applies a holistic approach to propose new targets for treatment of primary and liver metastatic CRC and investigates their therapeutic potential in-vitro. An integrative analysis of primary and metastatic CRC samples was implemented for alternative target and treatment proposals. Integrated microarray samples were grouped based on a co-expression network analysis. Significant gene modules correlated with primary CRC and metastatic phenotypes were identified. Network clustering and pathway enrichments were applied to gene modules to prioritize potential targets, which were shortlisted by independent validation. Finally, drug-target interaction search led to three agents for primary and liver metastatic CRC phenotypes. Hesperadin and BAY-1217389 suppress colony formation over a 14-day period, with Hesperadin showing additional efficacy in reducing cell viability within 48 h. As both candidates target the G2/M phase proteins NEK2 or TTK, we confirmed their anti-proliferative properties by Ki-67 staining. Hesperadinin particular arrested the cell cycle at the G2/M phase. IL-29A treatment reduced migration and invasion capacities of TGF-β induced metastatic cell lines. In addition, this anti-metastatic treatment attenuated TGF-β dependent mesenchymal transition. Network analysis suggests IL-29A induces the JAK/STAT pathway in a preventive manner.

Interleukin 28A aggravates Con A-induced acute liver injury by promoting the recruitment of M1 macrophages

Immune-mediated acute hepatic injury is characterized by the destruction of a large number of hepatocytes and severe liver function damage. Interleukin-28A (IL-28A), a member of the IL-10 family, is notable for its antiviral properties. However, despite advances in our understanding of IL-28A, its role in immune-mediated acute injury remains unclear. The present study investigated the role of IL-28A in concanavalin A (Con A)-induced acute immune liver injury. After Con A injection in mice, IL-28A level significantly increased. IL-28A deficiency was found to protect mice from acute liver injury, prolong survival time, and reduce serum aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels. In contrast, recombinant IL-28A aggravated liver injury in mice. The proportion of activated M1 macrophages was significantly lower in the IL-28A-deficiency group than in the wild-type mouse group. In adoptive transfer experiments, M1 macrophages from WT could exacerbate mice acute liver injury symptoms in the IL-28A deficiency group. Furthermore, the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-12, IL-6, and IL-1β, by M1 macrophages decreased significantly in the IL-28A-deficiency group. Western blotting demonstrated that IL-28A deficiency could limit M1 macrophage polarization by modulating the nuclear factor (NF)-κB, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and interferon regulatory factor (IRF) signaling pathways. In summary, IL-28A deletion plays an important protective role in the Con A-induced acute liver injury model and IL-28A deficiency inhibits the activation of M1 macrophages by inhibiting the NF-κB, MAPK, and IRF signaling pathways. These results provide a potential new target for the treatment of immune-related hepatic injury.

Evaluation of exosomes encapsulated recombinant Interleukin-29 for its in vitro anticancer studies

Exosomes have recently been considered ideal biotherapeutic nanocarriers that broaden the frontiers of current drug delivery systems to overcome the shortcomings associated with cytokine-based immunotherapy. Using this approach, the current study aimed to assess anti-proliferative activity of purified IL-29 and exosomes encapsulated IL-29. The IL-29+pET-28a construct was transformed into Rosetta 2(DE3) cells which was used for the large-scale production of IL-29. Exosomes isolated from H1HeLa, and SF-767 cells using Total Exosome Isolation reagent were loaded with IL-29 via sonication. Isolation of exosomes was validated using their core protein signature by western blotting and specific miRNA profiles by RT-PCR. The drug loading efficiency of exosomes derived from H1HeLa cells was higher than that of SF-767-derived exosomes. The drug release kinetics of IL-29 encapsulated exosomes exhibited stable release of the recombinant drug. Around 50% of all cancer cell lines survived when IL-29 was administered at a concentration of 20 µg/mL. A survival rate of less than 10% was observed when cells were treated with 20 µg/mL IL-29 loaded exosomes. It was concluded that IL-29 loaded exosomes had a more significant cytotoxic effect against cancer cells, which might be attributed to sustained drug release, improved half-life, superior targeting efficacy, capacity to harness endogenous intracellular trafficking pathways, and heightened biocompatibility of exosomes.

Enhanced soluble expression of active recombinant human interleukin-29 using champion pET SUMO system

Current research focuses on the soluble and high-level expression of biologically active recombinant human IL-29 protein in Escherichia coli. The codon-optimized IL-29 gene was cloned into the Champion™ pET SUMO expression system downstream of the SUMO tag under the influence of the T7 lac promoter. The expression of SUMO-fused IL-29 protein was compared in E. coli Rosetta 2(DE3), Rosetta 2(DE3) pLysS, and Rosetta-gami 2(DE3). The release of the SUMO fusion partner resulted in approximately 98 mg of native rhIL-29 protein with a purity of 99% from 1 l of fermentation culture. Purified rhIL-29 was found to be biologically active, as evaluated by its anti-proliferation assay. It was found that Champion™ pET SUMO expression system can be used to obtained high yield of biologically active soluble recombinant human protein compared to other expression vector.

PD-L1 and PD-L2 immune checkpoint protein induction by type III interferon in non-small cell lung cancer cells

INTRODUCTION

Despite the clinical success of PD-1/PD-1-ligand immunotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), the appearance of primary and acquired therapy resistance is a major challenge reflecting that the mechanisms regulating the expression of the PD-1-ligands PD-L1 and PD-L2 are not fully explored. Type I and II interferons (IFNs) induce PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression. Here, we examined if PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression also can be induced by type III IFN, IFN-λ, which is peculiarly important for airway epithelial surfaces.

METHODS

In silico mRNA expression analysis of PD-L1 (CD274), PD-L2 (PDCD1LG2), and IFN- λ signaling signature genes in NSCLC tumors and cell lines was performed using RNA sequencing expression data from TCGA, OncoSG, and DepMap portals. IFN-λ-mediated induction of PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression in NSCLC cell lines was examined by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and flow cytometry.

RESULTS

IFNL genes encoding IFN- λ variants are expressed in the majority of NSCLC tumors and cell lines along with the IFNLR1 and IL10R2 genes encoding the IFN-λ receptor subunits. The expression of PD-L1 and PD-L2 mRNA is higher in NSCLC tumors with IFNL mRNA expression compared to tumors without IFNL expression. In the NSCLC cell line HCC827, stimulation with IFN-λ induced both an increase in PD-L1 and PD-L2 mRNA expression and cell surface abundance of the corresponding proteins. In the NSCLC cell line A427, displaying a low basal expression of PD-L1 and PD-L2 mRNA and corresponding proteins, stimulation with IFN-λ resulted in an induction of the former.

CONCLUSION

The type III IFN, IFN- λ, is capable of inducing PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression, at least in some NSCLC cells, and this regulation will need acknowledgment in the development of new diagnostic procedures, such as gene expression signature profiles, to improve PD-1/PD-1-ligand immunotherapy in NSCLC.

Serum cytokine levels and other associated factors as possible immunotherapeutic targets and prognostic indicators for lung cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most prevalent cancer types and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80-85% of all cancer incidences. Lung cancer therapy and prognosis largely depend on the disease's degree at the diagnosis time. Cytokines are soluble polypeptides that contribute to cell-to-cell communication, acting paracrine or autocrine on neighboring or distant cells. Cytokines are essential for developing neoplastic growth, but they are also known to operate as biological inducers following cancer therapy. Early indications are that inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-8 play a predictive role in lung cancer. Nevertheless, the biological significance of cytokine levels in lung cancer has not yet been investigated. This review aimed to assess the existing literature on serum cytokine levels and additional factors as potential immunotherapeutic targets and lung cancer prognostic indicators. Changes in serum cytokine levels have been identified as immunological biomarkers for lung cancer and predict the effectiveness of targeted immunotherapy.

Diverse and divergent functions of IL-32β and IL-32γ isoforms in the regulation of malignant pleural mesothelioma cell growth and the production of VEGF-A and CXCL8

In this study, we sought to elucidate the roles of the interleukin (IL)-32β and IL-32γ in mesothelioma cell growth, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8) expression. IL-32 elicited a growth-promoting effect against one of the six mesotheliomas lines and exerted diverse regulatory functions in VEGF-A and CXCL8 secretion from mesotheliomas stimulated with or without IL-17A. Retroviral-mediated transduction of mesothelioma lines with IL-32γ resulted in enhanced IL-32β expression, which facilitated or suppressed the in vitro growth, and VEGF-A and CXCL8 expression. Overexpressed IL-32β-augmented growth and VEGF-A and CXCL8 production were mainly mediated through the phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway. On the other hand, overexpressed IL-32β-deceased growth was mediated through mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. NCI-H2373IL-32γ tumors grew faster than NCI-H2373Neo tumors in a xenograft model, which was associated with increased vascularity. These findings indicate that IL-32 are involved in the regulation of growth and angiogenic factor production in mesotheliomas.

Clinical Significance of Serum Type III Interferons in Patients with Gastric Cancer

Type III interferon (IFN) is a newly established IFN that shows roles different from those of type I and II IFNs. However, the effect of type III IFN on the prognosis of patients with gastric cancer (GC) is controversial. This study aimed to investigate the effects of serum IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, IFN-λ1, and IFN-λ2/3 levels on the survival of patients with GC. LEGENDplex bead-based immunoassays were used to analyze the serum IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, IFN-λ1, and IFN-λ2/3 levels in patients with GC and healthy volunteers. Flow cytometry was used to test the IFN concentrations. Compared with the healthy controls, the patients with GC had significantly decreased serum IFN-α, IFN-γ, and IFN-λ1 levels, but significantly increased serum IFN-λ2/3 level. Analysis of the serum IFN concentrations and clinical parameters of the patients with GC showed significant correlations of serum IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, and IFN-λ2/3 levels with clinical stages. Serum IFN-λ1 levels significantly correlated with tumor location, histopathology, and lymph node involvement. Serum IFN-λ2/3 levels significantly correlated with lymph node involvement and distant metastasis. In addition, serum IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ levels significantly correlated with clinical stage and lymph node metastasis. Serum IFN-β and IFN-γ levels also significantly correlated with Lauren classification. Furthermore, the patients with stage IV GC exhibited significantly lower IFN-λ2/3 levels and higher IFN-α, IFN-β, and IFN-γ levels than the patients with stage I-III GC. The univariate analysis revealed that tumor sizes of >5 cm, higher clinical stage, and high IFN-λ2/3 level were significantly associated with poor prognosis. This study shows the relationship between serum IFN level and GC progression. High serum IFN-λ2/3 levels were associated with poor prognosis and could be a novel biomarker for evaluating GC progression and predicting the outcomes of nonmetastatic GC.

Recombinant Newcastle disease virus expressing human IFN-λ1 (rL-hIFN-λ1)-induced apoptosis of A549 cells is connected to endoplasmic reticulum stress pathways

BACKGROUND

IFN-λs are a kind of cytokine with anti-tumor, immunomodulatory, and anti-proliferative activity. Recent studies have shown that the recombinant Newcastle disease virus expresses human IFN-λ1 (rL-hIFN-λ1), which plays a role in gastric cancer cell apoptosis. Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) induces autophagy and apoptosis in tumor cells. In this study, we explored the relationship between ERS and rL-hIFN-λ1-induced apoptosis of lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells and its underlying mechanism.

METHODS

First, we investigated the effect of rL-hIFN-λ1 on cellular proliferation, migration, and proteins associated with ERS, autophagy, and apoptosis of A549. Second, after administration of the ERS inhibitor, the associated proteins induced by rL-hIFN-λ1 were detected. Finally, a subcutaneous mouse model was used to examine the effect of rL-hIFN-λ1 on tumor growth and the ERS and apoptosis associated proteins in tumor tissues.

RESULTS

The results showed that the proliferation and migration of A549 cells, and tumor tissue growth were significantly inhibited and the ERS, autophagy, and apoptosis associated proteins were upregulated in the experimental group. Additionally, both 4-PBA and knockdown of PERK or CHOP reduced the levels of rL-hIFN-λ1-induced autophagy and apoptosis-associated proteins. BCL-2 knockdown caused autophagy and apoptosis associated protein upregulation.

CONCLUSIONS

In summary, rL-hIFN-λ1 inhibited cell proliferation and activated ERS, autophagy, and apoptosis in A549 cells and tissues, and when ERS pathways were blocked, the inhibiting effect was even more pronounced. Therefore, the recombinant Newcastle disease virus rL-hIFN-λ1-induced apoptosis of A549 cells is connected to ER stress and could be a promising therapeutic agent for lung adenocarcinoma.

Levels of peripheral blood polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells and selected cytokines are potentially prognostic of disease progression for patients with non-small cell lung cancer

Polymorphonuclear-MDSC (PMN-MDSC) have emerged as an independent prognostic factor for survival in NSCLC. Similarly, cytokine profiles have been used to identify subgroups of NSCLC patients with different clinical outcomes. This prospective study investigated whether the percentage of circulating PMN-MDSC, in conjunction with the levels of plasma cytokines, was more informative of disease progression than the analysis of either factor alone. We analyzed the phenotypic and functional profile of peripheral blood T-cell subsets (CD3+, CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+), neutrophils (CD66b+) and polymorphonuclear-MDSC (PMN-MDSC; CD66b+CD11b+CD15+CD14-) as well as the concentration of 14 plasma cytokines (IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-12 p70, IL-17A, IL-27, IL-29, IL-31, and IL-33, TNF-α, IFN-γ) in 90 treatment-naïve NSCLC patients and 25 healthy donors (HD). In contrast to HD, NSCLC patients had a higher percentage of PMN-MDSC and neutrophils (P < 0.0001) but a lower percentage of CD3+, CD3+CD4+ and CD3+CD8+ cells. PMN-MDSC% negatively correlated with the levels of IL1-β, IL-2, IL-27 and IL-29. Two groups of patients were identified according to the percentage of circulating PMN-MDSC. Patients with low PMN-MDSC (≤ 8%) had a better OS (22.1 months [95% CI 4.3-739.7]) than patients with high PMN-MDSC (9.3 months [95% CI 0-18.8]). OS was significantly different among groups of patients stratified by both PMN-MDSC% and cytokine levels. In sum, our findings provide evidence suggesting that PMN-MDSC% in conjunction with the levels IL-1β, IL-27, and IL-29 could be a useful strategy to identify groups of patients with potentially unfavorable prognoses.

Concerted action of IFN-α and IFN-λ induces local NK cell immunity and halts cancer growth

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most prevalent type of liver cancer. No significant improvement has been reported with currently available systemic therapies. IFN-α has been tested in both clinic and animal models and only moderate benefits have been observed. In animal models, similar modest antitumor efficacy has also been reported for IFN-λ, a new type of IFN that acts through its own receptor complex. In the present study, the antitumor efficacy of the combination of IFN-α and IFN-λ was tested in the BNL mouse hepatoma model. This study was accomplished by using either engineered tumor cells (IFN-α/IFN-λ gene therapy) or by directly injecting tumor-bearing mice with IFN-α/IFN-λ. Both approaches demonstrated that IFN-α/IFN-λ combination therapy was more efficacious than IFN monotherapy based on either IFN-α or IFN-λ. In complement to tumor surgery, IFN-α/IFN-λ combination induced complete tumor remission. Highest antitumor efficacy has been obtained following local administration of IFN-α/IFN-λ combination at the tumor site that was associated with strong NK cells tumor infiltration. This supports the use of IFN-α/IFN-λ combination as a new cancer immunotherapy for stimulating antitumor response after cancer surgery.

The role of IL-29 in immunity and cancer

Interleukin-29 (IL-29) is a new member of the recently discovered interferon λ (IFNλ) family. It is produced predominantly by maturing dendritic cells and macrophages. It has been implicated in numerous immunological responses and has shown antiviral activity similar to the Type I interferons, although its target cell population is more limited than the Type I interferons. In recent years, the role of IL-29 in the pathogenesis of various cancers has also been extensively studied. In this review, we will discuss the recent advances of IL-29 in immunological processes and the pathogenesis of various cancer.

Tweaking Mesenchymal Stem/Progenitor Cell Immunomodulatory Properties with Viral Vectors Delivering Cytokines

Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) can be found in various body sites. Their main role is to differentiate into cartilage, bone, muscle, and fat cells to allow tissue maintenance and repair. During inflammation, MSCs exhibit important immunomodulatory properties that are not constitutive, but require activation, upon which they may exert immunosuppressive functions. MSCs are defined as "sensors of inflammation" since they modulate their ability of interfering with the immune system both in vitro and in vivo upon interaction with different factors. MSCs may influence immune responses through different mechanisms, such as direct cell-to-cell contact, release of soluble factors, and through the induction of anergy and apoptosis. Human MSCs are defined as plastic-adherent cells expressing specific surface molecules. Lack of MHC class II antigens makes them appealing as allogeneic tools for the therapy of both autoimmune diseases and cancer. MSC therapeutic potential could be highly enhanced by the expression of exogenous cytokines provided by transduction with viral vectors. In this review, we attempt to summarize the results of a great number of in vitro and in vivo studies aimed at improving the ability of MSCs as immunomodulators in the therapy of autoimmune, degenerative diseases and cancer. We will also compare results obtained with different vectors to deliver heterologous genes to these cells.

Anti-tumor immunity elicited by direct intratumoral administration of a recombinant adenovirus expressing either IL-28A/IFN-λ2 or IL-29/IFN-λ1

Interleukin (IL)-28A/interferon (IFN)-λ2 and IL-29/IFN-λ1 have been demonstrated to elicit direct and indirect anti-tumor actions. In this study, we constructed an adenovirus vector expressing either IL-28A/IFN-λ2 (AdIL-28A) or IL-29/IFN-λ1 (AdIL-29) to evaluate the therapeutic properties of intratumoral injection of recombinant adenovirus to apply for the clinical implementation of cancer gene therapy. Despite the lack of an anti-proliferative effect on MCA205 and B16-F10 cells, a retarded growth of established subcutaneous tumors was observed following multiple injections of either AdIL-28A or AdIL-29 when compared with AdNull. In vivo cell depletion experiments displayed that both NK cells and CD8(+) T cells have a major role in AdIL-28A-mediated tumor growth suppression. A significant increase in the number of infiltrating CD8(+) T cells into the tumors treated with either AdIL-28A or AdIL-29 was observed. Moreover, specific anti-tumor cytotoxic T lymphocyte reactivity was detected in spleen cells from animals treated with either AdIL-28A or AdIL-29. In IFN-γ-deficient mice, anti-tumor activities of AdIL-28A were completely impaired, indicating that IFN-γ is critically involved in the tumor growth inhibition triggered by AdIL-28A. IL-12 provided a synergistic anti-tumor effect when combined with AdIL-28A. These results indicate that AdIL-28A and AdIL-29 could be successfully utilized as an alternative cancer immunogene therapy.

IFNs-signaling effects on lung cancer: an up-to-date pathways-specific review

IFNs have found important applications in clinical medicine, including the treatment of lung malignancies. The biological effect of the IFN-receptor signaling is regulated essentially by three factors: the expression profile of the IFN itself, the profile of the receptor, and the expression of target genes. IFNs initiate their signaling by binding to specific receptors. The activated IFNs can directly induce gene transcription and/or multiple downstream signaling that both induce diverse cellular responses including the cell cycle arrest and the apoptosis in tumor cells. We provided evidence that IFN-γ enhances the pro cell death effects of Fas/CD95 in human neoplastic alveolar epithelial cell line, A549. We also found that p27 protein plays a pivotal role in the inducing cell death of IFNγ-CH-11-treated A549 cells, since it is involved in the Ras/Raf signaling pathway. This article discusses recent insights into these possible additional functions of IFNs in lung cancer treatment.

Clinical significance of serum interleukin-29, interleukin-32, and tumor necrosis factor alpha levels in patients with gastric cancer

Many studies suggested that cytokines interleukin (IL)-29, IL-32, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) are implicated in the pathogenesis of malignancies. The purpose of this study was to determine the clinical significance of the serum levels of IL-29, IL-32, and TNF-α in gastric cancer (GC) patients. Fifty-eight GC patients and 20 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were enrolled into this study. The median age at diagnosis was 59.5 years (range 32-82 years). Tumor localization of the majority of the patients was antrum (n = 42, 72.4 %), and tumor histopathology of the majority of the patients was diffuse (n = 43, 74.1 %). The majority of the patients had stage IV disease (n = 41, 70.7 %). Thirty-six (62.1 %) patients had lymph node involvement. The median follow-up time was 66 months (range 1 to 97.2 months). The baseline serum IL-29 concentrations were not different between patients and controls (p = 0.627). The baseline serum IL-32 and TNF-α concentrations of the GC patients were significantly higher (for IL-32, p = 0.014; for TNF-α, p = 0.001). Gender, localization, histopathology, tumor, and lymph node involvement were not found to be correlated with serum IL-29, IL-32, and TNF-α concentrations (p > 0.05). Patients without metastasis (p = 0.01) and patients who responded to chemotherapy (p = 0.04) had higher serum IL-29 concentrations. Patients older than 60 years had higher serum IL-32 (p = 0.002). Serum IL-29, IL-32, and TNF-α levels were not associated with outcome (p = 0.30, p = 0.51, and p = 0.41, respectively). In conclusion, serum levels of IL-32 and TNF-α may be diagnostic markers, and serum IL-29 levels may be associated with good prognosis in patients with GC.

Investigations of interferon-lambda for the treatment of cancer

Interferon-lambda (IFN-λ), a recently discovered cytokine, overlaps broadly with type I IFN signaling, producing antiviral, antiproliferative, and proapoptotic responses. In comparison to type I IFNs, IFN-λ has a limited spectrum of responsive tissues due to variation in expression of the IFN-λ receptor IFNLR1. Type I IFNs have been investigated for their antitumor effects and used in the clinical setting for a number of different cancers. Given the overlap in signaling and function between IFN-λ and type I IFNs, IFN-λ has also drawn interest for the treatment of cancer. To date, a number of studies using both murine and human models of cancer have investigated the antitumor effects of IFN-λ. These studies have found that IFN-λ is capable of directly targeting cancer cells to reduce their tumorigenicity, induce cell cycle arrest, and cause apoptosis. In addition, IFN-λ has been shown to have indirect effects against cancer cells through immune system responses and immune modulatory effects. This review aims to detail the findings of studies investigating IFN-λ for the treatment of cancer as well as suggest areas of potential interest for future studies.

Standardization of human IL-29 (IFN-λ1): establishment of a World Health Organization international reference reagent for IL-29 (IFN-λ1)

Human interleukin-29 (IL-29), a helical cytokine with interferon-like activities, is currently being developed as a clinical biotherapeutic to treat chronic hepatitis C infection and some cancers. As such, the World Health Organization (WHO) has recognized a need for biological standardization of IL-29 and the establishment of an internationally available reference reagent of IL-29. In order to accomplish this, an international collaborative study that evaluates WHO candidate reference reagents of IL-29 was instigated by the National Institute for Biological Standards and Control (NIBSC) in 2010 and was carried out in the succeeding year. Two preparations of human sequence recombinant IL-29, one expressed in murine NS0 cells and the other in Escherichia coli, were formulated and lyophilized at NIBSC before evaluation in the collaborative study for their suitability to serve as a reference reagent. The preparations were tested by 6 laboratories from 4 countries using in vitro bioassays and also evaluated for thermal stability within the NIBSC laboratory. On the basis of the results of the collaborative study, both preparations, 07/212 (NS0-derived) and 10/176 (E. coli-derived) were judged sufficiently active and stable to serve as a reference reagent. However, since IL-29 produced in E. coli is in development for clinical applications, it was recommended that the preparation coded 10/176 be established as the WHO international reference reagent for human IL-29. This recommendation was accepted, and the IL-29 preparation coded 10/176 was formally established by the WHO ECBS at its meeting in October 2012 as the WHO international reference reagent for IL-29 with an assigned unitage of 5,000 reference units per ampoule.

Mesenchymal stem cells are efficiently transduced with adenoviruses bearing type 35-derived fibers and the transduced cells with the IL-28A gene produces cytotoxicity to lung carcinoma cells co-cultured

BACKGROUND

Transduction of human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) with type 5 adenoviruses (Ad5) is limited in the efficacy because of the poor expression level of the coxsackie adenovirus receptor (CAR) molecules. We examined a possible improvement of Ad-mediated gene transfer in MSCs by substituting the fiber region of type 5 Ad with that of type 35 Ad.

METHODS

Expression levels of CAR and CD46 molecules, which are the major receptors for type 5 and type 35 Ad, respectively, were assayed with flow cytometry. We constructed vectors expressing the green fluorescent protein gene with Ad5 or modified Ad5 bearing the type 35 fiber region (AdF35), and examined the infectivity to MSCs with flow cytometry. We investigated anti-tumor effects of MSCs transduced with interleukin (IL)-28A gene on human lung carcinoma cells with a colorimetric assay. Expression of IL-28A receptors was tested with the polymerase chain reaction. A promoter activity of transcriptional regulatory regions in MSCs was determined with a luciferase assay and a tumor growth-promoting ability of MSCs was tested with co-injection of human tumor cells in nude mice.

RESULTS

MSCs expressed CD46 but scarcely CAR molecules, and subsequently were transduced with AdF35 but not with Ad5. Growth of MSCs transduced with the IL-28A gene remained the same as that of untransduced cells since MSCs were negative for the IL-28A receptors. The IL-28A-transduced MSCs however suppressed growth of lung carcinoma cells co-cultured, whereas MSCs transduced with AdF35 expressing the β-galactosidase gene did not. A regulatory region of the cyclooygenase-2 gene possessed transcriptional activities greater than other tumor promoters but less than the cytomegalovirus promoter, and MSCs themselves did not support tumor growth in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

AdF35 is a suitable vector to transduce MSCs that are resistant to Ad5-mediated gene transfer. MSCs infected with AdF35 that activate an exogenous gene by the cytomegalovirus promoter can be a vehicle to deliver the gene product to targeted cells.

Interleukin-28A enhances autoimmune disease in a retinal autoimmunity model

Interleukin-28A (IL-28A), a member of type III interferons (IFN-λs), promotes antiviral, antitumor and immune responses. However, its ability to regulate autoimmune diseases is poorly understood. In this study, we examined the effect of IL-28A on retinal antigen-induced experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis (EAU), a mouse model of human T-cell-mediated autoimmune eye disease. We found that administration of IL-28A enhanced EAU scores and autoimmune response parameters including delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH), Ag-specific T cell proliferation and the production of Ag-specific IL-17 and IFN-γ in the priming phase. The effect of IL-28A was abrogated by administration of a neutralizing antibody against IL-28A. Our results suggest that IL-28A is capable of exacerbating a T-cell-mediated autoimmune disease. Thus, targeting IL-28A may provide a new therapeutic approach to T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases such as uveitis.

Interferon-β produces synergistic combinatory anti-tumor effects with cisplatin or pemetrexed on mesothelioma cells

Interferons (IFNs) have been tested for the therapeutic effects in various types of malignancy, but mechanisms of the anti-tumors effects and the differential biological activities among IFN members are dependent on respective cell types. In this study, we examined growth inhibitory activities of type I and III IFNs on 5 kinds of human mesothelioma cells bearing wild-type p53 gene, and showed that type I IFNs but not type III IFNs decreased the cell viabilities. Moreover, growth inhibitory activities and up-regulated expression levels of the major histocompatibility complexes class I antigens were greater with IFN-β than with IFN-α treatments. Cell cycle analyses demonstrated that type I IFNs increased S- and G2/M-phase populations, and subsequently sub-G1-phase fractions. The cell cycle changes were also greater with IFN-β than IFN-α treatments, and these data collectively showed that IFN-β had stronger biological activities than IFN-α in mesothelioma. Type I IFNs-treated cells increased p53 expression and the phosphorylation levels, and activated apoptotic pathways. A combinatory use of IFN-β and cisplatin or pemetrexed, both of which are the current first-line chemotherapeutic agents for mesothelioma, produced synergistic anti-tumor effects, which were also evidenced by increased sub-G1-phase fractions. These data demonstrated firstly to our knowledge that IFN-β produced synergistic anti-tumor effects with cisplatin or pemetrexed on mesothelioma through up-regulated p53 expression.

Potential anti-tumor effect of IFN-λ2 (IL-28A) against human lung cancer cells

Interferon (IFN)-λs (IL-28A/IL-28B/IL-29) classified as type III IFNs, are the latest members identified of the interferon family. As with type I IFNs such as IFN-α, type III IFNs share antiviral and antitumor activity and may have fewer side effects due to a more selective receptor distribution. Therefore, type III IFNs may be clinically useful for human viral and malignant diseases. Here we demonstrate the potential anti-tumor effect of IFN-λ2 (IL-28A) against human lung cancer cells. All lung cancer cell lines that we examined expressed both IFN-λ receptors (IL-28R1 and IL-10R2). Lung cancer cells with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations were more sensitive to IFN-λ2 treatment compared with cells with KRAS mutations. HCC827 cells with an EGFR mutation treated with IFN-λ2 underwent growth suppression and apoptotic cell death by STAT1 phosphorylation. Administration of neutralizing antibodies to IFN-λ inhibited caspase-3/7 activity induced by IFN-λ2. Finally, in vivo luminescent imaging also demonstrated the anti-tumor effect of IFN-λ2 in a cancer cell transplant animal model. Taken together, IFN-λ2 would be a new therapeutic agent for clinical lung cancers with EGFR mutations.

Interferon-λs: special immunomodulatory agents and potential therapeutic targets

Interferon (IFN)-λs are a new addition to the old IFN family and share many similarities, such as antiviral and antiproliferative characteristics, with type I IFNs. IFN-λs also exhibit unique characteristics in immunomodulation. Accumulating studies have indicated the interactions between IFN-λs and immune cells, which lead to the regulation of the latter. IFN-λs can influence dendritic cells (DCs) and their product, IFN-λs-DCs, can then regulate the function of T cells. On the other hand, IFN-λs can also directly affect T cells through inhibition of the T helper 2 cell (Th2) responses. IFN-λs have varying immunomodulatory functions under different physiological conditions or in different organs and can inhibit tumor growth via regulation of the immune system. Diseases associated with IFN-λs include asthma, allergy, and systemic lupus erythematosus. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of the biology of IFN-λs and their immunomodulatory function in relevant human diseases.

Electrogenetherapy of B16.F10 murine melanoma tumors with an interleukin-28 expressing DNA plasmid

Augmented delivery of cytokine-expressing DNA plasmids to subcutaneous tumors has been demonstrated to result in a level of enhanced anti-tumor activity. One delivery enhancement method which has been evaluated is in vivo electroporation (EP), a contact-dependent delivery technique where electric pulses are hypothesized to augment the transfer of DNA into cells and tissues through the induction of temporary cell membrane pores. Previous work by members of our group, as well as others, has demonstrated the anti-tumor effects of DNA plasmids expressing the cytokines IL-12 and IL-15. In this report the potential anti-tumor activity of a relatively newly-described cytokine, IL-28, was measured when administered intratumorally as a DNA expression plasmid (designated pIL28) to established murine (B16.F10) melanoma tumors. The administration of the IL-28 expressing plasmid was performed through enhanced delivery methods. One method was EP and the other a non-contact dependent technique using a helium plasma stream. IL-28 is a member of the type III interferon family of cytokines that has been characterized as possessing potent anti-viral activity. This cytokine has been demonstrated to function as an adjuvant in small animal model vaccination protocols and stimulates CD8+ CTL responses. In addition, stimulation of anti-tumor activity has been demonstrated in several studies using IL-28. Based on these activities, it was hypothesized that this cytokine could, when delivered through a DNA expression plasmid, mediate anti-tumor activity. The results of this study indicated that enhanced delivery of pIL-28 resulted in attenuation of tumor growth, compared with non-enhanced delivery. Of note, this is the first proof-of-concept experiment, of our knowledge, documenting the ability of a non-contact dependent helium plasma-based delivery method to mediate the enhancement of an anti-tumor effect by a cytokine-expressing DNA plasmid. This suggests the use of the helium plasma delivery method as an alternative or adjunctive method to EP for the effective delivery of agents that possess potential anti-tumor activity.

Type III interferon induces apoptosis in human lung cancer cells

The apoptotic effects of interferon lambdas (IFNλs) have been described in several types of cancers. However, their effects on human lung cancer cells and the mechanisms are elusive. In addition, the interaction between IFNλs and other interferons remains unclear. The interplay between IFNα and IFNλ has been reported. However, although IFNγ is a well-known regulatory interferon, the mechanisms through which it regulates IFNλs in lung cancer cells are unknown. These issues are critical for the application of IFNλs in lung cancer therapy. In this study, we used A549, a cell line derived from a human lung carcinoma, to characterize the antiproliferative and apoptotic effects of IFNλs on lung cancer, and the interplay between IFNγ and IFNλ. Because overexpression of full-length ectopic IFNλR1 led to cell death, we generated A549 cells stably expressing a chimeric receptor (10R1/λR1), which is composed of the extracellular domain of IL-10 receptor (IL10R1) fused in tandem to the transmembrane and intracellular domains of the IFNλ receptor (IFNλR1). By comparing with A549 cells stably expressing its cognate vector, we demonstrated that IL-10 stimulation triggered the intracellular IFNλ signaling via 10R1/λR1 receptor. By using A549 cells expressing 10R1/λR1, we report that the IFNλR1 chain of IFNλ receptor possesses an intrinsic ability to trigger apoptosis in human lung cancer cells. Although it did not suppress cell proliferation, IFNλ signaling via 10R1/λR1 receptor induced cell cycle arrest, externalization of phosphatidylserine, DNA fragmentation, activation of caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9. However, the caspase inhibitor Z-VAD-FMK did not prevent apoptosis. In addition, the extent of induced apoptosis correlate with the expression levels of the IFNλ receptor and the levels of STAT1 activation. Lastly, we demonstrated that IFNγ sensitized A549 cells to IFNλ-induced apoptosis, via upregulation of IFNλR1. These data indicate the potential of IFNλ, alone or in combination with IFNγ, in the treatment of human lung carcinoma.