Clinical uses of intravenous immunoglobulin

Pneumococcal Neuraminidases Increase Platelet Killing by Pneumolysin

BACKGROUND

 Platelets prevent extravasation of capillary fluids into the pulmonary interstitial tissue by sealing gaps in inflamed endothelium. This reduces respiratory distress associated with pneumonia. Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Pneumococci produce pneumolysin (PLY), which forms pores in membranes of eukaryotic cells including platelets. Additionally, pneumococci express neuraminidases, which cleave sialic acid residues from eukaryotic glycoproteins. In this study, we investigated the effect of desialylation on PLY binding and pore formation on platelets.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 We incubated human platelets with purified neuraminidases and PLY, or nonencapsulated S. pneumoniae D39/TIGR4 and isogenic mutants deficient in PLY and/or NanA. We assessed platelet desialylation, PLY binding, and pore formation by flow cytometry. We also analyzed the inhibitory potential of therapeutic immunoglobulin G preparations (IVIG [intravenous immunoglobulin]).

RESULTS

 Wild-type pneumococci cause desialylation of platelet glycoproteins by neuraminidases, which is reduced by 90 to 100% in NanA-deficient mutants. NanC, cleaving only α2,3-linked sialic acid, induced platelet desialylation. PLY binding to platelets then x2doubled (p = 0.0166) and pore formation tripled (p = 0.0373). A neuraminidase cleaving α2,3-, α2,6-, and α2,8-linked sialic acid like NanA was even more efficient. Addition of polyvalent IVIG (5 mg/mL) decreased platelet desialylation induced by NanC up to 90% (p = 0.263) and reduced pore formation >95% (p < 0.0001) when incubated with pneumococci.

CONCLUSION

 Neuraminidases are key virulence factors of pneumococci and desialylate platelet glycoproteins, thereby unmasking PLY-binding sites. This enhances binding of PLY and pore formation showing that pneumococcal neuraminidases and PLY act in concert to kill platelets. However, human polyvalent immunoglobulin G preparations are promising agents for therapeutic intervention during severe pneumococcal pneumonia.

Sepsis: the evolution of molecular pathogenesis concepts and clinical management

The mortality rate of sepsis is approximately 22.5%, accounting for 19.7% of the total global mortality. Since Lewis Thomas proposed in 1972 that "it is our response that makes the disease (sepsis)" rather than the invading microorganisms, numerous drugs have been developed to suppress the "overwhelming" inflammatory response, but none of them has achieved the desired effect. Continued failure has led investigators to question whether deaths in septic patients are indeed caused by uncontrolled inflammation. Here, we review the history of clinical trials based on evolving concepts of sepsis pathogenesis over the past half century, summarize the factors that led to the failure of these historical drugs and the prerequisites for the success of future drugs, and propose the basic principles of preclinical research to ensure successful clinical translation. The strategy of targeting inflammatory factors are like attempting to eliminate invaders by suppressing the host's armed forces, which is logically untenable. Sepsis may not be that complex; rather, sepsis may be the result of a failure to fight microbes when the force of an invading pathogen overwhelms our defenses. Thus, strengthening the body's defense forces instead of suppressing them may be the correct strategy to overcome sepsis.

Autoantibodies in COVID-19: implications for disease severity and clinical outcomes

Few pathogens have historically been subjected to as intense scientific and clinical scrutiny as SARS-CoV-2. The genetic, immunological, and environmental factors influencing disease severity and post-infection clinical outcomes, known as correlates of immunity, remain largely undefined. Clinical outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 infection vary widely, ranging from asymptomatic cases to those with life-threatening COVID-19 symptoms. While most infected individuals return to their former health and fitness within a few weeks, some develop debilitating chronic symptoms, referred to as long-COVID. Autoimmune responses have been proposed as one of the factors influencing long-COVID and the severity of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The association between viral infections and autoimmune pathologies is not new. Viruses such as Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus, among others, have been shown to induce the production of autoantibodies and the onset of autoimmune conditions. Given the extensive literature on SARS-CoV-2, here we review current evidence on SARS-CoV-2-induced autoimmune pathologies, with a focus on autoantibodies. We closely examine mechanisms driving autoantibody production, particularly their connection with disease severity and long-COVID.

Outcomes of intravenous immunoglobulin treatment of immunocompromised patients with viral respiratory infections

BACKGROUND

Limited guidelines exist for treating immunocompromised patients hospitalized for acute viral respiratory infection. Little is known about clinical and economic benefits of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) administration in patients with acute viral respiratory infections.

OBJECTIVE

To compare clinical and economic outcomes among immunocompromised patients hospitalized with viral respiratory infections who received IVIG with those who did not.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective cohort study on all patients hospitalized for a respiratory viral infection between 2011 and 2016 at 2 large academic centers including data on age, sex, virus species, immunosuppression type, and receipt of IVIG. Outcomes included death, hospital readmission, length of stay (LOS) in the hospital, and LOS in the intensive care unit (ICU).

RESULTS

A total of 270 patient admissions were reviewed, and 35.6% received IVIG. The average age was 40.6 years, 50% were female, and 74% were transplant patients. The most common virus was rhinovirus (50.7%). Use of IVIG was significantly associated with a shorter ICU LOS (β = -0.534, P = .012) and a longer hospital LOS (β = 0.887, P < .01). IVIG administered within 48 hours of hospitalization (n = 229) was associated with a shorter ICU LOS (β = -2.08, P = .001) and a shorter hospital LOS for patients hospitalized at least 2 days (β = -0.461, P = .007). There were no significant differences in readmission rates or death.

CONCLUSION

This double-center, retrospective cohort analysis is one of the first studies to evaluate the effect of IVIG on immunocompromised patients hospitalized with respiratory viral infections. IVIG was associated with a shorter hospital and ICU LOS, especially when administered within 48 hours of admission.

Induced B-Cell Receptor Diversity Predicts PD-1 Blockade Immunotherapy Response

Immune checkpoint inhibitors such as anti-PD-1 antibodies (aPD1) can be effective in treating advanced cancers. However, many patients do not respond and the mechanisms underlying these differences remain incompletely understood. In this study, we profile a cohort of patients with locally-advanced or metastatic basal cell carcinoma undergoing aPD-1 therapy using single-cell RNA sequencing, high-definition spatial transcriptomics in tumors and draining lymph nodes, and spatial immunoreceptor profiling, with long-term clinical follow-up. We find that successful responses to PD-1 inhibition are characterized by an induction of B-cell receptor (BCR) clonal diversity after treatment initiation. These induced BCR clones spatially co-localize with T-cell clones, facilitate their activation, and traffic alongside them between tumor and draining lymph nodes to enhance tumor clearance. Furthermore, we validated aPD1-induced BCR diversity as a predictor of clinical response in a larger cohort of glioblastoma, melanoma, and head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients, suggesting that this is a generalizable predictor of treatment response across many types of cancers. We discover that pre-treatment tumors harbor a characteristic gene expression signature that portends a higher probability of inducing BCR clonal diversity after aPD-1 therapy, and we develop a machine learning model that predicts PD-1-induced BCR clonal diversity from baseline tumor RNA sequencing. These findings underscore a dynamic role of B cell diversity during immunotherapy, highlighting its importance as a prognostic marker and a potential target for intervention in non-responders.

Intravenous immunoglobulin‑based adjuvant therapy for severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome: A single‑center retrospective cohort study

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is frequently administered to patients with severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS), particularly those with severe manifestations, although its efficacy remains controversial. The study retrospectively analyzed the effects of IVIG administration on SFTS patients in both mild and severe groups. The primary outcome measure was 28-day mortality. Inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW) with propensity score was used to account for baseline confounders. A total of SFTS patients with complete data enrolled from January 1, 2015, to August 1, 2023. Death at 28 days occurred for 68 (17.5%) patients. By unadjusted analysis, no difference was observed for 28-day mortality between the IVIG and non-IVIG groups in both the mild and severe groups. Similar results were found by propensity score matching and by IPTW analysis. Although IVIG is frequently used as adjuvant therapy for severe SFTS patients, no significant association was observed between IVIG treatment and reduced mortality in this patient population.

The Emerging Role of Immunoglobulins and Complement in the Stimulation of Neuronal Activity and Repair: Not as Simple as We Thought

Neurologic disorders such as traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and drug-resistant epilepsy have a high socioeconomic impact around the world. Current therapies for these disorders are often not effective. This creates a demand for the development of new therapeutic approaches to treat these disorders. Recent data suggest that autoreactive naturally occurring immunoglobulins produced by subsets of B cells, called B1 B cells, combined with complement, are actively involved in the processes of restoration of neuronal functions during pathological conditions and remyelination. The focus of this review is to discuss the possibility of creating specific therapeutic antibodies that can activate and fix complement to enhance neuronal survival and promote central nervous system repair after injuries associated with many types of neurodegenerative diseases.

Development, implementation and impact of an immunoglobulin stewardship programme in Saskatchewan, Canada

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) is one of the most costly and limited-supply blood products. Judicious use of this therapy is important to ensure a continued supply is available for patients in need. The Saskatchewan IG Stewardship Program was initiated to monitor and reduce inappropriate IG use.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Program was developed and implemented through the collaborative efforts of a multidisciplinary, inter-organizational team. Funding was provided from provincial organizations to create new positions within the Program and to support stakeholder engagement throughout the process of implementation. Data were collected from local and national databases regarding the amount of IVIG used and appropriateness of orders based on published criteria.

RESULTS

Over 20 months, the Program helped to reduce unnecessary IVIG use from pre-intervention levels by more than 20%. Interventions from nurse navigators alone reduced inappropriate IVIG use by 2.6%. During the 20-month period following Program initiation, more than 4 million CAD less was spent on IVIG compared with the previous 20 months.

CONCLUSION

The Saskatchewan IG Stewardship Program has led to more appropriate IVIG use across the province, more effective preservation of this limited healthcare resource, and cost savings that more than cover the cost of administering the Program.

Cardiac injury progression in children with multisystem inflammatory syndrome associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection: a review

The symptoms and signs of infection caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are milder in children than in adults. However, in April 2020, British pediatricians first reported that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) may present as multisystem inflammatory syndrome in children and adolescents (MIS-C), similar to that observed in Kawasaki disease. MIS-C can be associated with multiple systemic injuries and even death in children. In addition to digestive system involvement, cardiac injury is prominent. This article reviews the pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of cardiac injury caused by MIS-C, which may help clinicians in early diagnosis and timely commencement of treatment.

Effects of plasmapheresis frequency on health status and exercise performance in men: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Most research studies on the effects of repeated plasma donation are observational with different study limitations, resulting in high uncertainty on the link between repeated plasma donation and health consequences. Here, we prospectively investigated the safety of intensive or less intensive plasma donation protocols.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sixty-three male subjects participated in this randomized controlled trial and were divided into low-frequency (LF, once/month, n = 16), high-frequency (HF, three times/month, n = 16), very high-frequency (VHF, two times/week, n = 16) and a placebo (P, once/month, n = 15) groups. Biochemical, haematological, clinical, physiological and exercise-related data were collected before (D0), after 1½ months (D42) and after 3 months (D84) of donation.

RESULTS

In VHF, red blood cells, haemoglobin and haematocrit levels decreased while reticulocyte levels increased from D0 to D84. In both HF and VHF, plasma ferritin levels were lower at D42 and D84 compared to D0. In VHF, plasma levels of albumin, immunoglobulin G (IgG), immunoglobulin A (IgA) and immunoglobulin M (IgM) dropped from D0 to D42 and remained lower at D84 than at D0. In HF, plasma IgG, IgA and IgM were lower at D42, and IgG and IgM were lower at D84, compared to D0. Few adverse events were reported in HF and VHF. Repeated plasma donation had no effect on blood pressure, body composition or exercise performance.

CONCLUSION

VHF plasmapheresis may result in a large reduction in ferritin and IgG levels. HF and VHF plasmapheresis may result in little to no difference in other biochemical, haematological, clinical, physiological and exercise-related parameters.

An unsupervised learning approach to identify immunoglobulin utilization patterns using electronic health records

BACKGROUND

Managing Canada's immunoglobulin (Ig) product resource allocation is challenging due to increasing demand, high expenditure, and global shortages. Detection of groups with high utilization rates can help with resource planning for Ig products. This study aims to uncover utilization subgroups among the Ig recipients using electronic health records (EHRs).

METHODS

The study included all Ig recipients (intravenous or subcutaneous) in Calgary from 2014 to 2020, and their EHR data, including blood inventory, recipient demographics, and laboratory test results, were analyzed. Patient clusters were derived based on patient characteristics and laboratory test data using K-means clustering. Clusters were interpreted using descriptive analyses and visualization techniques.

RESULTS

Among 4112 recipients, six clusters were identified. Clusters 1 and 2 comprised 408 (9.9%) and 1272 (30.9%) patients, respectively, contributing to 62.2% and 27.1% of total Ig utilization. Cluster 3 included 1253 (30.5%) patients, with 86.4% of infusions administered in an inpatient setting. Cluster 4, comprising 1034 (25.1%) patients, had a median age of 4 years, while clusters 2-6 were adults with median ages of 46-60. Cluster 5 had 62 (1.5%) patients, with 77.3% infusions occurring in emergency departments. Cluster 6 contained 83 (2.0%) patients receiving subcutaneous Ig treatments.

CONCLUSION

The results identified data-driven segmentations of patients with high Ig utilization rates and patients with high risk for short-term inpatient use. Our report is the first on EHR data-driven clustering of Ig utilization patterns. The findings hold the potential to inform demand forecasting and resource allocation decisions during shortages of Ig products.

Mechanism underlying polyvalent IgG-induced regulatory T cell activation and its clinical application: Anti-idiotypic regulatory T cell theory for immune tolerance

The regulatory T (Treg) cells constitute a functionally defined subpopulation of T cells that modulate the immune system and maintain immune tolerance through suppression of the development of autoimmune responses to self-antigens and allergic reactions to external antigens. Reduction in the number or function of Treg cells has been suggested as a key immune abnormality underlying the development of autoimmune and allergic diseases. In vitro studies have demonstrated that purified polyvalent immunoglobulin G (IgG) from multiple healthy blood donors can exert immunomodulatory effects on Treg cells. Incubation of polyvalent human IgG with purified CD4+CD25high T cells increased the intracellular expression of interleukin (IL)-10. Intravenous administration of polyvalent human IgG induced significant expansions of CD4+ Foxp3+ Treg cells and clinical improvements in patients with autoimmune diseases. In human clinical trials, intramuscular administration of autologous total IgG significantly increased the percentage of IL-10-producing CD4+ Treg cells in the peripheral blood of healthy subjects and provided significant clinical improvements in patients with atopic dermatitis. These results suggest a clinical usefulness of polyvalent IgG-induced activation of Treg cells in human subjects. This review proposes a new hypothesis for immune tolerance mechanism by integrating the pre-existing "idiotypic network theory" and "Treg cell theory" into an "anti-idiotypic Treg cell theory." Based on this hypothesis, an "active anti-idiotypic therapy" for allergic and autoimmune diseases using autologous polyvalent IgG (as immunizing antigens) is suggested as follows: (1) Intramuscular or subcutaneous administration of autologous polyvalent IgG produces numerous immunogenic peptides derived from idiotypes of autologous IgG through processing of dendritic cells, and these peptides activate anti-idiotypic Treg cells in the same subject. (2) Activated anti-idiotypic Treg cells secrete IL-10 and suppress Th2 cell response to allergens and autoimmune T cell response to self-antigens. (3) These events can induce a long-term clinical improvements in patients with allergic and autoimmune diseases. Further studies are needed to evaluate the detailed molecular mechanism underlying polyvalent IgG-induced Treg cell activation and the clinical usefulness of this immunomodulatory therapy for autoimmune and allergic diseases.

Comparative effectiveness of two intravenous immunoglobulin products in children with Kawasaki disease, a nationwide cohort study

Kawasaki Disease (KD) is the most common acquired pediatric heart disease in the developed world. Rapid infusion of high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin is the standard therapy. Different manufacturing processes of IVIG may influence their efficacy. This study aims to conduct a head to head comparison of two IVIGs, TBSF and Privigen, from a nationwide perspective. The main data source was the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD) of Taiwan. A total of 3368 KD cases involving children under 2 years of age were enrolled from January 2015 to November 2020. The primary endpoint was IVIG resistance, which we defined as the total amount exceeding 26 g in one admission. The secondary endpoints encompassed two distinct criteria: coronary involvement, which was defined as the prolonged use of aspirin or anti-coagulation agents between 180 and 360 days after the index date, and recurrence, which was defined as readmission for IVIG therapy occurring more than 30 days after previous KD index day and continuing until the end of the follow-up period. Privigen demonstrated a lower IVIG resistance rate at 9.4% in comparison to TBSF, which exhibited a rate of 9.7% (odds ratio 0.72, 95% CI 0.52-0.99). Privigen had a lower odds of coronary involvement (odds ratio 0.38, 95% CI 0.18-0.82). There is no difference in recurrence rate (odds ratio 0.60, 95% CI 0.22-1.68). Privigen might have a lower rate of IVIG resistance and reduced coronary artery involvement. The discrepancy may be due to the concentration, the stabilizers, or the source of plasma. Further investigation is needed to compare the effectiveness of different IVIGs in the large randomized controlled clinical trial.

Immunoglobulin treatment for hospitalised infants and young children with respiratory syncytial virus infection

BACKGROUND

Millions of children are hospitalised due to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection every year. Treatment is supportive, and current therapies (e.g. inhaled bronchodilators, epinephrine, nebulised hypertonic saline, and corticosteroids) are ineffective or have limited effect. Respiratory syncytial virus immunoglobulin may be used prophylactically to prevent hospital admission from RSV-related illness. It may be considered for the treatment of established severe RSV infection or for treatment in an immunocompromised host, although it is not licensed for this purpose. It is unclear whether immunoglobulins improve outcomes when used as a treatment for established RSV infection in infants and young children admitted to hospital. This is an update of a review first published in 2019.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of immunoglobulins for the treatment of RSV-proven lower respiratory tract infections (LRTIs) in children aged up to three years, admitted to hospital.

SEARCH METHODS

For this 2022 update, we searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), which contains the Cochrane Acute Respiratory Infections Specialised Register, Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and Web of Science (from inception to 2 December 2022) with no restrictions. We searched two trial registries for ongoing trials (to 2 December 2022) and checked the reference lists of reviews and included articles for additional studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials comparing immunoglobulins with placebo in hospitalised infants and children aged up to three years with laboratory-diagnosed RSV lower respiratory tract infection.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently selected trials, assessed risk of bias, and extracted data. We assessed evidence certainty using GRADE.

MAIN RESULTS

In total, we included eight trials involving 906 infants and children aged up to three years. We included one new trial in this update. The immunoglobulin preparations used in these trials included anti-RSV immunoglobulin and the monoclonal antibody preparations palivizumab and motavizumab. Five trials were conducted at single or multiple sites within a single high-income country (four in the USA, one in Qatar). Three trials included study sites in different countries. All three of these trials included study sites in one or more high-income countries (USA, Chile, New Zealand, Australia, Qatar), with two trials also including a study site in a middle-income country (Panama). Five of the eight trials were "supported" or "sponsored" by the trial drug manufacturers. The evidence is very uncertain about the effect of immunoglobulins on mortality (risk ratio (RR) 0.87, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.14 to 5.27; 4 studies, 309 participants). There were four deaths - two amongst 98 children receiving immunoglobulins, and two amongst 98 children receiving placebo. One additional death occurred in a fourth trial, however the study group of the child was not known and the data were not included in the analysis (very low-certainty evidence). The use of immunoglobulins in infants and children admitted to hospital with RSV proven LRTI probably results in little to no difference in the length of hospitalisation (mean difference (MD) -0.13 days, 95% CI -0.37 to 0.12; 6 studies, 737 participants; moderate-certainty evidence). Immunoglobulins may result in little to no difference in the number of children who experience one or more adverse events of any severity or seriousness compared to placebo (RR 1.18, 95% CI 0.78 to 1.78; 5 studies, 340 participants; low-certainty evidence) or the number of children who experience one or more adverse events judged by study investigators to be serious in nature, compared to placebo (RR 1.08, 95% CI 0.65 to 1.79; 4 studies, 238 participants; low-certainty evidence). Certainty of evidence for secondary outcomes was low. This evidence suggests that use of immunoglobulins results in little to no difference in the need for, or duration of, mechanical ventilation and the need for, or duration of, supplemental oxygen. The use of immunoglobulins does not reduce the need for admission to the intensive care unit (ICU) and when children are admitted to the ICU results in little to no difference in the duration of ICU stay.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

We are very uncertain about the effect of immunoglobulins on mortality. We are moderately certain that use of immunoglobulins in hospitalised infants and children may result in little to no difference in the length of hospitalisation. Immunoglobulins may result in little to no difference in adverse events, the need for or duration of mechanical ventilation, supplemental oxygen, or admission to the intensive care unit, though we are less certain about this evidence and the true effect of immunoglobulins on these outcomes may differ markedly from the estimated effect observed in this review. All trials were conducted in high-income countries, and data from populations in which the rate of death from RSV infection is higher are lacking.

What influences decisions to donate plasma? A rapid review of the literature

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Plasma has become an essential ingredient for various medical treatments. Many blood collection agencies rely on voluntary non-remunerated donation when collecting plasma, but at present many do not collect sufficient plasma to meet domestic demands. This rapid review sought to explore the factors that have been found to influence people's decisions to donate plasma to inform future research.

METHODS

Searches were conducted in PubMed, PsycINFO, Social Sciences Citation Index and CINAHL for peer-reviewed journal articles that discussed plasma donation and the factors associated with donor behaviour. Pertinent information from included articles was extracted and arranged in themes.

RESULTS

In total, 33 articles were included in this review. Three main themes were identified by the authors. The first focused on site-level factors related to blood collection agencies' engagement with plasma donors and their influence on plasma donation experiences. The second theme considered how individual characteristics and experiences influence willingness to donate plasma. The third theme examined social and cultural-level factors, such as how social networks and community shape perceptions and experiences with donation.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the current understanding of plasma donation is focused mainly on converting whole blood donors and also centres on individual-level factors to donation. Further research must examine what factors attract non-whole blood donors to become plasma donors, focusing on broader social-level influences. This review will inform policies and interventions for blood collection agencies to increase plasma donors.

Case report: Clinical experience of treating pembrolizumab-induced systemic capillary leak syndrome (SCLS) in one patient with metastatic gastroesophageal junction squamous cell carcinoma

Systemic capillary leak syndrome (SCLS) is a rare and complex adverse effect of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). The diagnosis of drug-induced SCLS is based on diffuse infusions of exudative fluid into the interstitial areas and the exclusion of other causes. The best management of ICIs-induced SCLS is not settled, though proper supportive care and corticosteroids were commonly applied as the first-line treatment. In our patient with advanced gastroesophageal junction squamous cell carcinoma, although ICIs-induced SCLS was successfully controlled with corticosteroids, the patient soon experienced cancer progress and died of pulmonary infections. Based on our experience and the reported cases by other hospitals, different stages of SCLS might respond differently to the same treatment. Therefore, a grading of ICIs-induced SCLS might help to stratify the patient for different treatment strategies. Besides, corticosteroids-sensitive patients, though waived from deadly SCLS, might be at higher risk of cancer progress and subsequent infections due to the application of corticosteroids. Considering that the inflammatory factors should be closely involved in the development of ICIs-induced SCLS, targeted therapy against the driver inflammatory cytokine might offer treatment regimens that are more effective and safer.

Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies in Immunoglobulin Products

BACKGROUND

For patients with primary antibody deficiency, the first line of therapy is replacement with immunoglobulin (Ig) products. Prior to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic, Ig products did not contain antibodies with specificity for this virus, and there have been limited data on the antibodies present in the Ig products in current use.

OBJECTIVE

To quantitatively examine SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in current Ig products.

METHODS

We examined 142 unique lots of 11 different Ig products intended for intravenous and/or subcutaneous delivery for IgG-binding activities against recombinant SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain, spike, and nucleocapsid proteins by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. In addition, to assess functionality, 48 of these unique lots were assessed for their ability to inhibit the variants SARS-CoV-2 Ancestral, Alpha, Beta, Delta, and Omicron spike binding to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2).

RESULTS

Significantly increased antibody values were observed for products manufactured after the year 2020 (expiration dates 2023-2024), as compared with Ig products before 2020 (prepandemic). Sixty percent and 85% of the Ig products with expiration dates of 2023 and 2024 were positive for antibody to SARS-CoV-2 proteins, respectively. The area under the curve values were significantly higher in products with later expiration dates. Later dates of expiration were also strongly correlated with inhibition of ACE2-binding activity; however, a decline in inhibition activity was observed with later variants.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, more recent Ig products (expiration dates 2023-2025) contained significantly higher binding and inhibition activities against SARS-CoV-2 proteins, compared with earlier, or prepandemic products. Normal donor SARS-CoV-2 antibodies are capable of inhibiting ACE2-binding activities and may provide a therapeutic benefit for patients who do not make a robust vaccine response.

Application of immunomodulatory therapy in a human brucellosis patient with pancytopenia: A case report

Brucellosis is a common zoonotic infectious disease with diverse and non-specific clinical manifestations caused by Brucella. Although Brucella can cause damage to multiple systems in the human body, hematological complications are relatively rare. We present a case of a 47-year-old male brucellosis patient with pancytopenia. In May 2018, the patient was diagnosed with brucellosis and recovered after receiving antibiotic treatment (rifampicin 600 mg/day and doxycycline 200 mg/day) for six weeks. However, after three years, the patient experienced a recurring high fever. Brucellosis relapse was confirmed based on the patient's clinical history, Rose Bengal plate agglutination test and standard tube agglutination test results. Routine blood examination revealed a decrease in the whole blood cell count, suggesting bone marrow suppression. Bone marrow aspiration and bacterial culture confirmed the diagnosis of brucellosis with pancytopenia. Antibiotic treatment failed to effectively improve the patient's condition. Therefore, a combination of immunomodulatory and antibiotic treatments was used. The antibiotic regimen included oral rifampicin 600 mg/day, intravenous doxycycline hydrochloride 200 mg/day, and subcutaneous injection of human granulocyte-stimulating factor (0.2 mg/day). Immunomodulatory therapy consisted of 20,000 mg/day intravenous human immunoglobulin (pH 4) for five days and 800 mg/day oral pidotimod liquid for 20 days. As the treatment progressed, the count gradually recovered to normal levels, and the symptoms of bone marrow suppression were alleviated. PCR testing revealed the absence of Brucella DNA in both monocyte and serum samples. Furthermore, negative standard tube agglutination test results were obtained. These findings indicate that the immunomodulatory therapy resulted in a complete clearance of Brucella. Therefore, immunomodulatory therapy could be an effective option in cases of brucellosis with pancytopenia that are unresponsive to conventional antibiotic treatment. Further research and clinical evidence are required to confirm and optimize the use of immunomodulatory therapies in patients with brucellosis.

SARS-CoV-2 Antibody Longitudinal Profile of Immune Globulin Preparations

INTRODUCTION

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) preparations, used for the treatment of antibody deficiencies, provide a glimpse of the general population's antibody profile as each preparation is generated from a pool of thousands of donors. The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the virus responsible for the coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) pandemic, and a vaccine for the prevention of Covid-19 was authorized for emergency use in December 2020. We completed a longitudinal analysis of SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in commercial IVIG preparations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected IVIG samples from our infusion clinic. IVIG product lot number, product name, and manufacturer information were recorded, with the date of preparation verified from the manufacturer. SARS-CoV-2 antibody titers as well as total immunoglobulin levels were measured using commercially available assays. The study received Institutional Review Board approval.

RESULTS

We found no SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in preparations generated on or before January 2020. Overall, SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in IVIG preparations tended to increase with progressing preparation date. We observed a dramatic and continual rise of SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in IVIG preparations made in the beginning after January 2021, coinciding with the peak in incidence of confirmed cases and availability of Covid-19 vaccines in the United States.

CONCLUSION

SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in IVIG mirror case prevalence, and vaccination resulted in a far more rapid rate of rise in antibody levels. IVIG preparations or serum repositories can provide an accessible way to model a population's evolving novel pathogen exposure, immunity, and vaccine response.

Targeting cytokine storm as the potential anti-viral therapy: Implications in regulating SARS-CoV-2 pathogenicity

The latest global pandemic corona virus disease - 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the virus SARS-CoV-2 is still a matter of worrying concern both for the scientific communities and health care organizations. COVID-19 disease is proved to be a highly contagious disease transmitted through respiratory droplets and even close contact with affected individuals. COVID-19 disease is also understood to exhibit diverse symptoms of ranging severities i.e., from mild fatigue to death. Affected individuals' susceptibility to induce immunologic dysregulation phenomena termed 'cytokine storm' seems to be playing the damaging role of escalating the disease manifestation from mild to severe. Cytokine storm in patients with severe symptoms is understood to be characterized by enhanced serum levels of many cytokines including interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, IL-10, TNF, interferon-γ, MIP-1α, MIP-1β and VEGF. Since cytokine production in general is the most important antiviral defense response, understanding the COVID-19 associated cytokine storm in particular and differentiating it from the regular cytokine production response becomes crucial in developing an effective therapeutic strategy.This review focuses on the potential targeting of COVID-19 associated cytokine storm and its challenges.

T Regulatory Cell-Associated Tolerance Induction by High-Dose Immunoglobulins in an HLA-Transgenic Mouse Model of Pemphigus

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a potentially lethal autoimmune bullous skin disorder caused by IgG autoantibodies against desmoglein 3 (Dsg3) and Dsg1. During the last three decades, high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIgs) have been applied as an effective and relatively safe treatment regime in severe, therapy-refractory PV. This prompted us to study T- and B- cell polarization by IVIg in a human-Dsg3-dependent mouse model for PV. Using humanized mice transgenic for HLA-DRB1*04:02, which is a highly prevalent haplotype in PV, we employed IVIg in two different experimental approaches: in prevention and quasi-therapeutic settings. Our data show that intraperitoneally applied IVIg was systemically distributed for up to 42 days or longer. IVIg-treated Dsg3-immunized mice exhibited, in contrast to Dsg3-immunized mice without IVIg, significantly less Dsg3-specific IgG, and showed induction of T regulatory cells in lymphatic tissue. Ex vivo splenocyte analysis upon Dsg3-specific stimulation revealed an initial, temporarily reduced antigen-induced cell proliferation, as well as IFN-γ secretion that became less apparent over the course of time. Marginal-zone B cells were initially reduced in the preventive approach but re-expanded over time. In contrast, in the quasi-therapeutic approach, a robust down-regulation in both spleen and lymph nodes was observed. We found a significant down-regulation of the immature transitional 1 (T1) B cells in IVIg-treated mice in the quasi-therapeutic approach, while T2 and T3, representing a healthy stage of B-cell development, appeared to be up-regulated by IVIg. In summary, in two experimental settings employing an active PV mouse model, we demonstrate distinct alterations of T- and B-cell populations upon IVIg treatment, compatible with a tolerance-associated polarization in lymphatic tissue. Our data suggest that the clinical efficacy of IVIg is at least modulated by distinct alterations of T- and B-cell populations compatible with a tolerance-associated polarization in lymphatic tissue.

Targeting neuro-immune systems to achieve cardiac tissue repair following myocardial infarction: A review of therapeutic approaches from in-vivo preclinical to clinical studies

Myocardial healing following myocardial infarction (MI) toward either functional tissue repair or excessive scarring/heart failure, may depend on a complex interplay between nervous and immune system responses, myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury factors, as well as genetic and epidemiological factors. Hence, enhancing cardiac repair post MI may require a more patient-specific approach targeting this complex interplay and not just the heart, bearing in mind that the dysregulation or modulation of just one of these systems or some of their mechanisms may determine the outcome either toward functional repair or toward heart failure. In this review we have elected to focus on existing preclinical and clinical in-vivo studies aimed at testing novel therapeutic approaches targeting the nervous and immune systems to trigger myocardial healing toward functional tissue repair. To this end, we have only selected clinical and preclinical in-vivo studies reporting on novel treatments targeting neuro-immune systems to ultimately treat MI. Next, we have grouped and reported treatments under each neuro-immune system. Finally, for each treatment we have assessed and reported the results of each clinical/preclinical study and then discussed their results collectively. This structured approach has been followed for each treatment discussed. To keep this review focused, we have deliberately omitted to cover other important and related research areas such as myocardial ischemia/reperfusion injury, cell and gene therapies as well as any ex-vivo and in-vitro studies. The review indicates that some of the treatments targeting the neuro-immune/inflammatory systems appear to induce beneficial effects remotely on the healing heart post MI, warranting further validation. These remote effects on the heart also indicates the presence of an overarching synergic response occurring across the nervous and immune systems in response to acute MI, which appear to influence cardiac tissue repair in different ways depending on age and timing of treatment delivery following MI. The cumulative evidence arising from this review allows also to make informed considerations on safe as opposed to detrimental treatments, and within the safe treatments to ascertain those associated with conflicting or supporting preclinical data, and those warranting further validation.

Drug Permeability: From the Blood-Brain Barrier to the Peripheral Nerve Barriers

Drug delivery into the peripheral nerves and nerve roots has important implications for effective local anesthesia and treatment of peripheral neuropathies and chronic neuropathic pain. Similar to drugs that need to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) to gain access to the central nervous system (CNS), drugs must cross the peripheral nerve barriers (PNB), formed by the perineurium and blood-nerve barrier (BNB) to modulate peripheral axons. Despite significant progress made to develop effective strategies to enhance BBB permeability in therapeutic drug design, efforts to enhance drug permeability and retention in peripheral nerves and nerve roots are relatively understudied. Guided by knowledge describing structural, molecular and functional similarities between restrictive neural barriers in the CNS and peripheral nervous system (PNS), we hypothesize that certain CNS drug delivery strategies are adaptable for peripheral nerve drug delivery. In this review, we describe the molecular, structural and functional similarities and differences between the BBB and PNB, summarize and compare existing CNS and peripheral nerve drug delivery strategies, and discuss the potential application of selected CNS delivery strategies to improve efficacious drug entry for peripheral nerve disorders.

Mechanisms of Obesity-Induced Changes in Pharmacokinetics of IgG in Rats

PURPOSE

To evaluate how obesity affects the pharmacokinetics of human IgG following subcutaneous (SC) and intravenous (IV) administration to rats and the homeostasis of endogenous rat IgG.

METHODS

Differences in body weight and size, body composition, and serum concentration of endogenous rat IgG in male Zucker obese (ZUC-FA/FA) and control (ZUC-LEAN) rats were measured from the age of 5 weeks up to 30 weeks. At the age of 23-24 weeks animals received a single IV or SC dose of human IgG (1 g/kg of total body weight), and serum pharmacokinetics was followed for 7 weeks. A mechanistic model linking obesity-related changes in pharmacokinetics with animal growth and changes in body composition was developed.

RESULTS

Significant differences were observed in both endogenous and exogenous IgG pharmacokinetics between obese and control groups. The AUC for human IgG was lower in obese groups (57.6% of control after IV and 48.1% after SC dosing), and clearance was 1.75-fold higher in obese animals. The mechanistic population model successfully captured the data and included several major components: endogenous rat IgG homeostasis with age-dependent synthesis rate; competition of human IgG and endogenous rat IgG for FcRn binding and its effect on endogenous rat IgG concentrations following injection of a high dose of human IgG; and the effect of body size and composition (changing over time and dependent on the obesity status) on pharmacokinetic parameters.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified important obesity-induced changes in the pharmacokinetics of IgG. Results can potentially facilitate optimization of the dosing of IgG-based therapeutics in the obese population.

Evaluation of Intravenous Immunoglobulin Administration for Hyperbilirubinemia in Newborn Infants with Hemolytic Disease

The primary objective of this research was to evaluate the use of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) in infants with hemolytic disease, to assess compliance with the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) guideline recommendations, and to review the data on which the guidelines were based. This retrospective study evaluated all infants in the NICU (neonatal intensive care unit) who received IVIG between January 2018 and December 2020 (n = 71). Total serum bilirubin (TSB) levels surrounding the time of IVIG administration, rate of rise of bilirubin, and direct antiglobulin test (DAT) status were evaluated to determine the appropriateness of IVIG use based on the 2004 AAP recommendations that was current at the time of the study. Fifty-nine infants received IVIG for hyperbilirubinemia. Of them, 80% had an ABO mismatch, 19% had Rh mismatch, and 71% were DAT-positive. Phototherapy was started at an average of 7 h of age, and the first IVIG dose was administered at an average of 13 h of life; nearly 25% received a second IVIG dose. One infant (1.6%) met all three AAP guideline criteria of being DAT-positive, bilirubin within 3 of exchange level, and rising bilirubin despite intensive phototherapy. Twenty-five (42%) babies were DAT positive and met one of the other two criteria. Only 12% (n = 7) had a bilirubin within 3 of exchange level. Most infants who received IVIG for hyperbilirubinemia did not meet the AAP criteria, prompting us to develop an institution-specific IVIG clinical practice guideline. The 2022 AAP guideline was published after our study was completed, but it confirmed our belief that IVIG usage should be more restricted and the criteria more explicit.

Intravenous Immunoglobulin G (IVIG) Need Assessment Survey Toward Local Manufacturing of IVIG Using a Mini-Pool Plasma Fractionation Technique

Immunoglobulin therapy has a crucial role in the treatment of primary and secondary immunodeficiencies as well as in a multitude of neurologic, hematologic, infectious, and autoimmune conditions. In the current study, a preliminary pilot scale needs assessment survey was conducted to examine the need for IVIG among patients in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and in so doing justify local manufacturing of IVIG products. The survey was performed by administering a structured questionnaire to private and government hospitals, a national blood bank, a regulatory body, and healthcare researchers working in academia and pharmaceutical companies. The questionnaire encompassed demographics and specific IVIG-related questions designed for each institution. Responses supplied in the study provide qualitative data. Our findings indicated that IVIG has been registered by the regulatory body for use in Ethiopia and there is a demand for the product in the country. The study also highlights that patients go as far as to clandestine markets to procure IVIG products at a cheaper price. To impede such illegal routes and make the product readily accessible, a small-scale and low-cost approach such as a mini-pool plasma fractionation technique could be implemented to locally purify and prepare IVIG using plasma collected through the national blood donation program.

Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial of the Corticosteroid-Sparing Effects of Immunoglobulin in Myasthenia Gravis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease characterized by dysfunction at the neuromuscular junction. Treatment frequently includes corticosteroids (CSs) and IV immunoglobulin (IVIG). This study was conducted to determine whether immune globulin (human), 10% caprylate/chromatography purified (IGIV-C) could facilitate CS dose reduction in CS-dependent patients with MG.

METHODS

In this randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial, CS-dependent patients with MG (Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America Class II-Iva; AChR+) received a loading dose of 2 g/kg IGIV-C over 2 days (maximum 80 g/d) or placebo at week 0 (baseline). Maintenance doses (1 g/kg IGIV-C or placebo) were administered every 3 weeks through week 36. Tapering of CS was initiated at week 9 and continued through week 36 unless the patient worsened (quantitative MG score ≥4 points from baseline). CS doses were increased (based on the current CS dose) in patients who worsened. Patients were withdrawn if worsening failed to improve within 6 weeks or if a second CS increase was required. The primary efficacy end point (at week 39) was a ≥50% reduction in CS dose. Secondary and safety end points were assessed throughout the study and follow-up (weeks 42 and 45). The study results and full protocol are available at clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02473965.

RESULTS

The primary end point (≥50% reduction in CS dose) showed no significant difference between the IGIV-C treatment (60.0% of patients) and placebo (63.3%). There were no significant differences for secondary end points. Safety data indicated that IGIV-C was well tolerated.

DISCUSSION

In this study, IGIV-C was not more effective than placebo in reducing daily CS dose. These results suggest that the effects of IGIV-C and CS are not synergistic and may be mechanistically different.

TRIAL REGISTRATION INFORMATION

The trial was registered on clinicaltrialsregister.eu (EudraCT #: 2013-005099-17) and clinicaltrials.gov (identifier NCT02473965).

CLASSIFICATION OF EVIDENCE

This study provides Class II evidence that IVIG infusions in adult patients with MG do not increase the percentage of patients achieving a ≥50% reduction in corticosteroid dose compared with placebo.

Factors associated with outcomes of severe acute necrotizing encephalopathy: A multicentre experience in Malaysia

This case series compared clinical variables and various combinations of immunotherapy received with outcomes of patients with severe acute necrotizing encephalopathy (ANE). We performed a retrospective review of clinical variables, immunotherapy received, and outcomes (based on the modified Rankin Scale) in Malaysia between February 2019 and January 2020. Twenty-seven children (12 male), aged 7 months to 14 years (mean 4 years) at diagnosis were included. Of these, 23 had an ANE severity score of 5 to 9 out of 9 (high risk). Eleven patients received tocilizumab (four in combination with methylprednisolone [MTP], seven with MTP + intravenous immunoglobulin [IVIG]) and 16 did not (two received MTP alone, 14 received MTP + IVIG). Nine died. Among the survivors, six had good outcomes (modified Rankin Score 0-2) at 6 months follow-up. All patients who received tocilizumab in combination with MTP + IVIG survived. Twenty children received first immunotherapy within 48 hours of admission. No significant association was found between the timing of first immunotherapy with outcomes. Those with brainstem dysfunction (p = 0.016) were observed to have poorer outcomes. This study showed a trend towards better survival when those with severe ANE were treated with tocilizumab in combination with MTP + IVIG. However, larger studies will be needed to determine the effect of this regime on the long-term outcomes.

Polyvalent human immunoglobulin for infectious diseases: Potential to circumvent antimicrobial resistance

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a global health problem that causes more than 1.27 million deaths annually; therefore, it is urgent to focus efforts on solving or reducing this problem. The major causes of AMR are the misuse of antibiotics and antimicrobials in agriculture, veterinary medicine, and human medicine, which favors the selection of drug-resistant microbes. One of the strategies proposed to overcome the problem of AMR is to use polyvalent human immunoglobulin or IVIG. The main advantage of this classic form of passive immunization is its capacity to enhance natural immunity mechanisms to eliminate bacteria, viruses, or fungi safely and physiologically. Experimental data suggest that, for some infections, local administration of IVIG may produce better results with a lower dose than intravenous application. This review presents evidence supporting the use of polyvalent human immunoglobulin in AMR, and the potential and challenges associated with its proposed usage.

The length of hospital stays and clinical and therapeutic characteristics of patients with COVID-19 early in the pandemic in Taif City, KSA: A retrospective study

The coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is unprecedented in the healthcare sector worldwide. This retrospective study focused on the length of hospital stay and clinical and therapeutic characteristics of patients with COVID-19. Retrospective data of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2) positive patients were collected between March 12 and June 30, 2020, and categorized into mild, moderate, and severe disease groups based on symptoms and severity of COVID-19. A total of 843 SARS-COV-2-positive patients were identified in this study (mildly symptomatic, 132; moderately symptomatic, 168; severely symptomatic, 17). The mean lengths (days) of hospital stay of Groups 1 to 8 were 16.38, 13.18, 13.72, 9.30, 6.96, 10.86, 5.77, and 7.37, respectively. Treatment Group 1 had the highest mean. In the treatment group, 7 patients who were not treated had the shortest stay. The patients with heart failure and Group 1 received antiviral, antimalarial, and antibiotic therapy; patients in Group 3 received antimalarial and antibiotic therapy; patients in Group 4 received antiviral and antibiotic therapy were tended to have a longer hospital stay. The length of hospital stay and clinical and therapeutic characteristics are crucial indicators of pandemic management, a shorter hospital stay is a positive outcome of better COVID-19 management.

Site-Specific Albumin-Selective Ligation to Human Serum Albumin under Physiological Conditions

Human serum albumin (HSA) is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma. It plays a critical role in the native transportation of numerous drugs, metabolites, nutrients, and small molecules. HSA has been successfully used clinically as a noncovalent carrier for insulin (e.g., Levemir), GLP-1 (e.g., Liraglutide), and paclitaxel (e.g., Abraxane). Site-specific bioconjugation strategies for HSA only would greatly expand its role as the biocompatible, non-toxic platform for theranostics purposes. Using the enabling one-bead one-compound (OBOC) technology, we generated combinatorial peptide libraries containing myristic acid, a well-known binder to HSA at Sudlow I and II binding pockets, and an acrylamide. We then used HSA as a probe to screen the OBOC myristylated peptide libraries for reactive affinity elements (RAEs) that can specifically and covalently ligate to the lysine residue at the proximity of these pockets. Several RAEs have been identified and confirmed to be able to conjugate to HSA covalently. The conjugation can occur at physiological pH and proceed with a high yield within 1 h at room temperature. Tryptic peptide profiling of derivatized HSA has revealed two lysine residues (K225 and K414) as the conjugation sites, which is much more specific than the conventional lysine labeling strategy with N-hydroxysuccinimide ester. The RAE-driven site-specific ligation to HSA was found to occur even in the presence of other prevalent blood proteins such as immunoglobulin or whole serum. Furthermore, these RAEs are orthogonal to the maleimide-based conjugation strategy for Cys34 of HSA. Together, these attributes make the RAEs the promising leads to further develop in vitro and in vivo HSA bioconjugation strategies for numerous biomedical applications.

Neonatal sepsis and transient immunodeficiency: Potential for novel immunoglobulin therapies?

Neonates, especially preterm neonates, have the highest risk of sepsis of all age groups. Transient immaturity of the neonatal immune system is an important risk factor. Neonates suffer from hypogammaglobulinemia as nor IgA nor IgM is transferred over the placenta and IgG is only transferred over the placenta late in gestation. In addition, neutrophil numbers and complement function are also decreased. This mini-review focuses on strategies to improve neonatal host-defense. Both clinical and preclinical studies have attempted to boost neonatal immunity to lower the incidence of sepsis and improve outcome. Recent advances in the development of (monoclonal) antibodies show promising results in preclinical studies but have yet to be tested in clinical trials. Strategies to increase complement activity seem efficient in vitro but potential disadvantages such as hyperinflammation have held back further clinical development. Increase of neutrophil numbers has been tested extensively in clinical trials but failed to show improvement in mortality. Future research should focus on clinical applicability of promising new prevention strategies for neonatal sepsis.

Transchromosomic bovines-derived broadly neutralizing antibodies as potent biotherapeutics to counter important emerging viral pathogens with a special focus on SARS-CoV-2, MERS-CoV, Ebola, Zika, HIV-1, and influenza A virus

Historically, passive immunotherapy is an approved approach for protecting and treating humans against various diseases when other alternative therapeutic options are unavailable. Human polyclonal antibodies (hpAbs) can be made from convalescent human donor serum, although it is considered limited due to pandemics and the urgent requirement. Additionally, polyclonal antibodies (pAbs) could be generated from animals, but they may cause severe immunoreactivity and, once "humanized," may have lower neutralization efficiency. Transchromosomic bovines (TcBs) have been developed to address these concerns by creating robust neutralizing hpAbs, which are useful in preventing and/or curing human infections in response to hyperimmunization with vaccines holding adjuvants and/or immune stimulators over an extensive period. Unlike other animal-derived pAbs, potent hpAbs could be promptly produced from TcB in large amounts to assist against an outbreak scenario. Some of these highly efficacious TcB-derived antibodies have already neutralized and blocked diseases in clinical studies. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has numerous variants classified into variants of concern (VOCs), variants of interest (VOIs), and variants under monitoring. Although these variants possess different mutations, such as N501Y, E484K, K417N, K417T, L452R, T478K, and P681R, SAB-185 has shown broad neutralizing activity against VOCs, such as Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron variants, and VOIs, such as Epsilon, Iota, Kappa, and Lambda variants. This article highlights recent developments in the field of bovine-derived biotherapeutics, which are seen as a practical platform for developing safe and effective antivirals with broad activity, particularly considering emerging viral infections such as SARS-CoV-2, Ebola, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Zika, human immunodeficiency virus type 1, and influenza A virus. Antibodies in the bovine serum or colostrum, which have been proved to be more protective than their human counterparts, are also reviewed.

Alzheimer's disease failed clinical trials

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease typically presenting with symptoms of memory loss and cognitive decline. Existing theories for the causation of this focuses on amyloid beta plaques and neurofibrillary tau tangles. Most US Food and Drug Administration approved therapies for Alzheimer's disease target cognitive function. A multitude of clinical trials, with a variety of different targets have been conducted over the decades which have focused on the two clinical signs, with the only success being the controversial 2021 approval of an IgG1 anti-Ab antibody targeting the clearance of the Aβ plaques. Presented is a review of all previously failed Alzheimer's disease clinical trials and the rationale for their failures.

Ultrasound Comparative Analysis of Coronary Arteries before and after Immune Blocking Therapy with Gamma Globulin in Children with Kawasaki Disease

Objective

To investigate the ultrasound characteristics and clinical efficacy of coronary arteries before and after immune blocking therapy with gamma globulin in children with Kawasaki disease.

Methods

A total of 64 children with Kawasaki disease who were treated in our hospital from January 2018 to October 2021 were selected. All the children were given immune blocking therapy with gamma globulin on the basis of conventional treatment. The disappearance time of related symptoms and signs (fever, mucosal congestion, cervical lymphadenopathy, and swelling of the hands and feet) in children were counted. The white blood cell count (WBC), platelet count (PLT), C-reactive protein (CRP), and procalcitonin (PCT) levels of the children before and after treatment were compared, and the characteristics of coronary echocardiography before and after treatment were observed for analysis and discussion, to carefully observe whether the coronary artery involvement of the children was improved.

Results

The inner diameter of the left and right coronary arteries significantly decreased (P < 0.05), and the levels of leukocytes, platelets, CRP, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and endostatin were significantly decreased compared with those before treatment, with a statistical difference (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

The effect of gamma globulin in the treatment of Kawasaki disease is remarkable, which can improve the blood indexes, VEGF, and endostatin levels in children, significantly reduce coronary dilatation, and reduce the incidence of coronary artery disease. Echocardiography is of high value in the examination of children with Kawasaki disease, which can accurately detect the size, location, and inner diameter of coronary artery lesions, and can effectively evaluate the treatment effect on children.

Intravenous Immunoglobulin-Induced Aseptic Meningitis—A Narrative Review of the Diagnostic Process, Pathogenesis, Preventative Measures and Treatment

Intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIGs) are widely used in the treatment of numerous diseases in both adult and pediatric populations. Higher doses of IVIGs usually serve as an immunomodulatory factor, common in therapy of children with immune thrombocytopenic purpura. Considering the broad range of IgG applications, the incidence of side effects in the course of treatment is inevitable. Aseptic meningitis, an uncommon but significant adverse reaction of IVIG therapy, can prove a diagnostic obstacle. As of April 2022, forty-four cases of intravenous immunoglobulin-induced aseptic meningitis have been reported in the English-language literature. This review aims to provide a thorough overview of the diagnostic process, pathophysiology, possible preventative measures and adequate treatment of IVIG-induced aseptic meningitis.

Challenging Dermatologic Considerations Associated with Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors have emerged as a new paradigm in oncologic care for many malignancies. However, nonspecific immune activation has led to "collateral damage" in the form of immune-related adverse events, with skin being a commonly affected organ. Cutaneous immune-related adverse events include a wide spectrum of clinical presentations and challenging considerations, often necessitating dermatology referral to support diagnosis and management, particularly for atypical presentations or more severe, cutaneous immune-related adverse events that may require specialized dermatologic evaluations including biopsy and histopathology. Close collaborations between oncologists and dermatologists may optimize clinical decision making in the following challenging management settings: non-steroidal therapies for corticosteroid-refractory, cutaneous immune-related adverse events, immune checkpoint inhibitor rechallenge, balancing cutaneous immune-related adverse events and treatments, and immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with pre-existing autoimmune disease, skin conditions, and organ transplants. These complex clinical decisions that often lack rigorous data should be made in close collaboration with dermatologists to minimize unnecessary morbidity and mortality. This article provides a review of approaches to challenging dermatologic considerations associated with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapies.

Diagnostic accuracy of Abbott Architect Assay as a screening tool for human T-cell leukaemia virus type-1 and type-2 infection in a London teaching hospital with a large solid organ transplant centre

AIM

In the United Kingdom, organ donors/recipients are screened for evidence of human T-cell leukaemia virus type-1 and type-2 (HTLV-1/2) infections. Since the United Kingdom is a low prevalence country for HTLV infections, a screening assay with high sensitivity and specificity is required. Samples with repeat reactivity on antibody testing are sent to a reference lab for confirmatory serological and molecular testing. In the case of donor screen, this leads to delays in the release of organs and can result in wastage. We aim to assess whether a signal/cut-off (S/CO) ratio higher than the manufacturer's recommendation of 1.0 in the Abbott Architect antibody assay is a reliable measure of HTLV-1/2 infection.

METHODS

We conducted a 5 year retrospective analysis of 7245 patients from which 11 766 samples were tested on the Abbott Architect rHTLV I/II assay. Reactive samples (S/CO >1) were referred for confirmatory serological and molecular detection (Western Blot and proviral DNA) at UK Health Security Agency, (formerly PHE, Colindale), the national reference laboratory. Electronic, protected laboratory and hospital patient databases were employed to collate data.

RESULTS

A total of 45 patients had initially reactive samples. 42.2% (n = 19/45) had an S/CO ratio > 20, with HTLV infection confirmed in n = 18/19 and indeterminate confirmatory results in n = 1/19. No samples with an S/CO ratio <4 (48.9%, n = 22/45) or 4-20 (8.9%, n = 4/45) had positive confirmatory results on subsequent confirmatory testing.

CONCLUSION

Samples with an S/CO >20 likely represent a true HTLV-1/2 infection. Reactive samples with an S/CO <4 were unlikely to confirm for HTLV infections. Interpretation of these ratios can assist clinicians in the assessment of low reactive samples and reiterates the need for faster access to confirmatory testing.

Strategies to Control Therapeutic Antibody Glycosylation during Bioprocessing: Synthesis and Separation

Glycosylation can be a critical quality attribute in biologic manufacturing. In particular, it has implications on the half‐life, immunogenicity, and pharmacokinetics of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), and must be closely monitored throughout drug development and manufacturing. To address this, advances have been made primarily in upstream processing, including mammalian cell line engineering, to yield more predictably glycosylated mAbs and the addition of media supplements during fermentation to manipulate the metabolic pathways involved in glycosylation. A more robust approach would be a conjoined upstream–downstream processing strategy. This could include implementing novel downstream technologies, such as the use of Fc γ‐based affinity ligands for the separation of mAb glycovariants. This review highlights the importance of controlling therapeutic antibody glycosylation patterns, the challenges faced in terms of glycosylation during mAb biosimilar development, current efforts both upstream and downstream to control glycosylation and their limitations, and the need for research in the downstream space to establish holistic and consistent manufacturing processes for the production of antibody therapies.

The use of high-dose immunoglobulin M-enriched human immunoglobulin in dogs with immune-mediated hemolytic anemia

BACKGROUND

The IV use of human immunoglobulin (hIVIG) in dogs with primary immune-mediated hemolytic anemia (IMHA) has been described previously, but herein we describe the use of high-dose IgM-enriched hIVIG (Pentaglobin).

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

Dogs treated with high-dose Pentaglobin will experience shorter time to remission and hospital discharge and have decreased transfusion requirements compared to dogs receiving standard treatment alone.

ANIMALS

Fourteen client-owned dogs diagnosed with primary IMHA at specialist referral hospitals in the United Kingdom.

METHODS

All prospectively enrolled dogs received prednisolone, dexamethasone or both along with clopidogrel. Patients were randomized to receive Pentaglobin at 1 g/kg on up to 2 occasions, or to serve as controls. No additional immunosuppressive drugs were allowed within the first 7 days of treatment. Remission was defined as stable PCV for 24 hours followed by an increase in PCV.

RESULTS

Ten of 11 dogs from the treatment group and 2 of 3 dogs from the control group achieved remission and survived until hospital discharge. Survival and time to remission were not significantly different between groups. The volume of packed red blood cells transfused, normalized for body weight, was not significantly different between groups. Potential adverse reactions to Pentaglobin occurred in 2 dogs, but their clinical signs may have been related to the underlying disease.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Treatment with high-dose Pentaglobin was well tolerated by dogs with primary IMHA but no significant advantage was found in this small study. Additional studies examining larger groups and subpopulations of dogs with primary IMHA associated with a poorer prognosis are warranted.

Integrative Medicine Enhances Motor and Sensory Recovery in Guillain-Barre Syndrome - A Case Study

Guillain-Barre syndrome (GBS) is a heterogenous group of immune-mediated conditions affecting peripheral nerves. About 40% of patients treated with standard dosage of plasma exchange or intravenous immunoglobulins do not improve in the first 4 weeks following treatment. Add-on treatment from traditional medical approaches such as Yoga therapy and Ayurveda are increasingly being sought for rehabilitation of patients with chronic neurological disorders. The current case study reports the clinical utility of adjunct Yoga and Ayurveda treatment in the treatment of residual symptoms of GBS.

Ten-year population trends of immunoglobulin use, burden of adult antibody deficiency and feasibility of subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIg) replacement in Hong Kong Chinese

Background

Adult antibody deficiency remains under-recognised and under-studied - especially among Asian populations. Patterns of immunoglobulin use and the feasibility of subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIg) replacement among Chinese patients remains unclear.

Objective

To investigate the trends of immunoglobulin use, burden of adult antibody deficiency and the outcomes of patients on SCIg compared to intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) replacement in Hong Kong through a retrospective observational study.

Methods

Population-wide data of immunoglobulin recipients in Hong Kong between 2012 and 2021, and longitudinal clinical data of adult immunodeficiency patients at Queen Mary Hospital were collected and analysed.

Results

Total immunoglobulin consumption and recurrent immunoglobulin recipients increased continuously from 175,512g to 298,514g (ρ=0.99, p<0.001) and 886 to 1,508 (ρ=0.89, p=0.001) between 2012-21 in Hong Kong. Among 469 immunoglobulin recipients at Queen Mary Hospital in 2021, 344 (73.3%) were indicated for replacement. Compared to those on IVIg (n=14), patients on SCIg replacement (n=8) had fewer immunodeficiency-related hospitalisations (IRR=0.11) and shorter duration of hospitalisation stay (IRR=0.10) per year, as well as better quality of life (SF-36v2 Health Survey and Life Quality Index). Estimated annual healthcare cost of SCIg replacement per patient was lower than that of IVIg (HKD196,850 [USD25,096] vs HKD222,136 [USD28,319]).

Conclusion

There was a significantly increasing burden of adult antibody deficiency and immunoglobulin consumption in Hong Kong. SCIg was feasible and more cost-effective when compared to IVIg, with SCIg patients experiencing better clinical outcomes and quality of life. Future prospective studies to confirm the long-term efficacy and superiority of SCIg are required.

Safety of conventional immunosuppressive therapies for patients with dermatological conditions and coronavirus disease 2019: A review of current evidence

The effect of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on patients receiving conventional immunosuppressive (IS) therapy has yet to be fully determined; however, research on using IS therapy for treating COVID-19 in acutely ill patients is increasing. While some believe that IS therapy may be protective, others argue that these agents may make patients more susceptible to COVID-19 infection and morbidity and advocate for a more cautious, individualized approach to determining continuation, reduction, or discontinuation of therapy. In this review, we aim to provide an overview of COVID-19 risk in dermatological patients who are receiving conventional IS therapies, including mycophenolate mofetil, methotrexate, cyclosporine, azathioprine, apremilast, JAK inhibitors, and systemic steroids. Additionally, we provide recommendations for management of these medications for dermatological patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. Treatment of dermatological disease during the COVID-19 pandemic should involve shared decision-making between the patient and provider, with consideration of each patient's comorbidities and the severity of the patient's dermatological disease.

Plasma therapy: a passive resistance against the deadliest

Convalescent plasma therapy provides a useful therapeutic tool to treat infectious diseases, especially where no specific therapeutic strategies have been identified. The ongoing pandemic puts back the spotlight on this age-old method as a viable treatment option. In this review, we discuss the usage of this therapy in different diseases including COVID-19, and the possible mechanisms of action. The current review also discusses the progress of therapeutic applications of blood-derivatives, from the simple transfer of immunized animal sera, to the more target-specific intravenous administration of human immunoglobulins from a pool of convalescent individuals, in both infectious and non-infectious diseases of various etiologies.

Clinical outcomes of intravenous immunoglobulin therapy in COVID-19 related acute respiratory distress syndrome: a retrospective cohort study

Background

Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) has been used as an immunomodulatory therapy to counteract severe systemic inflammation in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). But its use in COVID-19 related acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is not well established.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective analysis of electronic health records of COVID-19 patients admitted to intensive care units (ICUs) at Hazm Mebaireek General Hospital, Qatar, between March 7, 2020 and September 9, 2020. Patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation for moderate-to-severe ARDS were divided into two groups based on whether they received IVIG therapy or not. The primary outcome was all-cause ICU mortality. Secondary outcomes studied were ventilator-free days and ICU-free days at day-28, and incidence of acute kidney injury (AKI). Propensity score matching was used to adjust for confounders, and the primary outcome was compared using competing-risks survival analysis.

Results

Among 590 patients included in the study, 400 received routine care, and 190 received IVIG therapy in addition to routine care. One hundred eighteen pairs were created after propensity score matching with no statistically significant differences between the groups. Overall ICU mortality in the study population was 27.1%, and in the matched cohort, it was 25.8%. Mortality was higher among IVIG-treated patients (36.4% vs. 15.3%; sHR 3.5; 95% CI 1.98–6.19; P < 0.001). Ventilator-free days and ICU-free days at day-28 were lower (P < 0.001 for both), and incidence of AKI was significantly higher (85.6% vs. 67.8%; P = 0.001) in the IVIG group.

Conclusion

IVIG therapy in mechanically ventilated patients with COVID-19 related moderate-to-severe ARDS was associated with higher ICU mortality. A randomized clinical trial is needed to confirm this observation further.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12890-021-01717-x.

Combined Central Retinal Vein and Cilioretinal Artery Occlusion in the Setting of Intravenous Immunoglobulin Administration

Purpose:

This work reports a case of combined vascular occlusion in the setting of intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) administration.

Methods:

The authors describe a case of combined central retinal vein and cilioretinal artery that occurred in the setting of IVIg administration.

Results:

A 52-year-old White man presented with a unilateral subjective scotoma that began during IVIg administered for the treatment of statin-induced necrotizing autoimmune myopathy. Examination and optical coherence tomography imaging revealed a combined nonischemic central retinal vein and cilioretinal artery occlusion.

Conclusions:

To the authors’ review and knowledge, this is the first reported case of combined central retinal vein and cilioretinal artery occlusion occurring in the setting of IVIg administration. This rare adverse effect is an entity to be considered in patients who are treated with IVIg.

The Role of Uterine Natural Killer Cells on Recurrent Miscarriage and Recurrent Implantation Failure: From Pathophysiology to Treatment

Uterine natural killer (uNK) cells constitute a unique uterine leucocyte subpopulation facilitating implantation and maintaining pregnancy. Herein, we critically analyze current evidence regarding the role of uNK cells in the events entailed in recurrent implantation failure (RIF) and recurrent miscarriages (RM). Data suggest an association between RIF and RM with abnormally elevated uNK cells’ numbers, as well as with a defective biological activity leading to cytotoxicity. However, other studies do not concur on these associations. Robust data suggesting a definitive causative relationship between uNK cells and RIF and RM is missing. Considering the possibility of uNK cells involvement on RIF and RM pathophysiology, possible treatments including glucocorticoids, intralipids, and intravenous immunoglobulin administration have been proposed towards addressing uNK related RIF and RM. When considering clinical routine practice, this study indicated that solid evidence is required to report on efficiency and safety of these treatments as there are recommendations that clearly advise against their employment. In conclusion, defining a causative relationship between uNK and RIF–RM pathologies certainly merits investigation. Future studies should serve as a prerequisite prior to proposing the use of uNK as a biomarker or prior to targeting uNK cells for therapeutic purposes addressing RIF and RM.

Pediatric Rheumatologic Effects of COVID-19

A multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MISC) can result from COVID-19 infection in previously healthy children and adolescents. It is potentially life threatening and is treated initially with intravenous immunoglobulin and aspirin but may require anti-inflammatory monoclonal antibody treatment in severe cases. SARS-CoV-2 infection can cause macrophage activation syndrome, chilblains, and flares of existing rheumatologic diseases. The pandemic has led to later presentation of some rheumatologic conditions as parents and patients have avoided health care settings. PubMed and Google scholar have been utilized to review the literature on the rheumatologic conditions resulting from COVID-19 and the current treatment options.