Chronic kidney disease as a risk factor for Clostridium difficile infection

Prevalence and trends of Clostridioides difficile infection among persons requiring maintenance hemodialysis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is among the most common cause of healthcare-associated infections. Persons requiring maintenance hemodialysis (MHD) are at increased risk of CDI and associated mortality compared to persons not requiring MHD. Given the clinical impact of CDI among persons requiring MHD, we aimed to quantify the burden of CDI and trends over time in this patient population.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies reporting rates of CDI among persons requiring MHD in MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science Core Collection, CINAHL, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were performed. Searches were conducted on May 17, 2021, and March 4, 2022.

RESULTS

In total, 2,408 titles and abstracts were identified; 240 underwent full text review. Among them, 15 studies provided data on rates of CDI among persons requiring MHD, and 8 of these also provided rates among persons not requiring MHD. The pooled prevalence of CDI among persons requiring MHD was 19.14%, compared to 5.16% among persons not requiring MHD (odds ratio [OR], 4.35; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.07-9.16; P = .47). The linear increase in CDI over time was significant, increasing an average of 31.97% annually between 1993 and 2017 (OR, 1.32; 95% CI, 1.1-1.58; P < .01). The linear annual increase was similar among persons requiring and not requiring MHD (OR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.13-1.45; P = .11).

CONCLUSIONS

Persons requiring MHD have a 4-fold higher risk of CDI compared to persons not requiring MHD, and rates of CDI are increasing over time in both groups.

COVID-19 and Clostridioides difficile Coinfection Outcomes among Hospitalized Patients in the United States: An Insight from National Inpatient Database

The incidence of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) has been increasing compared to pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels. The COVID-19 infection and CDI relationship can be affected by gut dysbiosis and poor antibiotic stewardship. As the COVID-19 pandemic transitions into an endemic stage, it has become increasingly important to further characterize how concurrent infection with both conditions can impact patient outcomes. We performed a retrospective cohort study utilizing the 2020 NIS Healthcare Cost Utilization Project (HCUP) database with a total of 1,659,040 patients, with 10,710 (0.6%) of those patients with concurrent CDI. We found that patients with concurrent COVID-19 and CDI had worse outcomes compared to patients without CDI including higher in-hospital mortality (23% vs. 13.4%, aOR: 1.3, 95% CI: 1.12-1.5, p = 0.01), rates of in-hospital complications such as ileus (2.7% vs. 0.8%, p < 0.001), septic shock (21.0% vs. 7.2%, aOR: 2.3, 95% CI: 2.1-2.6, p < 0.001), length of stay (15.1 days vs. 8 days, p < 0.001) and overall cost of hospitalization (USD 196,012 vs. USD 91,162, p < 0.001). Patients with concurrent COVID-19 and CDI had increased morbidity and mortality, and added significant preventable burden on the healthcare system. Optimizing hand hygiene and antibiotic stewardship during in-hospital admissions can help to reduce worse outcomes in this population, and more efforts should be directly made to reduce CDI in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 infection.

Antibiotics Associated With Clostridium difficile Infection

Introduction Clostridium difficile (C. difficile) is one of the major causes of diarrhea transmitted by the fecal-oral route. C. difficile type BI/NAP1/027 is responsible for the most severe C. difficile infection (CDI). It is a major cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea followed by Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus,and Klebsiella oxytoca. Historically, clindamycin, cephalosporins, penicillins, and fluoroquinolones were related to CDI. We conducted this study to evaluate the antibiotics associated with CDI in recent times. Methods We conducted a retrospective, single-center study over a period of eight years. A total of 58 patients were enrolled in the study. Patients with diarrhea and positive C. difficile toxin in stool were evaluated for antibiotics given, age, presence of malignancy, previous hospital stay for more than three days in the last three months, and any comorbidities. Results Among patients who developed CDI, prior antibiotics for at least four days duration were given in 93% (54/58) of patients. The most common antibiotics associated with C. difficile infection were piperacillin/tazobactam in 77.60% (45/58), meropenem in 27.60% (16/58), vancomycin in 20.70% (12/58), ciprofloxacin in 17.20% (10/58), ceftriaxone in 16% (9/58), and levofloxacin in 14% (8/58) of patients, respectively. Seven percent (7%) of patients with CDI did not receive any prior antibiotics. Solid organ malignancy was present in 67.20% and hematological malignancy in 27.60% of CDI patients. Ninety-eight percent (98%, 57/58) of patients treated with proton pump inhibitors, 93% of patients with a previous hospital stay for more than three days, 24% of patients with neutropenia, 20.1% of patients aged more than 65 years, 14% of patients with diabetes mellitus, and 12% of patients with chronic kidney disease also developed C. difficile infection. Conclusion The antibiotics associated with C. difficile infection are piperacillin/tazobactam, meropenem, vancomycin, ciprofloxacin, ceftriaxone, and levofloxacin. Other risk factors for CDI are proton pump inhibitor use, prior hospital admission, solid organ malignancy, neutropenia, diabetes mellitus (DM), and chronic kidney disease (CKD).

Comparison of clinical severity, genotype and toxin gene expression of binary toxin-producing Clostridioides difficile clinical isolates in Japan

The emerging Clostridioides difficile strain BI/NAP1/027 has been reported to be associated with more severe clinical symptoms and higher mortality rates, thought in part due to production of a novel binary toxin alongside conventional A and B toxins. However, recent studies suggest that this may not always be the case. Therefore, the purpose of this report was to investigate the correlation between clinical severity and microbiological characteristics of CDT-producing C. difficile isolates in Japan. Eight Japanese isolates of CDT producing C. difficile were investigated using genotyping, cytotoxic activity assays and toxin gene expression. Correlation with clinical severity was performed retrospectively using the patient record. Three of eight patients were assessed as having severe C. difficile infection (CDI). PCR ribotyping resolved six ribotypes including ribotype 027. No specific genes were identified determining severe compared with non-severe cases. Positive correlation of expression levels of tcdA, tcdB and cdtB were observed although these expression levels were not correlated with cytotoxicity. CDI severity index neither correlated with toxin gene expression level nor cytotoxicity. These data indicate that the possession of the CDT gene and toxin gene expression levels may not relate to C. difficile cytotoxicity or clinical severity.

Risk Factors for Acute Gastroenteritis Among Patients Hospitalized in 5 Veterans Affairs Medical Centers, 2016-2019

BACKGROUND

In the United States, ∼179 million acute gastroenteritis (AGE) episodes occur annually. We aimed to identify risk factors for all-cause AGE, norovirus-associated vs non-norovirus AGE, and severe vs mild/moderate AGE among hospitalized adults.

METHODS

We enrolled 1029 AGE cases and 624 non-AGE controls from December 1, 2016, to November 30, 2019, at 5 Veterans Affairs Medical Centers. Patient interviews and medical chart abstractions were conducted, and participant stool samples were tested using the BioFire Gastrointestinal Panel. Severe AGE was defined as a modified Vesikari score of ≥11. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to assess associations between potential risk factors and outcomes; univariate analysis was conducted for norovirus-associated AGE due to limited sample size.

RESULTS

Among 1029 AGE cases, 551 (54%) had severe AGE and 44 (4%) were norovirus positive. Risk factors for all-cause AGE included immunosuppressive therapy (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 5.6; 95% CI, 2.7-11.7), HIV infection (aOR, 3.9; 95% CI, 1.8-8.5), severe renal disease (aOR, 3.1; 95% CI, 1.8-5.2), and household contact with a person with AGE (aOR, 2.9; 95% CI, 1.3-6.7). Household (OR, 4.4; 95% CI, 1.6-12.0) and non-household contact (OR, 5.0; 95% CI, 2.2-11.5) with AGE was associated with norovirus-associated AGE. Norovirus positivity (aOR, 3.4; 95% CI, 1.3-8.8) was significantly associated with severe AGE.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with immunosuppressive therapy, HIV, and severe renal disease should be monitored for AGE and may benefit from targeted public health messaging regarding AGE prevention. These results may also direct future public health interventions, such as norovirus vaccines, to specific high-risk populations.

Secondary Immunodeficiency Related to Kidney Disease (SIDKD)-Definition, Unmet Need, and Mechanisms

Kidney disease is a known risk factor for poor outcomes of COVID-19 and many other serious infections. Conversely, infection is the second most common cause of death in patients with kidney disease. However, little is known about the underlying secondary immunodeficiency related to kidney disease (SIDKD). In contrast to cardiovascular disease related to kidney disease, which has triggered countless epidemiologic, clinical, and experimental research activities or interventional trials, investments in tracing, understanding, and therapeutically targeting SIDKD have been sparse. As a call for more awareness of SIDKD as an imminent unmet medical need that requires rigorous research activities at all levels, we review the epidemiology of SIDKD and the numerous aspects of the abnormal immunophenotype of patients with kidney disease. We propose a definition of SIDKD and discuss the pathogenic mechanisms of SIDKD known thus far, including more recent insights into the unexpected immunoregulatory roles of elevated levels of FGF23 and hyperuricemia and shifts in the secretome of the intestinal microbiota in kidney disease. As an ultimate goal, we should aim to develop therapeutics that can reduce mortality due to infections in patients with kidney disease by normalizing host defense to pathogens and immune responses to vaccines.

Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease-A Novel Risk Factor for Recurrent Clostridioides difficile Infection

Recurrent Clostridioides difficile infections (rCDI) have a substantial impact on healthcare systems, with limited and often expensive therapeutic options. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) affects about 25% of the adult population and is associated with metabolic syndrome, changes in gut microbiome and bile acids biosynthesis, all possibly related with rCDI. The aim of this study was to determine whether NAFLD is a risk factor associated with rCDI. A retrospective cohort study included patients ≥ 60 years hospitalized with CDI. The cohort was divided into two groups: those who were and were not readmitted with CDI within 3 months of discharge. Of the 329 patients included, 107 patients (32.5%) experienced rCDI. Patients with rCDI were older, had higher Charlson Age-Comorbidity Index (CACI) and were more frequently hospitalized within 3 months. Except for chronic kidney disease and NAFLD, which were more frequent in the rCDI group, there were no differences in other comorbidities, antibiotic classes used and duration of antimicrobial therapy. Multivariable Cox regression analysis showed that age >75 years, NAFLD, CACI >6, chronic kidney disease, statins and immobility were associated with rCDI. In conclusion, our study identified NAFLD as a possible new host-related risk factor associated with rCDI.

Suggestions for the prevention of Clostridioides difficile spread within outpatient hemodialysis facilities

Clostridioides difficile infections (CDIs) cause substantial morbidity and mortality. Patients on maintenance hemodialysis are 2 to 2.5 times more likely to develop CDI, with mortality rates 2-fold higher than the general population. Hospitalizations due to CDI among the maintenance hemodialysis population are high, and the frequency of antibiotic exposures and hospitalizations may contribute to CDI risk. In this report, a panel of experts in clinical nephrology, infectious diseases, and infection prevention provide guidance, based on expert opinion and published literature, aimed at preventing the spread of CDI in outpatient hemodialysis facilities.

Contribution of Gut Microbiota-Derived Uremic Toxins to the Cardiovascular System Mineralization

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) affects more than 10% of the world population and leads to excess morbidity and mortality (with cardiovascular disease as a leading cause of death). Vascular calcification (VC) is a phenomenon of disseminated deposition of mineral content within the media layer of arteries preceded by phenotypic changes in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) and/or accumulation of mineral content within the atherosclerotic lesions. Medial VC results in vascular stiffness and significantly contributes to increased cardio-vascular (CV) morbidity, whereas VC of plaques may rather increase their stability. Mineral and bone disorders of CKD (CKD-MBD) contribute to VC, which is further aggravated by accumulation of uremic toxins. Both CKD-MBD and uremic toxin accumulation affect not only patients with advanced CKD (glomerular filtration rate (GFR) less than 15 mL/min/1.72 m², end-stage kidney disease) but also those on earlier stages of a disease. The key uremic toxins that contribute to VC, i.e., p-cresyl sulphate (PCS), indoxyl sulphate (IS) and trimethylamine-N-oxide (TMAO) originate from bacterial metabolism of gut microbiota. All mentioned toxins promote VC by several mechanisms, including: Transdifferentiation and apoptosis of VSMC, dysfunction of endothelial cells, oxidative stress, interaction with local renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system or miRNA profile modification. Several attractive methods of gut microbiota manipulations have been proposed in order to modify their metabolism and to limit vascular damage (and VC) triggered by uremic toxins. Unfortunately, to date no such method was demonstrated to be effective at the level of “hard” patient-oriented or even clinically relevant surrogate endpoints.

Opportunities to Improve Antibiotic Prescribing in Outpatient Hemodialysis Facilities: A Report From the American Society of Nephrology and Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Antibiotic Stewardship White Paper Writing Group

Antibiotic use is necessary in the outpatient hemodialysis setting because patients receiving hemodialysis are at increased risk for infections and sepsis. However, inappropriate antibiotic use can lead to adverse drug events, including adverse drug reactions and infections with Clostridioides difficile and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Optimizing antibiotic use can decrease adverse events and improve infection cure rates and patient outcomes. The American Society of Nephrology and the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention created the Antibiotic Stewardship in Hemodialysis White Paper Writing Group, comprising experts in antibiotic stewardship, infectious diseases, nephrology, and public health, to highlight strategies that can improve antibiotic prescribing for patients receiving maintenance hemodialysis. Based on existing evidence and the unique patient and clinical setting characteristics, the following strategies for improving antibiotic use are reviewed: expanding infection and sepsis prevention activities, standardizing blood culture collection processes, treating methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infections with β-lactams, optimizing communication between nurses and prescribing providers, and improving data sharing across transitions of care. Collaboration among the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; American Society of Nephrology; other professional societies such as infectious diseases, hospital medicine, and vascular surgery societies; and dialysis provider organizations can improve antibiotic use and the quality of care for patients receiving maintenance hemodialysis.

Clostridioides difficile associated peritonitis in peritoneal dialysis patients - a case series based review of an under-recognized entity with therapeutic challenges

BACKGROUND

Initial presentation of peritoneal dialysis associated infectious peritonitis can be clinically indistinguishable from Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) and both may demonstrate a cloudy dialysate. Empiric treatment of the former entails use of 3rd-generation cephalosporins, which could worsen CDI. We present a logical management approach of this clinical scenario providing examples of two cases with CDI associated peritonitis of varying severity where the initial picture was concerning for peritonitis and treatment for CDI resulted in successful cure.

CASE PRESENTATION

A 73-year-old male with ESRD managed with PD presented with fever, abdominal pain, leukocytosis and significant diarrhea. Cell count of the peritoneal dialysis effluent revealed 1050 WBCs/mm3 with 71% neutrophils. C. difficile PCR on the stool was positive. Patient was started on intra-peritoneal (IP) cefepime and vancomycin for treatment of the peritonitis and intravenous (IV) metronidazole and oral vancomycin for treatment of the C. difficile colitis but worsened. PD fluid culture showed no growth. He responded well to IV tigecycline, oral vancomycin and vancomycin enemas. Similarly, a 55-year-old male with ESRD with PD developed acute diarrhea and on the third day noted a cloudy effluent from his dialysis catheter. PD fluid analysis showed 1450 WBCs/mm3 with 49% neutrophils. IP cefepime and vancomycin were initiated. CT of the abdomen showed rectosigmoid colitis. C. difficile PCR on the stool was positive. IP cefepime and vancomycin were promptly discontinued. Treatment with oral vancomycin 125 mg every six hours and IV Tigecycline was initiated. PD fluid culture produced no growth. PD catheter was retained.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients presenting with diarrhea with risk factors for CDI, traditional empiric treatment of PD peritonitis may need to be reexamined as they could have detrimental effects on CDI course and patient outcomes.

Histopathologic Patterns of Colitis in Patients With Impaired Renal Function

OBJECTIVES

To characterize the histopathologic features of colitis in patients with impaired renal function.

METHODS

We retrospectively identified 413 patients who underwent colonoscopic evaluation for colitis between 2011 and 2015. Patients were divided into four groups based on estimated glomerular filtrate rates. Patients with impaired renal function were compared to overall and age-matched patients with normal renal function.

RESULTS

Compared to a preponderance of inflammatory bowel disease (33%) and lymphocytic colitis (9.6%) in patients with normal renal function, ischemic colitis (58%) was the predominant histopathologic pattern in the patients with impaired renal function. Infectious colitis was the second most common pattern (20.8%), with Clostridium difficile and cytomegalovirus infections being more frequent. Medication-induced injury was the third most common pattern, with crystal-associated injury being the exclusive pattern found in this study.

CONCLUSIONS

Colitis in patients with impaired renal function is etiologically distinct from that seen in patients with normal renal function.

Particular aspects of gastroenterological disorders in chronic kidney disease and end-stage renal disease patients: a clinically focused review

Besides renal disease, gastrointestinal (GI) disorders are frequently reported in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Related gastrointestinal symptoms tend to increase as the renal disease progresses. Also, in patients with ESRD, the modality of dialysis is related to particular forms of GI disorders.The kidney can interact with the digestive organs through functional endogenous systems such as the 'kidney-colon axis' and the 'kidney-liver axis'. Digestive diseases are one of the visible manifestations of the disturbance between hemostatic, hemodynamic and immunological balance in such patients.No clear management guidelines currently exist for many of the gastrointestinal problems that accompany renal failure. This review aims to describe the particular aspects of GI diseases present in CKD/ESRD. We focus our discussion in the specificities of epidemiology, diagnosis, and prognosis of such disorders between the different segments of the digestive system.

Predictors of Hospital-Acquired Clostridioides difficile Infection: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Clostridioides difficile infections (CDIs) have been identified as a major health concern due to the high morbidity, mortality, and cost of treatment. The aim of this study was to review the extant literature and identify the various patient-related, medication-related, and organizational risk factors associated with developing hospital-acquired CDIs in adult patients in the United States.

METHODS

A systematic review of four (4) online databases, including Scopus, PubMed, CINAHL, and Cochrane Library, was conducted to identify empirical studies published from 2007 to 2017 pertaining to risk factors of developing hospital-acquired CDIs.

FINDINGS

Thirty-eight studies (38) were included in the review. Various patient-level and medication-related risk factors were identified including advanced patient age, comorbidities, length of hospital stay, previous hospitalizations, use of probiotic medications and proton pump inhibitors. The review also identified organizational factors such as room size, academic affiliation, and geographic location to be significantly associated with hospital-acquired CDIs.

CONCLUSION

Validation of the factors associated with high risk of developing hospital-acquired CDIs identified in this review can aid in the development of risk prediction models to identify patients who are at a higher risk of developing CDIs and developing quality improvement interventions that might improve patient outcomes by minimizing risk of infection.

Metronidazole therapy as initial treatment of Clostridium difficile infection in patients with chronic kidney disease in Korea

The risk of metronidazole treatment failure in Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) or end-stage renal disease in Korea has not been established. We evaluated 481 patients who had been admitted to two secondary hospitals with a diagnosis of, and treatment for, CDI during 2010–2016. CDI patients were divided into three groups according to CKD status: non-CKD (n = 363), CKD (n = 55) and those requiring dialysis (n = 63). Logistic regression analyses were performed to examine the association of CKD status with treatment failure. CDI patients receiving dialysis tended to have increased odds of metronidazole and overall treatment failure compared to non-CKD patients; adjusted odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were 2.09 (1.03–4.21) and 2.18 (1.11–4.32) for metronidazole and overall treatment failure, respectively. However, CKD patients did not have increased odds of metronidazole or overall treatment failure compared to non-CKD patients, even where severe CDI was more prevalent in CKD patients. The incidence of symptomatic ileus or toxic megacolon did not differ among groups. Our results suggest that initial metronidazole therapy may be considered in CDI patients with non-dialysis CKD, but should not be considered in CDI patients undergoing dialysis.

Clostridioides difficile Infection in Chronic Kidney Disease/End-Stage Renal Disease

Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) is a major health-care burden and increasingly seen in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Increased antibiotic use, alteration in host defenses, and gastric acid suppression are some of the etiologies for increased risk of CDI in these populations. Patients with CKD/ESRD have a higher risk of initial episode, recurrence, and development of severe CDI than those without CKD or ESRD. Diagnosis and management of CDI in patients with CKD/ESRD are similar to that in the general population. The mortality, length of stay, and health-care costs are higher in patients with CDI and CKD/ESRD. Antimicrobial stewardship with reduction in antibiotic use along with infection-control measures such as contact isolation and hand hygiene with soap and water is essential in the control and prevention of CDI in patients with CKD/ESRD.

Vulnerability of long-term care facility residents to Clostridium difficile infection due to microbiome disruptions

Aging presents a significant risk factor for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). A disproportionate number of CDIs affect individuals in long-term care facilities compared with the general population, likely due to the vulnerable nature of the residents and shared environment. Review of the literature cites a number of underlying medical conditions such as the use of antibiotics, proton pump inhibitors, chemotherapy, renal disease and feeding tubes as risk factors. These conditions alter the intestinal environment through direct bacterial killing, changes to pH that influence bacterial stabilities or growth, or influence nutrient availability that direct population profiles. In this review, we examine some of the contributing risk factors for elderly associated CDI and the toll they take on the microbiome.

Enhanced Efficacy of High Dose Oral Vancomycin Therapy in Clostridium difficile Diarrhea for Hospitalized Adults Not Responsive to Conventional Oral Vancomycin Therapy: Antibiotic Stewardship Implications

Current therapy of Clostridium difficile diarrhea (CDD) is problematic. Optimal treatment for CDD remains oral vancomycin, but there is little data on oral vancomycin dosing regimens. The objective of this C. difficile diarrhea study was to compare the efficacy of "high dose" vancomycin, 500 mg (PO) q6h, as sole treatment and in those who after 72 h failed to respond to conventional doses of oral vancomycin, 125-250 mg (PO) q6h. Hospitalized adults with CDD were evaluated by various oral vancomycin regimens, i.e., a conventional dose group (125-250 mg (PO) q6h), a "high dose escalation" dose group (250 mg → 500 mg (PO) q6h), and a "high dose" group (500 mg (PO) q6h). Oral vancomycin treatment groups were compared by time to improvement, i.e., decrease in >50% of watery stools/day and duration of therapy. The high dose escalation and high dose oral vancomycin groups showed the most rapid resolution of diarrhea. There was marked decrease in stools/day after "high dose" vancomycin escalation from conventional dosing, i.e., 250 mg (PO) q6h → 500 mg (PO) q6h. This study demonstrated that "high dose" escalation or initial high dose oral vancomycin, i.e., 500 mg (PO) q6h was the most efficacious regimen for CDD.

Proton pump inhibitors therapy and risk of Clostridium difficile infection: Systematic review and meta-analysis

AIM

To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis on proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) therapy and the risk of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI).

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search of MEDLINE/PubMed and seven other databases through January 1990 to March 2017 for published studies that evaluated the association between PPIs and CDI. Adult case-control and cohort studies providing information on the association between PPI therapy and the development of CDI were included. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) estimates with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using the random effect. Heterogeneity was assessed by I² test and Cochran’s Q statistic. Potential publication bias was evaluated via funnel plot, and quality of studies by the Newcastle-Otawa Quality Assessment Scale (NOS).

RESULTS

Fifty-six studies (40 case-control and 16 cohort) involving 356683 patients met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. Both the overall pooled estimates and subgroup analyses showed increased risk for CDI despite substantial statistical heterogeneity among studies. Meta-analysis of all studies combined showed a significant association between PPI users and the risk of CDI (pooled OR = 1.99, CI: 1.73-2.30, P < 0.001) as compared with non-users. The association remained significant in subgroup analyses: by design-case-control (OR = 2.00, CI: 1.68-2.38, P < 0.0001), and cohort (OR = 1.98, CI: 1.51-2.59, P < 0.0001); adjusted (OR = 1.95, CI: 1.67-2.27, P < 0.0001) and unadjusted (OR = 2.02, CI: 1.41-2.91, P < 0.0001); unicenter (OR = 2.18, CI: 1.72-2.75, P < 0.0001) and multicenter (OR = 1.82, CI: 1.51-2.19, P < 0.0001); age ≥ 65 years (OR = 1.93, CI: 1.40-2.68, P < 0.0001) and < 65 years (OR = 2.06, CI: 1.11-3.81, P < 0.01). No significant differences were found in subgroup analyses (test for heterogeneity): P = 0.93 for case-control vs cohort, P = 0.85 for adjusted vs unadjusted, P = 0.24 for unicenter vs multicenter, P = 0.86 for age ≥ 65 years and < 65 years. There was significant heterogeneity across studies (I² = 85.4%, P < 0.001) as well as evidence of publication bias (funnel plot asymmetry test, P = 0.002).

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis provides further evidence that PPI use is associated with an increased risk for development of CDI. Further high-quality, prospective studies are needed to assess whether this association is causal.

Factors associated with Clostridium difficile infection: A nested case-control study in a three year prospective cohort

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a serious medical condition that is associated with substantial morbidity and mortality. Identification of risk factors associated with CDI and prompt recognition of patients at risk is key to successfully preventing CDI.

METHODS

A 3-year prospective, observational, cohort study was conducted in a French university hospital and a nested case-control study was performed to identify risk factors for CDI. Inpatients aged 18 years or older, suffering from diarrhea suspected to be related to CDI, were asked to participate.

RESULTS

A total of 945 patients were included, of which 233 cases had a confirmed CDI. CDI infection was more common in men (58.4%) (P = 0.04) compared with patients with diarrhea not related to C. difficile. Previous hospitalization (P < 0.001), prior treatment with antibiotics (P = 0.001) or antiperistaltics (P = 0.002), liver disease (P = 0.003), malnutrition (P < 0.001), and previous CDI (P < 0.001) were significantly more common in patients with CDI. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that exposure to antibiotics in the last 60 days (especially third generation cephalosporins and penicillins with β-lactamase inhibitor), chronic renal or liver disease, malnutrition or previous CDI, were associated with an independent high risk of CDI. Age was not related with CDI.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that antibiotics and some comorbid conditions were predictors of CDI. Patients at high risk of acquiring CDI at the time of admission may benefit from careful monitoring of antibiotic prescriptions and early attention to infection control issues. In future, these "high-risk" patients may benefit from novel agents being developed to prevent CDI.

Prevalence and impact of Clostridium difficile infection in elderly residents of long-term care facilities, 2011: A nationwide study

The elderly population is particularly vulnerable to Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), but the epidemiology of CDI in long-term care facilities (LTCFs) is unknown.We performed a retrospective cohort study and used US 2011 LTCF resident data from the Minimum Data Set 3.0 linked to Medicare claims. We extracted CDI cases based on International Classification of Diseases-9 coding, and compared residents with the diagnosis of CDI to those who did not have a CDI diagnosis during their LTCF stay. We estimated CDI prevalence rates and calculated 3-month mortality rates.The study population consisted of 2,190,613 admissions (median age 82 years; interquartile range 76-88; female to male ratio 2:1; >80% whites), 45,500 of whom had a CDI diagnosis. The nationwide CDI prevalence rate was 1.85 per 100 LTCF admissions (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.83-1.87). The CDI rate was lower in the South (1.54%; 95% CI 1.51-1.57) and higher in the Northeast (2.29%; 95% CI 2.25-2.33). Older age, white race, presence of a feeding tube, unhealed pressure ulcers, end-stage renal disease, cirrhosis, bowel incontinence, prior tracheostomy, chemotherapy, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease were independently related to "high risk" for CDI. Residents with a CDI diagnosis were more likely to be admitted to an acute care hospital (40% vs 31%, P < 0.001) and less likely to be discharged to the community (46% vs 54%, P < 0.001) than those not reported with CDI during stay. Importantly, CDI was associated with higher mortality (24.7% vs 18.1%, P = 0.001).CDI is common among the elderly residents of LTCFs and is associated with significant increase in 3-month mortality. The prevalence is higher in the Northeast and risk stratification can be used in CDI prevention policies.

Factors Predicting Recurrence of Clostridium difficile Infection (CDI) in Hospitalized Patients: Retrospective Study of More Than 2000 Patients

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has increased in incidence and severity worldwide, causing direct costs estimated to range from US $3.2 billion to $4.8 billion. The aim of this study was to investigate and identify factors that predict recurrence of CDI.

METHODS

This was a retrospective case-control study between 2007 and 2013 on patients admitted with CDI. Recurrent CDI is defined as a new episode of diarrhea within 90 days confirmed by a positive stool C. difficile toxin assay or polymerase chain reaction, after resolution of the initial CDI episode for at least 10 days and after discontinuation of the CDI therapy.

RESULTS

Three thousand twenty patients were diagnosed with CDI between January 2007 and December 2013. Two hundred nine of 2019 patients in the study had a recurrence of CDI within 90 days of the end of the initial CDI episode (10.3%). Multivariate analysis showed that most of the recurrences occurred in patients with comorbidities, particularly chronic kidney disease (odds ratio, 1.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0-2.4; P = 0.039). In addition, a higher percentage of patients in the recurrence group were prescribed proton-pump inhibitors (odds ratio, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.0-1.7; P = 0.002) and steroids (odds ratio, 1.65; 95% CI, 1.0-1.5; P = 0.047).

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that the use of glucocorticoids, use of proton-pump inhibitors, and having end-stage renal disease are significant risk factors associated with recurrent CDI.

Advanced chronic kidney disease: a strong risk factor for Clostridium difficile infection

BACKGROUND/AIMS

It has been suggested that chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a risk factor for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and is associated with increased mortality among patients infected with C. difficile. However, recent studies of the clinical impact of CKD on CDI in Asians are still insufficient. We sought to determine the relationship between CKD and CDI in a Korean population.

METHODS

This was a single-center, retrospective case-control study. In total, 171 patients with CDI were included as cases and 342 age- and gender-matched patients without CDI were used as controls. We compared the prevalence of CKD in the study sample and identified independent risk factors that could predict the development or prognosis of CDI.

RESULTS

Independent risk factors for CDI included stage IV to V CKD not requiring dialysis (odds ratio [OR], 2.90) and end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis (OR, 3.34). Patients with more advanced CKD (estimated glomerular filtration rate < 30) and CDI showed higher in-hospital mortality and poorer responses to the initial metronidazole therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

More advanced CKD is an independent risk factor for CDI and is associated with higher in-hospital mortality and poor treatment responses in CDI patients. Thus, in CKD patients, careful attention should be paid to the occurrence of CDI and its management to improve the outcome of CDI.

The Risks of Incident and Recurrent Clostridium difficile-Associated Diarrhea in Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Kidney Disease Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the risks of incident and recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring dialysis.

METHODS

A literature search was performed from inception to February 2015. Studies that reported relative risks, odds ratios, or hazard ratios comparing the risks of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD or ESRD versus those without CKD or ESRD were included. Pooled risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effect, generic inverse variance method.

RESULTS

Twenty studies (nine case-control, seven cohort, and four cross-sectional studies with 162,218,041 patients) were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled RRs of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD and ESRD were 1.95 (95% CI 1.81-2.10) and 2.63 (95% CI 2.04-3.38), respectively. When meta-analysis was limited only to cohort and case-control studies with confounder-adjusted analysis, the pooled RRs of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD and ESRD were 1.89 (95% CI 1.75-2.05) and 2.50 (95% CI 1.49-4.17), respectively. The pooled RR of recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD was 2.61 (95% CI 1.53-4.44). Data on the risk of recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea were limited.

CONCLUSION

This meta-analysis demonstrates significantly increased risks of incident and recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD. Furthermore, the magnitude of increased risk of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in ESRD patients is even higher.

Outbreak of Clostridium difficile Infections at an Outpatient Hemodialysis Facility-Michigan, 2012-2013

Investigation of an outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) at a hemodialysis facility revealed evidence that limited intrafacility transmission occurred despite adherence to published infection control standards for dialysis clinics. Outpatient dialysis facilities should consider CDI prevention, including environmental disinfection for C. difficile, when formulating their infection control plans.

Evidence-based review of gastrointestinal bleeding in the chronic kidney disease patient

Patients with end-stage renal disease are more likely to suffer from gastrointestinal (GI) problems, including bleeding from upper and lower sources. Peptic ulcer disease is the most common cause of upper GI bleeding, and although there is some debate in the literature regarding whether the frequency of ulcer disease is higher in patients with kidney disease, it is well established that outcomes are worse in patients with compromised renal function. Angioectasias can be found throughout the GI tract and are another common cause of bleeding; management can be divided into localized endoscopic therapy and systemic hormonal treatment, or surgery for refractory cases. The most frequent causes of lower GI bleeding in this population, in addition to angioectasias, are diverticulosis, hemorrhoids, and ischemic colitis.

Clostridium difficile infection in the elderly

Clostridium difficile-associated illness is an increasingly prevalent and morbid condition. The elderly population is at a disproportionate risk of developing symptomatic disease and associated complications, including progression to severe or fulminant disease, and development of recurrent infections. This article analyzes the factors that influence C difficile disease propensity and severity, with particular attention directed toward features relevant to the rapidly aging population.

Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection

There has been dramatic change in the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) since the turn of the 21st century noted by a marked increase in incidence and severity, occurring at a disproportionately higher frequency in older patients. Historically considered a nosocomial infection associated with antibiotic exposure, CDI has now also emerged in the community in populations previously considered low risk. Emerging risk factors and disease recurrence represent continued challenges in the management of CDI. The increased incidence and severity associated with CDI has coincided with the emergence and rapid spread of a previously rare strain, ribotype 027. Recent data from the United States and Europe suggest that the incidence of CDI may have reached a crescendo in the recent years and is perhaps beginning to plateau. The acute care direct costs of CDI were estimated to be US$4.8 billion in 2008. However, nearly all the published studies have focused on CDI diagnosed and treated in the acute care hospital setting and fail to measure the burden outside the hospital, including recently discharged patients, outpatients, and those in long-term care facilities. Enhanced surveillance methods are needed to monitor the incidence, to identify populations at risk, and to characterize the molecular epidemiology of strains causing CDI.

Community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: an increasing public health threat

There has been a startling shift in the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection over the last decade worldwide, and it is now increasingly recognized as a cause of diarrhea in the community. Classically considered a hospital-acquired infection, it has now emerged in populations previously considered to be low-risk and lacking the traditional risk factors for C. difficile infection, such as increased age, hospitalization, and antibiotic exposure. Recent studies have demonstrated great genetic diversity for C. difficile, pointing toward diverse sources and a fluid genome. Environmental sources like food, water, and animals may play an important role in these infections, apart from the role symptomatic patients and asymptomatic carriers play in spore dispersal. Prospective strain typing using highly discriminatory techniques is a possible way to explore the suspected diverse sources of C. difficile infection in the community. Patients with community-acquired C. difficile infection do not necessarily have a good outcome and clinicians should be aware of factors that predict worse outcomes in order to prevent them. This article summarizes the emerging epidemiology, risk factors, and outcomes for community-acquired C. difficile infection.

Is obesity a risk factor for Clostridium difficile infection?

BACKGROUND

The epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) has become an important area of investigation, especially in light of the global increase in both hospital-acquired (HA) and community-acquired (CA) CDI. Recently, obesity was found to be associated with CDI and was suggested to represent an independent risk factor for it.

OBJECTIVE

We undertook a case-control study to examine obesity as an exposure for both HA and CA cases in adults (age ≥ 18 years) admitted to a tertiary, university-affiliated, acute care medical facility in the northeastern United States.

METHODS

During the period January 2012-July 2013, we examined cross-sectional BMI data on 189 cases of CDI and 189 contemporaneous age and gender-matched controls.

RESULTS

We were unable to detect a statistically significant difference between the two groups; in fact, the BMI values for both groups were substantially equivalent (cases: median=26.5 kg/m, IQR: 22.1-32.5; controls: median=26.0, IQR: 22.7-31.0; p=0.696). Odds ratios (and 95% confidence intervals), evaluated at BMI of 25, 30 and 35 kg/m(2), did not demonstrate statistical significance.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that obesity, as described by BMI, may not be a risk factor for CDI in all populations.

Epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection

There has been dramatic change in the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) since the turn of the 21st century noted by a marked increase in incidence and severity, occurring at a disproportionately higher frequency in older patients. Historically considered a nosocomial infection associated with antibiotic exposure, CDI has now also emerged in the community in populations previously considered low risk. Emerging risk factors and disease recurrence represent continued challenges in the management of CDI. The increased incidence and severity associated with CDI has coincided with the emergence and rapid spread of a previously rare strain, ribotype 027. Recent data from the United States and Europe suggest that the incidence of CDI may have reached a crescendo in the recent years and is perhaps beginning to plateau. The acute care direct costs of CDI were estimated to be US$4.8 billion in 2008. However, nearly all the published studies have focused on CDI diagnosed and treated in the acute care hospital setting and fail to measure the burden outside the hospital, including recently discharged patients, outpatients, and those in long-term care facilities. Enhanced surveillance methods are needed to monitor the incidence, to identify populations at risk, and to characterize the molecular epidemiology of strains causing CDI.

Asymptomatic Clostridium difficile colonization in a tertiary care hospital: admission prevalence and risk factors

BACKGROUND

The role of Clostridium difficile (CD) carriers in health care-associated CD transmission has been identified as an area needing research. We investigated the prevalence of, and risk factors for, asymptomatic CD colonization at hospital admission.

METHODS

Adults admitted to a tertiary care hospital in Minnesota on predetermined study days between March 1 and April 30, 2009, and without symptoms of C difficile infection, were eligible. The first stool sample after admission was requested from each consenting patient and tested for toxigenic CD using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) that detects tcdC. Clinical data were obtained through interviews and chart reviews.

RESULTS

Of 320 participants, 31 (9.7%) were positive for toxigenic CD. Using multivariate logistic regression, independent predictors of CD colonization were recent hospitalization (odds ratio [OR], 2.45; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.02-5.84), chronic dialysis (OR, 8.12; 95% CI: 1.80-36.65), and corticosteroid use (OR, 3.09; 95% CI: 1.24-7.73). Screening patients with risk factors (48% participants) would identify 74% (95% CI: 55%-88%) of CD carriers.

CONCLUSION

Asymptomatic CD colonization at hospital admission was detected in nearly 1 of 10 patients. The majority of colonized patients had one or more identifiable risk factors. These data could provide the basis for designing studies of targeted surveillance for C difficile.

Iron deficiency and susceptibility to infections: evaluation of the clinical evidence

Iron is a fundamental nutrient for human and microbial life. We sought to examine the association of iron deficiency versus normal iron status with the susceptibility to infections. A systematic search in the PubMed and Scopus databases was performed to identify relevant clinical studies. Six studies (including a total of 1,422 participants) met the inclusion criteria: four prospective cohort (859 participants), one retrospective case-control (115 participants), and one retrospective cohort study (448 participants). Intensive care unit (ICU)-acquired and postoperative infections were more common in patients with iron deficiency than among those with normal iron status in two studies, while no difference was reported in another study. In one study examining pregnant women with normal mean iron values, higher soluble transferrin receptor values independently predicted vaginosis-like microflora. Iron deficiency anemia was an independent predictor of respiratory tract infections in one study, and postoperative urinary tract infections were more common in patients with iron deficiency anemia in another. The limited available evidence suggests that individuals with iron deficiency and those with iron deficiency anemia may be more susceptible to infections than patients with normal iron status. Future studies should elucidate further these findings.

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in dialysis patients

BACKGROUND

Dialysis patients have impaired host defense mechanisms and frequently require antibiotics for various infective complications. In this study, we investigated whether dialysis patients have greater risk for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD).

METHODS

During the 4-year study period (2004-2008), 85 patients with CDAD were identified based on a retrospective review of C difficile toxin assay or histology records. Nosocomial diarrheal patients without CDAD were considered as controls (n=403). We assessed the association between renal function and the prevalence and clinical outcomes of CDAD.

RESULTS

There was a significant difference in the prevalence rate of chronic kidney disease (CKD) between CDAD and non-CDAD patients (P<0.001). Sixteen patients (18.8%) of the CDAD group were treated with dialysis, whereas 21 patients (5.2%) of the non-CDAD group were treated with dialysis. There was a significant association between renal function and CDAD in patients on dialysis [odds ratio (OR)=4.44, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.19-8.99, P<0.001], but not in patients with CKD stage 3-5 (OR=1.10, 95% CI 0.63-1.92, P=0.73). In multivariate analysis, CKD stage 5D was an independent risk factor for the development of CDAD (OR=13.36, 95% CI 2.94-60.67, P=0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our data indicate that dialysis patients might be at a greater risk of developing CDAD, which suggests that particular attention should be provided to CDAD when antibiotic treatment is administered to dialysis patients.

Defining acute renal dysfunction as a criterion for the severity of Clostridium difficile infection in patients with community-onset vs hospital-onset infection

BACKGROUND

Acute renal dysfunction can be used to define severe Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). The Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) guidelines define acute renal dysfunction as serum creatinine (SrCr) ≥1.5 times the premorbid level.

AIM

To determine the ability to assess premorbid SrCr in hospitalized patients with CDI, stratified into community-onset CDI (CO-CDI) and hospital-onset CDI (HO-CDI); and to evaluate differing definitions for premorbid SrCr as a criterion for acute renal dysfunction.

METHODS

Hospitalized patients with CDI were stratified into CO-CDI and HO-CDI. The ability to assess premorbid SrCr was determined, and the incidence of acute renal dysfunction and the severity of CDI were compared using varying definitions of premorbid SrCr.

FINDINGS

In total, 293 patients with CDI were evaluated; of these, 135 (46%) had CO-CDI and 158 (54%) had HO-CDI. Premorbid SrCr data were not available for 37 (27%) patients with CO-CDI and one (<1%) patient with HO-CDI (P < 0.0001). Depending on the definition of premorbid SrCr used, acute renal dysfunction ranged from 17% to 24% for patients with CO-CDI (P = 0.26), and from 13% to 14% for HO-CDI (P = 0.81). The severity of CDI could not be determined for 43 out of 293 (15%) patients, primarily due to the lack of premorbid SrCr data (N = 38).

CONCLUSION

Assessment of acute renal dysfunction and the severity of CDI was not possible for many patients with CO-CDI using the current SHEA/IDSA guidelines. Given the increasing incidence of CO-CDI, an alternative definition of acute renal dysfunction may be required.

Preoperative risk factors for postoperative Clostridium difficile infection in colectomy patients

BACKGROUND

Wide variation among hospitals in the rate of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) after surgery was hypothesized to be related to different prophylactic antibiotic practices.

METHODS

Between March 2008 and March 2010, 30-day confirmed postoperative CDI rates were prospectively collected for patients undergoing colectomy surgery at 23 hospitals participating in a collaborative quality improvement program. Preoperative variables significantly associated with CDI (P ≤ .10) in a bivariate analysis were incorporated into a logistic regression model to test for independent associations.

RESULTS

Among 4,936 patients, the overall rate of CDI was 1.6% (range by hospital, 0%-9%). After adjusting for patient comorbidities and hospital site, type of preoperative antibiotics used for prophylaxis was not significantly associated with CDI. Emergency surgery, low albumin, and neurologic and renal comorbidities emerged as independent preoperative predictors of CDI.

CONCLUSIONS

Perioperative antibiotic practices did not prove to be independently associated with CDI after colectomy surgery.

Clostridium difficile infection in patients with chronic kidney disease

OBJECTIVE

To examine the rate of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) and hospital-associated outcomes in a national cohort of hospitalized patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and assess the impact of long-term dialysis on outcome in these patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Data for January 1, 2005, through December 31, 2009 were obtained from the National Hospital Discharge Survey, which includes information on patient demographics, diagnoses, procedures, and discharge types. Data collected and analyzed for this study included age, sex, race, admission type (urgent or emergent combined vs elective), any colectomy diagnosis, length of stay, type of discharge, and mortality. International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification codes were utilized to identify CKD patients and CDI events. Weighted analysis was performed using JMP version 9.

RESULTS

An estimated 162 million adults were hospitalized during 2005-2009, and 8.03 million (5%) had CKD (median age, 71 years). The CDI rate in CKD patients was 1.49% (0.119 million) compared with 0.70% (1.14 million) in patients without CKD (P<.001). Patients with CKD who were undergoing long-term dialysis were more than 2 times as likely to develop CDI than non-CKD patients and 1.33 times more likely than CKD patients not undergoing dialysis (all P<.001). In a weighted multivariate analysis adjusting for sex and comorbidities, patients with CKD and CDI had longer hospitalization, higher colectomy rate (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.30; 95% confidence interval [CI], 2.14-2.47), dismissal to a health care facility (aOR, 2.22; 95% CI, 2.19-2.25), and increased in-hospital mortality (aOR, 1.55; 95% CI, 1.52-1.59; all P<.001) as compared with CKD patients without CDI. Patients with CKD who were undergoing long-term dialysis did not have worse outcomes as compared with CKD patients who were not undergoing long-term dialysis.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that patients with CKD have a higher risk of CDI and increased hospital-associated morbidity and mortality. Future prospective studies are needed to confirm these findings and to identify effective CDI prevention in CKD patients, who appear to have an increased risk of CDI acquisition.

Association of decreased serum protein fractions with Clostridium difficile infection in the acute care setting: a case–control study

Aim: This study examines the association of decreased levels of serum proteins with the occurrence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in hospitalized patients. Materials & methods: This is a retrospective case–control study using a case cohort (n = 171) that had been described in an earlier study and a cohort of 332 contemporaneous controls. Results: Patients with CDAD had significantly lower serum levels of albumin, total protein and globulins, and decreased albumin/globulin ratio (p < 0.0001 for all parameters). After adjustment for confounders, hypoproteinemia was more closely associated with CDAD than either hypoalbuminemia or albumin/globulin ratio. Hypoproteinemia exhibited an odds ratios of 10.6 (95% CI: 6.62–17.0) after adjustment for race, and 11.0 (95% CI: 6.88–17.1) after adjustment for age. Conclusion: Decreased total serum protein is more closely associated with CDAD than hypoalbuminemia.

Burden of Clostridium difficile infection in long-term care facilities in Monroe County, New York

BACKGROUND

Long-term care facility (LTCF) residents are at increased risk of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). However, little is known about the incidence, recurrence, and severity of CDI in LTCFs or the extent to which acute care exposure contributes to CDI in LTCFs. We describe the epidemiology of CDI in a cohort of LTCF residents in Monroe County, New York, where recent estimates suggest a CDI incidence in hospitals of 9.2 cases per 10,000 patient-days.

DESIGN

Population-based surveillance study.

SETTING

Monroe County, New York. Patients. LTCF residents with onset of CDI while in the LTCF or less than 4 calendar-days after hospital admission from the LTCF from January 1 through December 31, 2010.

METHODS

We conducted surveillance for CDI in residents of 33 LTCFs. A CDI case was defined as a stool specimen positive for C. difficile obtained from a patient without a C. difficile-positive specimen in the previous 8 weeks; recurrence was defined as a stool specimen positive for C. difficile obtained between 2 and 8 weeks after the last C. difficile-positive stool specimen.

RESULTS

There were 425 LTCF-onset cases and 184 recurrences, which yielded an incidence of 2.3 cases per 10,000 resident-days (interquartile range [IQR], 1.2-3.3) and a recurrence rate of 1.0 case per 10,000 resident-days (IQR, 0.3-1.4). The cases occurred in 394 LTCF residents, and 52% of these residents developed CDI within 4 weeks after hospital discharge. Hospitalization for CDI occurred in 70 cases (16%). Of those cases that involved hospitalization for CDI, 70% were severe CDI, and 23% ended in death within 30 days after hospital admission.

CONCLUSION

CDI incidence in Monroe County LTCFs is one-fourth the incidence among hospitalized patients. Approximately 50% of LTCF-onset cases occurred more than 4 weeks after hospital discharge, which emphasizes that prevention of CDI transmission should go beyond acute care settings.

Detection, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infection

Clostridium difficile is a gram-positive anaerobic bacillus responsible for approximately 1 of 5 cases of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. C difficile infection (CDI) is defined by at least 3 unformed stools in a 24-hour period and stool, endoscopic, or histopathologic test results that indicate the presence of this bacteria. The history of CDI research can be divided into early (before 2000) and modern eras (after 2000). C difficile was first described in 1935, and the characteristics and causes of CDI as well as therapies were identified during the early era of research. During the modern era, CDI has become a more common, aggressive nosocomial infection. Our understanding of the epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of CDI has increased at a rapid pace. We review features of CDI diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.

Saccharomyces boulardii for the prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea in adult hospitalized patients: a single-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

OBJECTIVES

Antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) are common complications of antibiotic use. Probiotics were effective in preventing AAD and CDAD in several randomized controlled trials. This study was aimed at testing the effect of Saccharomyces boulardii on the occurrence of AAD and CDAD in hospitalized patients.

METHODS

A single-center, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel-group trial was performed. Patients being prescribed antibiotics or on antibiotic therapy for <48 h were eligible. Exclusion criteria were ongoing diarrhea, recent assumption of probiotics, lack of informed consent, inability to ingest capsules, and severe pancreatitis. Patients received a capsule containing S. boulardii or an indistinguishable placebo twice daily within 48 h of beginning antibiotic therapy, continued treatment for 7 days after antibiotic withdrawal, and were followed for 12 weeks after ending antibiotic treatment.

RESULTS

Of 562 consecutive eligible patients, 275 patients aged 79.2 ± 9.8 years (134 on placebo) were randomized and 204 aged 78.4 ± 10.0 years (98 on placebo) completed the follow-up. AAD developed in 13.3% (13/98) of the patients receiving placebo and in 15.1% (16/106) of those receiving S. boulardii (odds ratio for S. boulardii vs. placebo, 1.16; 95% confidence interval (CI), 0.53-2.56). Five cases of CDAD occurred, 2 in the placebo group (2.0%) and 3 in the probiotic group (2.8%; odds ratio for S. boulardii vs. placebo, 1.40; 95% CI, 0.23-8.55). There was no difference in mortality rates (12.7% vs. 15.6%, P=0.60).

CONCLUSIONS

In elderly hospitalized patients, S. boulardii was not effective in preventing the development of AAD.

Hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: determinants for severe disease

Risk factors of severity (need for surgical intervention, intensive care or fatal outcome) were analysed in hospital-acquired Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in a 777-bed community hospital. In a prospective analytical cross-sectional study, age (≥ 65 years), sex, CDI characteristics, underlying diseases, severity of comorbidity and PCR ribotypes were tested for associations with severe CDI. In total, 133 cases of hospital-acquired CDI (mean age 74.4 years) were identified, resulting in an incidence rate of 5.7/10,000 hospital-days. A recurrent episode of diarrhoea occurred in 25 cases (18.8%) and complications including toxic megacolon, dehydration and septicaemia in 69 cases (51.9%). Four cases (3.0%) required ICU admission, one case (0.8%) surgical intervention and 22 cases (16.5%) died within the 30-day follow-up period. Variables identified to be independently associated with severe CDI were severe diarrhoea (odds ratio [OR] 3.64, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.19-11.11, p=0.02), chronic pulmonary disease (OR 3.0, 95% CI 1.08-8.40, p=0.04), chronic renal disease (OR 2.9, 95% CI 1.07-7.81, p=0.04) and diabetes mellitus (OR 4.30, 95% CI 1.57-11.76, p=0.004). The case fatality of 16.5% underlines the importance of increased efforts in CDI prevention, in particular for patients with underlying diseases.

Lower gastrointestinal bleeding in chronic hemodialysis patients

Gastrointestinal (GI) bleeding is more common in patients with chronic kidney disease and is associated with higher mortality than in the general population. Blood losses in this patient population can be quite severe at times and it is important to differentiate anemia of chronic diseases from anemia due to GI bleeding. We review the literature on common causes of lower gastrointestinal bleeding (LGI) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients. We suggest an approach to diagnosis and management of this problem.

Clostridium difficile infection in non-HIV-immunocompromised patients and in HIV-infected patients

Clostridium difficile infection is a common cause of morbidity in patients with HIV infection and in patients with non-HIV immune deficiency. The frequency of C. difficile--associated diarrhea (CDAD) seen in these two patient populations has been attributed to immune deficiency, as well as to increased exposure to hospital environments and antibiotic therapy, both of which are major risk factors for CDAD. This article reviews recent data useful in the evaluation, treatment, and prevention of C. difficile infection in these patient groups. Recent publications relating to C. difficile infection in specific immunocompromised conditions are also discussed.

Bowel preparation for colectomy and risk of Clostridium difficile infection

BACKGROUND

Mechanical bowel preparation before colectomy is controversial for several reasons, including a theoretically increased risk of Clostridium difficile infection.

OBJECTIVE

The primary aim of this study was to compare the incidence of C difficile infection among patients who underwent mechanical bowel preparation and those who did not. A secondary objective was to assess the association between C difficile infection and the use of oral antibiotics.

DESIGN

This was an observational cohort study.

SETTING

The Michigan Surgical Quality Collaborative Colectomy Project (n = 24 hospitals) participates in the American College of Surgeons-National Surgical Quality Improvement Program with additional targeted data specific to patients undergoing colectomies.

PATIENTS

Included were adult patients (21 years and older) admitted to participating hospitals for elective colectomy between August 2007 and June 2009.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

The main outcome measure was laboratory detection of a positive C difficile toxin assay or stool culture.

RESULTS

Two thousand two hundred sixty-three patients underwent colectomy and fulfilled inclusion criteria. Fifty-four patients developed a C difficile infection, for a hospital median rate of 2.8% (range, 0-14.7%). Use of mechanical bowel preparation was not associated with an increased incidence of C difficile infection (P = .95). Among 1685 patients that received mechanical bowel preparation, 684 (41%) received oral antibiotics. The proportion of patients in whom C difficile infection was diagnosed after the use of preoperative oral antibiotics was smaller than the proportion of patients with C difficile infection who did not receive oral antibiotics (1.6% vs 2.9%, P = .09).

LIMITATIONS

The potential exists for underestimation of C difficile infection because of the study's strict data collection criteria and risk of undetected infection after postoperative day 30.

CONCLUSIONS

In contrast to previous single-center data, this multicenter study showed that the preoperative use of mechanical bowel preparation was not associated with increased risk of C difficile infection after colectomy. Moreover, the addition of oral antibiotics with mechanical bowel preparation did not confer any additional risk of infection.

Diabetes mellitus as a risk factor for recurrence of Clostridium difficile infection in the acute care hospital setting

BACKGROUND

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is increasingly encountered in the acute care setting with rates of infection increasing dramatically since 2001. Reoccurring episodes are being seen with increasing frequency. The purpose of this study was to examine risk factors specifically associated with CDAD recurrence in an urban medical center.

METHODS

This study was conducted in a 651-bed, acute care teaching hospital in an urban community in northeastern New Jersey. We examined the medical records of subjects discharged from the institution with a diagnosis of CDAD over the 6-year period January 1, 2003, to December 31, 2008. Inclusion in the study required clinical signs and symptoms of CDAD and the presence of C difficile toxins A/B. This cohort of 247 subjects was divided into 2 groups: those who were not readmitted with CDAD within 6 months (n = 171) and those who required readmission for CDAD within 6 months of discharge from their last admission (n = 76).

RESULTS

Both hypoalbuminemia (odds ration [OR], 1.74, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.10-2.77; P = .02) and diabetes (P < .0001; OR, 3.04; 95% CI: 1.84-5.03; P < .0001) were considered as independent risk factors. After adjustment for potential confounders, hypoalbuminemia was found to be race dependent (OR, adjusted for black race: 1.62; 95% CI: 0.93-2.82; P = .09); however, diabetes was found to be a significant independent risk factor for CDAD recurrence (adjusted OR ranged from 3.79 to 5.46, minimum lower 95% confidence level: 2.01, all P values <.0001).

CONCLUSION

We have demonstrated that diabetes is an important risk factor for recurrence of CDAD. Although previous have concluded that hypoalbuminemia is associated with CDAD recurrence, our data suggest that this association may have some dependence on race or ethnicity.