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Vékony RG, Tamás A, Lukács A, Ujfalusi Z, Lőrinczy D, Takács-Kollár V, Bukovics P. Exploring the Role of Neuropeptide PACAP in Cytoskeletal Function Using Spectroscopic Methods. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:8063. [PMID: 39125632 PMCID: PMC11311697 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25158063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
The behavior and presence of actin-regulating proteins are characteristic of various clinical diseases. Changes in these proteins significantly impact the cytoskeletal and regenerative processes underlying pathological changes. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), a cytoprotective neuropeptide abundant in the nervous system and endocrine organs, plays a key role in neuron differentiation and migration by influencing actin. This study aims to elucidate the role of PACAP as an actin-regulating polypeptide, its effect on actin filament formation, and the underlying regulatory mechanisms. We examined PACAP27, PACAP38, and PACAP6-38, measuring their binding to actin monomers via fluorescence spectroscopy and steady-state anisotropy. Functional polymerization tests were used to track changes in fluorescent intensity over time. Unlike PACAP27, PACAP38 and PACAP6-38 significantly reduced the fluorescence emission of Alexa488-labeled actin monomers and increased their anisotropy, showing nearly identical dissociation equilibrium constants. PACAP27 showed weak binding to globular actin (G-actin), while PACAP38 and PACAP6-38 exhibited robust interactions. PACAP27 did not affect actin polymerization, but PACAP38 and PACAP6-38 accelerated actin incorporation kinetics. Fluorescence quenching experiments confirmed structural changes upon PACAP binding; however, all studied PACAP fragments exhibited the same effect. Our findings indicate that PACAP38 and PACAP6-38 strongly bind to G-actin and significantly influence actin polymerization. Further studies are needed to fully understand the biological significance of these interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Gábor Vékony
- Department of Biophysics, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary; (R.G.V.); (A.L.); (Z.U.); (D.L.); (V.T.-K.)
| | - Andrea Tamás
- Department of Anatomy, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary;
| | - András Lukács
- Department of Biophysics, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary; (R.G.V.); (A.L.); (Z.U.); (D.L.); (V.T.-K.)
| | - Zoltán Ujfalusi
- Department of Biophysics, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary; (R.G.V.); (A.L.); (Z.U.); (D.L.); (V.T.-K.)
| | - Dénes Lőrinczy
- Department of Biophysics, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary; (R.G.V.); (A.L.); (Z.U.); (D.L.); (V.T.-K.)
| | - Veronika Takács-Kollár
- Department of Biophysics, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary; (R.G.V.); (A.L.); (Z.U.); (D.L.); (V.T.-K.)
| | - Péter Bukovics
- Department of Biophysics, Medical School, University of Pécs, 7624 Pécs, Hungary; (R.G.V.); (A.L.); (Z.U.); (D.L.); (V.T.-K.)
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2
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Neuropeptides Involved in Facial Nerve Regeneration. Biomedicines 2021; 9:biomedicines9111575. [PMID: 34829804 PMCID: PMC8615594 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines9111575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropeptides and neurotransmitters act as intermediaries to transmit impulses from one neuron to another via a synapse. These neuropeptides are also related to nerve degeneration and regeneration during nerve damage. Although there are various neuropeptides, three are associated with neural regeneration in facial nerve damage: calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), galanin, and pituitary adenylyl cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP). Alpha CGRP in facial motoneurons is a signaling factor involved in neuroglial and neuromuscular interactions during regeneration. Thus, it may be a marker for facial nerve regeneration. Galanin is a marker of injured axons rather than nerve regeneration. PACAP has various effects on nerve regeneration by regulating the surrounding cells and providing neurotrophic factors. Thus, it may also be used as a marker for facial nerve regeneration. However, the precise roles of these substances in nerve generation are not yet fully understood. Animal studies have demonstrated that they may act as neuromodulators to promote neurotrophic factors involved in nerve regeneration as they appear early, before changes in the injured cells and their environment. Therefore, they may be markers of nerve regeneration.
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Protective Effects of PACAP in a Rat Model of Diabetic Neuropathy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910691. [PMID: 34639032 PMCID: PMC8509403 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Revised: 09/20/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide with a widespread occurrence and diverse effects. PACAP has well-documented neuro- and cytoprotective effects, proven in numerous studies. Among others, PACAP is protective in models of diabetes-associated diseases, such as diabetic nephropathy and retinopathy. As the neuropeptide has strong neurotrophic and neuroprotective actions, we aimed at investigating the effects of PACAP in a rat model of streptozotocin-induced diabetic neuropathy, another common complication of diabetes. Rats were treated with PACAP1-38 every second day for 8 weeks starting simultaneously with the streptozotocin injection. Nerve fiber morphology was examined with electron microscopy, chronic neuronal activation in pain processing centers was studied with FosB immunohistochemistry, and functionality was assessed by determining the mechanical nociceptive threshold. PACAP treatment did not alter body weight or blood glucose levels during the 8-week observation period. However, PACAP attenuated the mechanical hyperalgesia, compared to vehicle-treated diabetic animals, and it markedly reduced the morphological signs characteristic for neuropathy: axon–myelin separation, mitochondrial fission, unmyelinated fiber atrophy, and basement membrane thickening of endoneurial vessels. Furthermore, PACAP attenuated the increase in FosB immunoreactivity in the dorsal spinal horn and periaqueductal grey matter. Our results show that PACAP is a promising therapeutic agent in diabetes-associated complications, including diabetic neuropathy.
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Baskozos G, Sandy-Hindmarch O, Clark AJ, Windsor K, Karlsson P, Weir GA, McDermott LA, Burchall J, Wiberg A, Furniss D, Bennett DLH, Schmid AB. Molecular and cellular correlates of human nerve regeneration: ADCYAP1/PACAP enhance nerve outgrowth. Brain 2020; 143:2009-2026. [PMID: 32651949 PMCID: PMC7462094 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awaa163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We only have a rudimentary understanding of the molecular and cellular determinants of nerve regeneration and neuropathic pain in humans. This cohort study uses the most common entrapment neuropathy (carpal tunnel syndrome) as a human model system to prospectively evaluate the cellular and molecular correlates of neural regeneration and its relationship with clinical recovery. In 60 patients undergoing carpal tunnel surgery [36 female, mean age 62.5 (standard deviation 12.2) years], we used quantitative sensory testing and nerve conduction studies to evaluate the function of large and small fibres before and 6 months after surgery. Clinical recovery was assessed with the global rating of change scale and Boston Carpal Tunnel Questionnaire. Twenty healthy participants provided normative data [14 female, mean age 58.0 (standard deviation 12.9) years]. At 6 months post-surgery, we noted significant recovery of median nerve neurophysiological parameters (P < 0.0001) and improvements in quantitative sensory testing measures of both small and large nerve fibre function (P < 0.002). Serial biopsies revealed a partial recovery of intraepidermal nerve fibre density [fibres/mm epidermis pre: 4.20 (2.83), post: 5.35 (3.34), P = 0.001], whose extent correlated with symptom improvement (r = 0.389, P = 0.001). In myelinated afferents, nodal length increased postoperatively [pre: 2.03 (0.82), post: 3.03 (1.23), P < 0.0001] suggesting that this is an adaptive phenomenon. Transcriptional profiling of the skin revealed 31 differentially expressed genes following decompression, with ADCYAP1 (encoding pituitary adenylate cyclase activating peptide, PACAP) being the most strongly upregulated (log2 fold-change 1.87, P = 0.0001) and its expression was associated with recovery of intraepidermal nerve fibres. We found that human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived sensory neurons expressed the receptor for PACAP and that this peptide could significantly enhance axon outgrowth in a dose-dependent manner in vitro [neurite length PACAP 1065.0 µm (285.5), vehicle 570.9 μm (181.8), P = 0.003]. In conclusion, carpal tunnel release is associated with significant cutaneous reinnervation, which correlates with the degree of functional improvement and is associated with a transcriptional programme relating to morphogenesis and inflammatory processes. The most highly dysregulated gene ADCYAP1 (encoding PACAP) was associated with reinnervation and, given that this peptide signals through G-protein coupled receptors, this signalling pathway provides an interesting therapeutic target for human sensory nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgios Baskozos
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Alex J Clark
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Katherine Windsor
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Pall Karlsson
- Department of Clinical Medicine, The Danish Pain Research Center, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Greg A Weir
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Institute of Neuroscience and Psychology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Lucy A McDermott
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Joanna Burchall
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Akira Wiberg
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Dominic Furniss
- Nuffield Department of Orthopaedics, Rheumatology and Musculoskeletal Sciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - David L H Bennett
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Annina B Schmid
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, The University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Liu F, Yajima T, Wang M, Shen JF, Ichikawa H, Sato T. Effects of trigeminal nerve injury on the expression of galanin and its receptors in the rat trigeminal ganglion. Neuropeptides 2020; 84:102098. [PMID: 33069139 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2020.102098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In the spinal nervous system, the expression of galanin (GAL) and galanin receptors (GALRs) that play important roles in the transmission and modulation of nociceptive information can be affected by nerve injury. However, in the trigeminal nervous system, the effects of trigeminal nerve injury on the expression of GAL are controversy in the previous studies. Besides, little is known about the effects of trigeminal nerve injury on the expression of GALRs. In the present study, the effects of trigeminal nerve injury on the expression of GAL and GALRs in the rat trigeminal ganglion (TG) were investigated by using quantitative real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and immunohistochemistry. To identify the nerve-injured and nerve-uninjured TG neurons, activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3, the nerve-injured neuron marker) was stained by immunofluorescence. The levels of GAL mRNA in the rostral half and caudal half of the TG dramatically increased after transection of infraorbital nerve (ION) and inferior alveolar nerve (IAN), respectively. Immunohistochemical labeling of GAL and ATF3 revealed that GAL level was elevated in both injured and adjacent uninjured small and medium-sized TG neurons after ION/IAN transection. In addition, the levels of GAL2R-like immunoreactivity were reduced in both injured and adjacent uninjured TG neurons after ION/IAN transection, while levels of GAL1R and GAL3R-like immunoreactivity remained unchanged. Furthermore, the number of small to medium-sized TG neurons co-expressing GAL- and GAL1R/GAL2R/GAL3R-like immunoreactivity was significantly increased after ION/IAN transection. In line with previous studies in other spinal neuron systems, these results suggest that GAL and GALRs play functional roles in orofacial neuropathic pain and trigeminal nerve regeneration after trigeminal nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Liu
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Anatomy, Graduate School of Dentistry, Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryo machi, Sendai 980-8575, Japan; State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department II of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province 610041, China.
| | - Takehiro Yajima
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Anatomy, Graduate School of Dentistry, Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryo machi, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Min Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department II of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province 610041, China
| | - Jie-Fei Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Department II of Prosthodontics, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province 610041, China
| | - Hiroyuki Ichikawa
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Anatomy, Graduate School of Dentistry, Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryo machi, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
| | - Tadasu Sato
- Division of Oral and Craniofacial Anatomy, Graduate School of Dentistry, Tohoku University, 4-1 Seiryo machi, Sendai 980-8575, Japan
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6
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Gromova OA, Torshin IY, Putilina MV, Semenov VA, Rudakov KV. [Choice of neuroprotective therapy regimens in patients with chronic cerebral ischemia, taking into account the synergy of drug interactions]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2020; 120:42-50. [PMID: 32929923 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro202012008142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Optimization of the choice of neuroprotective treatment regimens in patients with chronic cerebral ischemia that takes into account the synergy of drug interactions gives the doctor an opportunity for personalized approach that increases the effectiveness of treatment. MATERIAL AND METHODS Differential chemoreactomic analysis of the synergism of ethyl methyl hydroxypyridine succinate (EMHPS) and a number of monocomponent neuroprotective agents (piracetam, vinpocetine, citicoline, choline alfoscerate); proteomic analysis of polypeptide neuroprotectors (cerebrolysin, etc.); an expert analysis of multicomponent neuroprotector Cytoflavin. RESULTS Piracetam, citicoline (Neupilept) and choline alfoscerate (Cereton) effectively enhance the pharmacological properties of EMHPS and vice versa. Expert assessments of the synergism between the properties of EMHPS, polypeptide neuroprotectors (cerebrolysin) and other multicomponent drugs (cytoflavin), which are also used in adjuvant therapy with EMHPS, are presented. CONCLUSION In real clinical practice, of particular interest is the objectification of the appointment of combined therapy regimens. This study indicates that EMHPS can provide a favorable background for maximizing the effectiveness of therapy when used with other drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Gromova
- Institute of Pharmacoinformatics, Moscow, Russia.,Center for Big Data Storage and Analysis of Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - I Yu Torshin
- Institute of Pharmacoinformatics, Moscow, Russia.,Center for Big Data Storage and Analysis of Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - M V Putilina
- Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - V A Semenov
- Kemerovo State Medical University, Kemerovo, Russia
| | - K V Rudakov
- Institute of Pharmacoinformatics, Moscow, Russia.,Center for Big Data Storage and Analysis of Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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7
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Gollmann-Tepeköylü C, Nägele F, Graber M, Pölzl L, Lobenwein D, Hirsch J, An A, Irschick R, Röhrs B, Kremser C, Hackl H, Huber R, Venezia S, Hercher D, Fritsch H, Bonaros N, Stefanova N, Tancevski I, Meyer D, Grimm M, Holfeld J. Shock waves promote spinal cord repair via TLR3. JCI Insight 2020; 5:134552. [PMID: 32759498 DOI: 10.1172/jci.insight.134552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) remains a devastating condition with poor prognosis and very limited treatment options. Affected patients are severely restricted in their daily activities. Shock wave therapy (SWT) has shown potent regenerative properties in bone fractures, wounds, and ischemic myocardium via activation of the innate immune receptor TLR3. Here, we report on the efficacy of SWT for regeneration of SCI. SWT improved motor function and decreased lesion size in WT but not Tlr3-/- mice via inhibition of neuronal degeneration and IL6-dependent recruitment and differentiation of neuronal progenitor cells. Both SWT and TLR3 stimulation enhanced neuronal sprouting and improved neuronal survival, even in human spinal cord cultures. We identified tlr3 as crucial enhancer of spinal cord regeneration in zebrafish. Our findings indicate that TLR3 signaling is involved in neuroprotection and spinal cord repair and suggest that TLR3 stimulation via SWT could become a potent regenerative treatment option.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Michael Graber
- Department of Cardiac Surgery and.,Division of Clinical and Functional Anatomy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Leo Pölzl
- Department of Cardiac Surgery and.,Division of Clinical and Functional Anatomy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Daniela Lobenwein
- Department of Cardiac Surgery and.,Division of Clinical and Functional Anatomy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | | | - Regina Irschick
- Division of Clinical and Functional Anatomy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bernhard Röhrs
- Institute of Molecular Biology/Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | | | | | - Serena Venezia
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - David Hercher
- Ludwig Boltzmann Institute for Experimental and Clinical Traumatology, Vienna, Austria.,Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
| | - Helga Fritsch
- Division of Clinical and Functional Anatomy, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Nadia Stefanova
- Division of Neurobiology, Department of Neurology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Ivan Tancevski
- Department of Internal Medicine II, Infectious Diseases, Pneumology, Rheumatology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Dirk Meyer
- Institute of Molecular Biology/Center for Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | | | - Johannes Holfeld
- Department of Cardiac Surgery and.,Austrian Cluster for Tissue Regeneration, Vienna, Austria
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D’Amico AG, Maugeri G, Saccone S, Federico C, Cavallaro S, Reglodi D, D’Agata V. PACAP Modulates the Autophagy Process in an In Vitro Model of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21082943. [PMID: 32331311 PMCID: PMC7216177 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21082943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2020] [Revised: 04/15/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of complex etiology leading to motor neuron degeneration. Many gene alterations cause this pathology, including mutation in Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1), which leads to its gain of function. Mutant SOD1 proteins are prone to aberrant misfolding and create aggregates that impair autophagy. The hypoxic stress is strictly linked to the disease progression since it induces uncontrolled autophagy activation and the consequent high rates of cell death. Previously, we showed that pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) exerts neurotrophic activity in cultured mSOD1 motor neurons exposed to serum deprivation. To date, no studies have examined whether the protective effect of PACAP on mSOD1 cells exposed to hypoxic insult is mediated through the regulation of the autophagy process. In the present study, we used the neuroblastoma-spinal cord-34 (NSC-34) cell line, stably expressing human wild type or mutant SOD1 G93A, to represent a well characterized in vitro model of a familial form of ALS. These cells were exposed to 100-µM desferrioxamine mesylate salt for 24h, to mimic the hypoxic stress affecting motor neurons during the disease progression. Our results showed that PACAP treatment significantly reduced cell death and hypoxia-induced mSOD1 accumulation by modulating the autophagy process in G93A motor neurons, as revealed by the decreased LC3II and the increased p62 levels, two autophagy indicators. These results were also confirmed by evaluating the vacuole formation detected through light chain 3 (LC3) immunofluorescence. Furthermore, the PACAP effects on autophagy seem to be mediated through the activation of the MAPK/ERK signaling pathway. Overall, our data demonstrated that PACAP exerts an ameliorative effect on the mSOD1 motor neuron viability by modulating a hypoxia-induced autophagy process through activation of MAPK/ERK signaling cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agata Grazia D’Amico
- Department of Human Science and Promotion of quality of Life, San Raffaele Open University of Rome, Via di Val Cannuta, 247, 00166 Roma, Italy;
| | - Grazia Maugeri
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123 Catania, Italy;
| | - Salvatore Saccone
- Section of Animal Biology, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (S.S.); (C.F.)
| | - Concetta Federico
- Section of Animal Biology, Department of Biological, Geological and Environmental Sciences, University of Catania, 95123 Catania, Italy; (S.S.); (C.F.)
| | - Sebastiano Cavallaro
- Institute for Biomedical Research and Innovation, Italian National Research Council, 95123 Catania, Italy;
| | - Dora Reglodi
- Department of Anatomy, MTA-PTE PACAP Research Group, University of Pecs Medical School, 7622 Pécs, Hungary;
| | - Velia D’Agata
- Section of Human Anatomy and Histology, Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123 Catania, Italy;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-095-378-2039; Fax: +39-095-378-2046
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9
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Gromova OA, Torshin IY, Zgoda VG, Tikhonova OV. [An analysis of the peptide composition of a 'light' peptide fraction of cerebrolysin]. Zh Nevrol Psikhiatr Im S S Korsakova 2020; 119:75-83. [PMID: 31626174 DOI: 10.17116/jnevro201911908175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
AIM To analyze the peptide composition of a light peptide fraction of cerebrolysin. MATERIAL AND METHODS Mass spectrometry (MS) with orbital ion traps and modern de novo MS-sequencing algorithms was performed. RESULTS The amino acid sequences of 14 635 peptides corresponding to the 1643 porcine proteome neuronal proteins are identified. An analysis of the human proteome annotation shows that these peptides can mimic the corresponding human peptides. In particular, 405 peptide fragments correspond to 300 known biologically active peptides, including fragments of antibacterial peptides (defensins, histatins), immunomodulatory (granulin, manserin) and vasoactive (endothelin, VIP) peptides. At the same time, 8953 of 14 635 peptides can modulate the activity of 275 human signaling proteins, including kinases CDK1, CDK2, TGFBR2, GSK3, MTOR, pro-apoptotic caspases CASP1, CASP3 and CASP6 etc. The results confirm the presence of Leu- and Met-enkephalins, fragments of neuropeptide orexin, neuropeptide VF, galanin and nerve growth factor that have a neurotrophic effect. CONCLUSION The results of a proteomic study of the peptide composition of cerebrolysin indicate the widest range of molecular mechanisms responsible for the clinical efficacy of this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- O A Gromova
- Federal Research Center 'Computer Science and Control' of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Big Data Storage and Analysis Center, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - I Yu Torshin
- Federal Research Center 'Computer Science and Control' of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, Russia; Big Data Storage and Analysis Center, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
| | - V G Zgoda
- Orekhovich Research Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
| | - O V Tikhonova
- Orekhovich Research Institute of Biomedical Chemistry, Moscow, Russia
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Gey M, Wanner R, Schilling C, Pedro MT, Sinske D, Knöll B. Atf3 mutant mice show reduced axon regeneration and impaired regeneration-associated gene induction after peripheral nerve injury. Open Biol 2017; 6:rsob.160091. [PMID: 27581653 PMCID: PMC5008009 DOI: 10.1098/rsob.160091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Axon injury in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) induces a regeneration-associated gene (RAG) response. Atf3 (activating transcription factor 3) is such a RAG and ATF3's transcriptional activity might induce ‘effector’ RAGs (e.g. small proline rich protein 1a (Sprr1a), Galanin (Gal), growth-associated protein 43 (Gap43)) facilitating peripheral axon regeneration. We provide a first analysis of Atf3 mouse mutants in peripheral nerve regeneration. In Atf3 mutant mice, facial nerve regeneration and neurite outgrowth of adult ATF3-deficient primary dorsal root ganglia neurons was decreased. Using genome-wide transcriptomics, we identified a neuropeptide-encoding RAG cluster (vasoactive intestinal peptide (Vip), Ngf, Grp, Gal, Pacap) regulated by ATF3. Exogenous administration of neuropeptides enhanced neurite growth of Atf3 mutant mice suggesting that these molecules might be effector RAGs of ATF3's pro-regenerative function. In addition to the induction of growth-promoting molecules, we present data that ATF3 suppresses growth-inhibiting molecules such as chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2. In summary, we show a pro-regenerative ATF3 function during PNS nerve regeneration involving transcriptional activation of a neuropeptide-encoding RAG cluster. ATF3 is a general injury-inducible factor, therefore ATF3-mediated mechanisms identified herein might apply to other cell and injury types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuel Gey
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Renate Wanner
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Corinna Schilling
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Maria T Pedro
- Department of Neurosurgery, Bezirkskrankenhaus Günzburg, Ulm University, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Daniela Sinske
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Bernd Knöll
- Institute of Physiological Chemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
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11
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Pisarenko O, Timotin A, Sidorova M, Studneva I, Shulzhenko V, Palkeeva M, Serebryakova L, Molokoedov A, Veselova O, Cinato M, Boal F, Tronchere H, Kunduzova O. Cardioprotective properties of N-terminal galanin fragment (2-15) in experimental ischemia/reperfusion injury. Oncotarget 2017; 8:101659-101671. [PMID: 29254194 PMCID: PMC5731904 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.21503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and purpose Galanin is an endogenous peptide involved in diverse physiological functions in the central nervous system including central cardiovascular regulation. The present study was designed to evaluate the potential effects of the short N-terminal galanin fragment 2-15 (G) on cardiac ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. Experimental Approach Peptide G was synthesized by the automatic solid phase method and identified by 1H-NMR spectroscopy and mass spectrometry. Experiments were performed on cultured rat cardiomyoblast (H9C2) cells, isolated perfused working rat hearts and anaesthetized open-chest rats. Key Results Cell viability increased significantly after treatment with 10 and 50 nM of G peptide. In hypoxia and reoxygenation conditions, exposure of H9C2 cells to G peptide decreased cell apoptosis and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Postischemic infusion of G peptide reduced cell membrane damage and improved functional recovery in isolated hearts during reperfusion. These effects were accompanied by enhanced restoration of myocardial metabolic state. Treatment with G peptide at the onset of reperfusion induced minor changes in hemodynamic variables but significantly reduced infarct size and plasma levels of necrosis markers. Conclusion and implications These findings suggest that G peptide is effective in mitigating cardiac I/R injury, thereby providing a rationale for promising tool for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg Pisarenko
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Andrei Timotin
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1048, Toulouse, France.,University of Toulouse, UPS, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Toulouse, France
| | - Maria Sidorova
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Irina Studneva
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Valentin Shulzhenko
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Marina Palkeeva
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Larisa Serebryakova
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | | | - Oksana Veselova
- Russian Cardiology Research and Production Complex, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Mathieu Cinato
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1048, Toulouse, France.,University of Toulouse, UPS, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Toulouse, France
| | - Frederic Boal
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1048, Toulouse, France.,University of Toulouse, UPS, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Toulouse, France
| | - Helene Tronchere
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1048, Toulouse, France.,University of Toulouse, UPS, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Toulouse, France
| | - Oksana Kunduzova
- National Institute of Health and Medical Research (INSERM) U1048, Toulouse, France.,University of Toulouse, UPS, Institute of Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases, Toulouse, France
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12
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Xu XF, Zhang DD, Liao JC, Xiao L, Wang Q, Qiu W. Galanin and its receptor system promote the repair of injured sciatic nerves in diabetic rats. Neural Regen Res 2016; 11:1517-1526. [PMID: 27857760 PMCID: PMC5090859 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.191228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Various studies have reported that galanin can promote axonal regeneration of dorsal root ganglion neurons in vitro and inhibit neuropathic pain. However, little is known about its effects on diabetic peripheral neuropathy, and in vivo experimental data are lacking. We hypothesized that repeated applications of exogenous galanin over an extended time frame may also repair nerve damage in diabetic peripheral neuropathy, and relieve pain in vivo. We found that neuropathic pain occurred in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats and was more severe after sciatic nerve pinch injury at 14 and 28 days than in diabetic sham-operated rats. Treatment with exogenous galanin alleviated the neuropathic pain and promoted sciatic nerve regeneration more effectively in diabetic rats than in non-diabetic rats after sciatic nerve pinch injury. This was accompanied by changes in the levels of endogenous galanin, and its receptors galanin receptor 1 and galanin receptor 2 in the dorsal root ganglia and the spinal dorsal horn when compared with nerve pinch normal rats. Our results show that application of exogenous galanin daily for 28 days can promote the regeneration of injured sciatic nerves, and alleviate neuropathic pain in diabetic rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Feng Xu
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Dan-Dan Zhang
- South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jin-Chi Liao
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Li Xiao
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Qing Wang
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Wei Qiu
- The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
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13
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Palus K, Całka J. Alterations of neurochemical expression of the coeliac-superior mesenteric ganglion complex (CSMG) neurons supplying the prepyloric region of the porcine stomach following partial stomach resection. J Chem Neuroanat 2015; 72:25-33. [PMID: 26730724 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2015.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/22/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to determine the response of the porcine coeliac-superior mesenteric ganglion complex (CSMG) neurons projecting to the prepyloric area of the porcine stomach to peripheral neuronal damage following partial stomach resection. To identify the sympathetic neurons innervating the studied area of stomach, the neuronal retrograde tracer Fast Blue (FB) was applied to control and partial stomach resection (RES) groups. On the 22nd day after FB injection, following laparotomy, the partial resection of the previously FB-injected stomach prepyloric area was performed in animals of RES group. On the 28th day, all animals were re-anaesthetized and euthanized. The CSMG complex was then collected and processed for double-labeling immunofluorescence. In control animals, retrograde-labelled perikarya were immunoreactive to tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine β-hydroxylase (DβH), neuropeptide Y (NPY) and galanin (GAL). Partial stomach resection decreased the numbers of FB-positive neurons immunopositive for TH and DβH. However, the strong increase of NPY and GAL expression, as well as de novo-synthesis of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and leu5-Enkephalin (LENK) was noted in studied neurons. Furthermore, FB-positive neurons in all pigs were surrounded by a network of cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide (CART)-, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)-, and substance P (SP)-, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-, LENK- and nNOS- immunoreactive nerve fibers. This may suggest neuroprotective contribution of these neurotransmitters in traumatic responses of sympathetic neurons to peripheral axonal damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Palus
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10- 718 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Jarosław Całka
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str. 13, 10- 718 Olsztyn, Poland.
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14
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Arciszewski MB, Mozel S, Sienkiewicz W. Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide-27 (PACAP-27) is co-stored with galanin, substance P and corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) in intrapancreatic ganglia of the sheep. Pol J Vet Sci 2015; 18:343-50. [PMID: 26172184 DOI: 10.1515/pjvs-2015-0044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuropeptide existing in two variant forms (of either 27 or 38 residues), widely present in numerous organs and evoking multiple effects both in the central and peripheral nervous systems. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the distribution pattern of PACAP-27 expression in the ovine pancreas. Using double immunohistochemical stainings co-localizations of PACAP-27 with galanin, SP or CRF were studied in intrapancreatic neurons. In intrapancreatic ganglia, immunoreactivty to PACAP-27 was found in 87.6 ± 5.4% of PGP 9.5-positive intrapancreatic neurons but not in intraganglionic nerve fibres. Numerous PACAP-27-immunoreactive nerve terminals were also observed between pancreatic acini and around small arterioles. No immunoreactivity to PACAP-27 was found in the endocrine pancreas. In 42.9 ± 6.2% of PACAP-27-immunoreactive intrapancreatic neurons the expression of galanin was also found. Statistically lower subpopulation (12.4 ± 4.0%) of intrapancreatic neurons exhibited simultaneously the immunoreactivity to PACAP-27 and SP. The expression of CRF was detected in the relatively smallest group (3.2 ± 1.4%) of PACAP-27-positive intrapancreatic neurons. The present results suggest that in the ovine pancreas PACAP-27 may play an important role as mediator of pancreatic functions. In PACAP-related pancreatic activities, a modulatory role of galanin, SP and to a lower extend of CRF is also likely.
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15
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Ma TC, Willis DE. What makes a RAG regeneration associated? Front Mol Neurosci 2015; 8:43. [PMID: 26300725 PMCID: PMC4528284 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2015.00043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Regenerative failure remains a significant barrier for functional recovery after central nervous system (CNS) injury. As such, understanding the physiological processes that regulate axon regeneration is a central focus of regenerative medicine. Studying the gene transcription responses to axon injury of regeneration competent neurons, such as those of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), has provided insight into the genes associated with regeneration. Though several individual “regeneration-associated genes” (RAGs) have been identified from these studies, the response to injury likely regulates the expression of functionally coordinated and complementary gene groups. For instance, successful regeneration would require the induction of genes that drive the intrinsic growth capacity of neurons, while simultaneously downregulating the genes that convey environmental inhibitory cues. Thus, this view emphasizes the transcriptional regulation of gene “programs” that contribute to the overall goal of axonal regeneration. Here, we review the known RAGs, focusing on how their transcriptional regulation can reveal the underlying gene programs that drive a regenerative phenotype. Finally, we will discuss paradigms under which we can determine whether these genes are injury-associated, or indeed necessary for regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thong C Ma
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University New York, NY, USA
| | - Dianna E Willis
- Brain Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College New York, NY, USA ; Burke-Cornell Medical Research Institute White Plains, NY, USA
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16
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Yao C, Wang J, Zhang H, Zhou S, Qian T, Ding F, Gu X, Yu B. Long non-coding RNA uc.217 regulates neurite outgrowth in dorsal root ganglion neurons following peripheral nerve injury. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 42:1718-25. [PMID: 26032672 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2015] [Revised: 04/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The intrinsic regeneration capacity of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons can be activated after sciatic nerve injury, and peripheral nerve regeneration is a complex process regulated by multiple molecular responses and signaling pathways. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are RNA transcripts > 200 nucleotides in length without protein-coding potential. They regulate gene expression at epigenetic, transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, and are thus involved in many biological processes and human diseases. However, the role and mechanisms of lncRNAs in regulating the responses of DRG neurons to sciatic nerve injury are not fully investigated. We have previously analysed the expression profiles of lncRNAs and mRNAs in L4-6 DRGs, following rat sciatic nerve transection, by microarray analysis, and constructed a coexpression network of dysregulated lncRNAs and coding genes. In this study, one of these dysregulated lncRNAs, uc.217, was chosen for detailed examination of its expression changes and regulative functions in regenerative DRG neuronal outgrowth. Quantitative real-time PCR and in situ hybridisation confirmed that the expression of uc.217 was down-regulated in DRG neurons after sciatic nerve injury. Silencing of uc.217 expression by small interfering RNA could significantly promote neurite outgrowth in cultured DRG neurons. Moreover, bioinformatic analysis and experimental validation were performed to identify several potential targets of uc.217, which were involved in the regulation of DRG neuron outgrowth. Collectively, our results suggested that a new lncRNA, uc.217, played an important regulative role in peripheral nerve regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Yao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Honghong Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Songlin Zhou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Tianmei Qian
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Fei Ding
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Xiaosong Gu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
| | - Bin Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, 226001, China
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17
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Lang R, Gundlach AL, Holmes FE, Hobson SA, Wynick D, Hökfelt T, Kofler B. Physiology, signaling, and pharmacology of galanin peptides and receptors: three decades of emerging diversity. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:118-75. [PMID: 25428932 DOI: 10.1124/pr.112.006536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Galanin was first identified 30 years ago as a "classic neuropeptide," with actions primarily as a modulator of neurotransmission in the brain and peripheral nervous system. Other structurally-related peptides-galanin-like peptide and alarin-with diverse biologic actions in brain and other tissues have since been identified, although, unlike galanin, their cognate receptors are currently unknown. Over the last two decades, in addition to many neuronal actions, a number of nonneuronal actions of galanin and other galanin family peptides have been described. These include actions associated with neural stem cells, nonneuronal cells in the brain such as glia, endocrine functions, effects on metabolism, energy homeostasis, and paracrine effects in bone. Substantial new data also indicate an emerging role for galanin in innate immunity, inflammation, and cancer. Galanin has been shown to regulate its numerous physiologic and pathophysiological processes through interactions with three G protein-coupled receptors, GAL1, GAL2, and GAL3, and signaling via multiple transduction pathways, including inhibition of cAMP/PKA (GAL1, GAL3) and stimulation of phospholipase C (GAL2). In this review, we emphasize the importance of novel galanin receptor-specific agonists and antagonists. Also, other approaches, including new transgenic mouse lines (such as a recently characterized GAL3 knockout mouse) represent, in combination with viral-based techniques, critical tools required to better evaluate galanin system physiology. These in turn will help identify potential targets of the galanin/galanin-receptor systems in a diverse range of human diseases, including pain, mood disorders, epilepsy, neurodegenerative conditions, diabetes, and cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Lang
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
| | - Andrew L Gundlach
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
| | - Fiona E Holmes
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
| | - Sally A Hobson
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
| | - David Wynick
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
| | - Tomas Hökfelt
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
| | - Barbara Kofler
- Department of Dermatology (R.L.) and Laura Bassi Centre of Expertise, Department of Pediatrics (B.K.), Paracelsus Private Medical University, Salzburg, Austria; The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, and Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (A.L.G.); Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom (F.E.H., S.A.H., D.W.); and Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden (T.H.)
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18
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Czaja K, Fornaro M, Geuna S. Neurogenesis in the adult peripheral nervous system. Neural Regen Res 2015; 7:1047-54. [PMID: 25722694 PMCID: PMC4340017 DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1673-5374.2012.14.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 02/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Most researchers believe that neurogenesis in mature mammals is restricted only to the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone of the lateral ventricle in the central nervous system. In the peripheral nervous system, neurogenesis is thought to be active only during prenatal development, with the exception of the olfactory neuroepithelium. However, sensory ganglia in the adult peripheral nervous system have been reported to contain precursor cells that can proliferate in vitro and be induced to differentiate into neurons. The occurrence of insult-induced neurogenesis, which has been reported by several investigators in the brain, is limited to a few recent reports for the peripheral nervous system. These reports suggest that damage to the adult nervous system induces mechanisms similar to those that control the generation of new neurons during prenatal development. Understanding conditions under which neurogenesis can be induced in physiologically non-neurogenic regions in adults is one of the major challenges for developing therapeutic strategies to repair neurological damage. However, the induced neurogenesis in the peripheral nervous system is still largely unexplored. This review presents the history of research on adult neurogenesis in the peripheral nervous system, which dates back more than 100 years and reveals the evidence on the under estimated potential for generation of new neurons in the adult peripheral nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krzysztof Czaja
- Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology and Physiology (VCAPP), College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99163-6520, USA
| | - Michele Fornaro
- Department of Anatomy, Chicago College of Osteopathic Medicine (CCOM), Midwestern University, Downers Grove, IL 60515, USA
| | - Stefano Geuna
- Neuroscience Institute of the Cavalieri Ottolenghi Foundation (NICO) & Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, University of Turin, Orbassano 10043, Italy
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19
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Pettersson LME, Geremia NM, Ying Z, Verge VMK. Injury-associated PACAP expression in rat sensory and motor neurons is induced by endogenous BDNF. PLoS One 2014; 9:e100730. [PMID: 24968020 PMCID: PMC4072603 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0100730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury results in dramatic upregulation in pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) expression in adult rat dorsal root ganglia and spinal motor neurons mirroring that described for the neurotrophin brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Thus, we posited that injury-associated alterations in BDNF expression regulate the changes in PACAP expression observed in the injured neurons. The role of endogenous BDNF in induction and/or maintenance of PACAP mRNA expression in injured adult rat motor and sensory neurons was examined by intrathecally infusing or intraperitoneally injecting BDNF-specific antibodies or control IgGs immediately at the time of L4-L6 spinal nerve injury, or in a delayed fashion one week later for 3 days followed by analysis of impact on PACAP expression. PACAP mRNA in injured lumbar sensory and motor neurons was detected using in situ hybridization, allowing quantification of relative changes between experimental groups, with ATF-3 immunofluorescence serving to identify the injured subpopulation of motor neurons. Both the incidence and level of PACAP mRNA expression were dramatically reduced in injured sensory and motor neurons in response to immediate intrathecal anti-BDNF treatment. In contrast, neither intraperitoneal injections nor delayed intrathecal infusions of anti-BDNF had any discernible impact on PACAP expression. This impact on PACAP expression in response to BDNF immunoneutralization in DRG was confirmed using qRT-PCR or by using BDNF selective siRNAs to reduce neuronal BDNF expression. Collectively, our findings support that endogenous injury-associated BDNF expression is critically involved in induction, but not maintenance, of injury-associated PACAP expression in sensory and motor neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina M. E. Pettersson
- CMSNRC & Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Nicole M. Geremia
- CMSNRC & Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Zhengxin Ying
- CMSNRC & Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Valerie M. K. Verge
- CMSNRC & Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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20
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Prolonged acetylsalicylic-acid-supplementation-induced gastritis affects the chemical coding of the stomach innervating vagal efferent neurons in the porcine dorsal motor vagal nucleus (DMX). J Mol Neurosci 2014; 54:188-98. [PMID: 24643520 PMCID: PMC4156783 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-014-0274-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2014] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The main goal of our research was to study the possible alterations of the chemical coding of the dorsal motor vagal nucleus (DMX) neurons projecting to the porcine stomach prepyloric region following prolonged acetylsalicylic acid supplementation. Fast Blue (FB) was injected into the studied area of the stomach. Since the seventh day following the FB injection, acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) was given orally to the experimental gilts. All animals were euthanized on the 28th day after FB injection. Medulla oblongata sections were then processed for double-labeling immunofluorescence for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), nitric oxide synthase (NOS), galanin (GAL), substance P (SP), leu enkephalin (LENK), and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART). In the control DMX, only PACAP was observed in 30.08 ± 1.97 % of the FB-positive neurons, while VIP, NOS, GAL, SP, LENK, and CART were found exclusively in neuronal processes running between FB-labeled perikarya. In the ASA DMX, PACAP was revealed in 49.53 ± 5.73 % of traced vagal perikarya. Moreover, we found de novo expression of VIP in 40.32 ± 7.84 %, NOS in 25.02 ± 6.08 %, and GAL in 3.37 ± 0.85 % of the FB-labeled neurons. Our results suggest that neuronal PACAP, VIP, NOS, and GAL are mediators of neural response to aspirin-induced stomach inflammatory state.
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Ozsoy U, Demirel BM, Hizay A, Ozsoy O, Ankerne J, Angelova S, Sarikcioglu L, Ucar Y, Turhan M, Dunlop S, Angelov DN. Manual stimulation of the whisker pad after hypoglossal–facial anastomosis (HFA) using a Y-tube conduit does not improve recovery of whisking function. Exp Brain Res 2014; 232:2021-33. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-014-3892-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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22
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Castorina A, Scuderi S, D'Amico AG, Drago F, D'Agata V. PACAP and VIP increase the expression of myelin-related proteins in rat schwannoma cells: involvement of PAC1/VPAC2 receptor-mediated activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathways. Exp Cell Res 2013; 322:108-21. [PMID: 24246222 DOI: 10.1016/j.yexcr.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
PACAP and its cognate peptide VIP participate in various biological functions, including myelin maturation and synthesis. However, defining whether these peptides affect peripheral expression of myelin proteins still remains unanswered. To address this issue, we assessed whether PACAP or VIP contribute to regulate the expression of three myelin proteins (MAG, MBP and MPZ, respectively) using the rat schwannoma cell line (RT4-P6D2T), a well-established model to study myelin gene expression. In addition, we endeavored to partly unravel the underlying molecular mechanisms involved. Expression of myelin-specific proteins was assessed in cells grown either in normal serum (10% FBS) or serum starved and treated with or without 100 nM PACAP or VIP. Furthermore, through pharmacological approach using the PACAP/VIP receptor antagonist (PACAP6-38) or specific pathway (MAPK or PI3K) inhibitors we defined the relative contribution of receptors and/or signaling pathways on the expression of myelin proteins. Our data show that serum starvation (24h) significantly increased both MAG, MBP and MPZ expression. Concurrently, we observed increased expression of endogenous PACAP and related receptors. Treatment with PACAP or VIP further exacerbated starvation-induced expression of myelin markers, suggesting that serum withdrawal might sensitize cells to peptide activity. Stimulation with either peptides increased phosphorylation of Akt at Ser473 residue but had no effect on phosphorylated Erk-1/2. PACAP6-38 (10 μM) impeded starvation- or peptide-induced expression of myelin markers. Similar effects were obtained after pretreatment with the PI3K inhibitor (wortmannin, 10 μM) but not the MAPKK inhibitor (PD98059, 50 μM). Together, the present finding corroborate the hypothesis that PACAP and VIP might contribute to the myelinating process preferentially via the canonical PI3K/Akt signaling pathway, providing the basis for future studies on the role of these peptides in demyelinating diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Castorina
- Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123 Catania, Italy.
| | - Soraya Scuderi
- Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Agata Grazia D'Amico
- Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Filippo Drago
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Section of Pharmacology and Biochemistry, University of Catania, Via A. Doria, 6, QJ;95123 Catania, Italy
| | - Velia D'Agata
- Department of Bio-Medical Sciences, Section of Anatomy and Histology, University of Catania, Via S. Sofia, 87, 95123 Catania, Italy
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Hobson SA, Vanderplank PA, Pope RJP, Kerr NCH, Wynick D. Galanin stimulates neurite outgrowth from sensory neurons by inhibition of Cdc42 and Rho GTPases and activation of cofilin. J Neurochem 2013; 127:199-208. [PMID: 23895321 PMCID: PMC3935412 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.12379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2013] [Revised: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
We and others have previously shown that the neuropeptide galanin modulates neurite outgrowth from adult sensory neurons via activation of the second galanin receptor; however, the intracellular signalling pathways that mediate this neuritogenic effect have yet to be elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that galanin decreases the activation state in adult sensory neurons and PC12 cells of Rho and Cdc42 GTPases, both known regulators of filopodial and growth cone motility. Consistent with this, activated levels of Rho and Cdc42 levels are increased in the dorsal root ganglion of adult galanin knockout animals compared with wildtype controls. Furthermore, galanin markedly increases the activation state of cofilin, a downstream effector of many of the small GTPases, in the cell bodies and growth cones of sensory neurons and in PC12 cells. We also demonstrate a reduction in the activation of cofilin, and alteration in growth cone motility, in cultured galanin knockout neurons compared with wildtype controls. These data provide the first evidence that galanin regulates the Rho family of GTPases and cofilin to stimulate growth cone dynamics and neurite outgrowth in sensory neurons. These findings have important therapeutic implications for the treatment of peripheral sensory neuropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally-Ann Hobson
- Schools of Physiology and Pharmacology and Clinical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
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24
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Localization and chemical coding of the dorsal motor vagal nucleus (DMX) neurons projecting to the porcine stomach prepyloric area in the physiological state and after stomach partial resection. J Mol Neurosci 2013; 52:90-100. [PMID: 24458741 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-013-0102-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/21/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The aim of our study was to localize and define immunocytochemical characteristic of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMX) neurons projecting to the porcine stomach prepyloric region in the physiological state and after gastric partial resection. To identify the stomach-projecting perikarya, the neuronal retrograde tracer--Fast Blue (FB) was injected into the studied region of control and resection group (RES). In the RES group, on 22nd day after FB injection, the partial resection of the stomach region previously injected with FB was performed. Sections were immunostained with ChAT, pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), nitric oxide synthase (NOS), galanin (GAL), substance P (SP), leu-enkephalin (LENK), and cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART). In the DMX of control and RES group, the stomach-projecting perikarya were found in the entire extent of the nucleus bilaterally. Within control animals, 30.08 ± 1.97 % of the gastric DMX perikarya expressed PACAP, while other substances were found only in the neuronal fibers. In the RES group DMX, PACAP was found in 45.58 ± 2.2 %, VIP in 28.83 ± 3.63 %, NOS in 21.22 ± 3.32 %, and GAL in 5.67 ± 1.49 % of the FB-labeled gastric perikarya. Our data implicate PACAP, VIP, NOS, and GAL as neuronal survival promoting substances and the CART-, LENK-, SP- NOS-, and GAL-immunoreactive processes in control of the gastric vagal neurons in the pig.
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25
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Keimpema E, Zheng K, Barde SS, Berghuis P, Dobszay MB, Schnell R, Mulder J, Luiten PGM, Xu ZD, Runesson J, Langel Ü, Lu B, Hökfelt T, Harkany T. GABAergic terminals are a source of galanin to modulate cholinergic neuron development in the neonatal forebrain. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 24:3277-88. [PMID: 23897649 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bht192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The distribution and (patho-)physiological role of neuropeptides in the adult and aging brain have been extensively studied. Galanin is an inhibitory neuropeptide that can coexist with γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in the adult forebrain. However, galanin's expression sites, mode of signaling, impact on neuronal morphology, and colocalization with amino acid neurotransmitters during brain development are less well understood. Here, we show that galaninergic innervation of cholinergic projection neurons, which preferentially express galanin receptor 2 (GalR2) in the neonatal mouse basal forebrain, develops by birth. Nerve growth factor (NGF), known to modulate cholinergic morphogenesis, increases GalR2 expression. GalR2 antagonism (M871) in neonates reduces the in vivo expression and axonal targeting of the vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), indispensable for cholinergic neurotransmission. During cholinergic neuritogenesis in vitro, GalR2 can recruit Rho-family GTPases to induce the extension of a VAChT-containing primary neurite, the prospective axon. In doing so, GalR2 signaling dose-dependently modulates directional filopodial growth and antagonizes NGF-induced growth cone differentiation. Galanin accumulates in GABA-containing nerve terminals in the neonatal basal forebrain, suggesting its contribution to activity-driven cholinergic development during the perinatal period. Overall, our data define the cellular specificity and molecular complexity of galanin action in the developing basal forebrain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik Keimpema
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm SE-17177, Sweden
| | | | | | - Paul Berghuis
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm SE-17177, Sweden
| | - Márton B Dobszay
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm SE-17177, Sweden
| | - Robert Schnell
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm SE-17177, Sweden
| | - Jan Mulder
- Department of Neuroscience, Science for Life Laboratory, Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm SE-17121, Sweden
| | - Paul G M Luiten
- Department of Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, Groningen NL-9747 AG, The Netherlands
| | - Zhiqing David Xu
- Department of Neuroscience, Beijing Institute for Neuroscience, Beijing Center for Neural Regeneration and Repairing, Department of Neurobiology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Johan Runesson
- Department of Neurochemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-10691, Sweden and
| | - Ülo Langel
- Department of Neurochemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-10691, Sweden and
| | - Bai Lu
- R&D China, GlaxoSmithKline, Pudong, Shanghai 201203, China
| | | | - Tibor Harkany
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm SE-17177, Sweden
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Expression of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) and PAC1 in the periodontal ligament after tooth luxation. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2013; 33:885-92. [PMID: 23801193 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-013-9953-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2013] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP) is widely distributed throughout the nervous system. PACAP not only acts as a neurotransmitter but also elicits a broad spectrum of biological action via the PACAP-specific receptor, PAC1. However, no studies have investigated PACAP and PAC1 in the periodontal ligament (PDL), so we aimed to perform this investigation in rats after tooth luxation. In the PDL of an intact first molar, there are few osteoclasts and osteoblasts. However, at days 3 and 5 after luxation, large PAC1-positive cells, thought to be osteoclasts because of their expression of the osteoclast marker, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase, were detected in appreciable numbers. Osteoblast numbers increased dramatically on day 7 after luxation, and PAC1-positive mononuclear small cells were increased at day 14, many of which expressed the osteoblast marker, alkaline phosphatase. PACAP-positive nerve fibers were rarely detected in the PDL of intact first molars, but were increasingly evident at this site on days 5 and 7 after luxation. Double-immunofluorescence analysis demonstrated the relationship between PACAP-positive nerve fibers and PAC1-positive osteoclasts/-blasts in the PDL. At 5 days after luxation, PACAP-positive nerve fibers appeared in close proximity to PAC1-positive osteoclasts. At 7 days after luxation, PACAP-positive nerve fibers appeared in close proximity to PAC1-positive osteoblasts. These results suggest that PACAP may have effects on osteoclasts and osteoblasts in the PDL after tooth luxation and thus regulate bone remodeling after these types of injury.
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27
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Agasse F, Xapelli S, Coronas V, Christiansen SH, Rosa AI, Sardá-Arroyo L, Santos T, Ferreira R, Schitine C, Harnois T, Bourmeyster N, Bragança J, Bernardino L, Malva JO, Woldbye DP. Galanin Promotes Neuronal Differentiation in Murine Subventricular Zone Cell Cultures. Stem Cells Dev 2013; 22:1693-708. [DOI: 10.1089/scd.2012.0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Fabienne Agasse
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Sara Xapelli
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Valérie Coronas
- Institut de Physiologie et Biologie Cellulaires, University of Poitiers, CNRS FRE 3511, Poitiers Cedex, France
| | - Søren H. Christiansen
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Alexandra I. Rosa
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Laura Sardá-Arroyo
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Tiago Santos
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Raquel Ferreira
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Clarissa Schitine
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
- Neurochemistry Laboratory, Biophysics Institute Carlos Chagas Filho, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Thomas Harnois
- Institut de Physiologie et Biologie Cellulaires, University of Poitiers, CNRS FRE 3511, Poitiers Cedex, France
- CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers Cedex, France
| | - Nicolas Bourmeyster
- Institut de Physiologie et Biologie Cellulaires, University of Poitiers, CNRS FRE 3511, Poitiers Cedex, France
- CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers Cedex, France
| | - José Bragança
- Centre for Molecular and Structural Biomedicine, Institute for Biotechnology and Bioengineering, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
| | - Liliana Bernardino
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - João O. Malva
- Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Largo Marquês de Pombal, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - David P.D. Woldbye
- Protein Laboratory, Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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28
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Hougland MT, Harrison BJ, Magnuson DSK, Rouchka EC, Petruska JC. The Transcriptional Response of Neurotrophins and Their Tyrosine Kinase Receptors in Lumbar Sensorimotor Circuits to Spinal Cord Contusion is Affected by Injury Severity and Survival Time. Front Physiol 2013; 3:478. [PMID: 23316162 PMCID: PMC3540763 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2012.00478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/07/2012] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) results in changes to the anatomical, neurochemical, and physiological properties of cells in the central and peripheral nervous system. Neurotrophins, acting by binding to their cognate Trk receptors on target cell membranes, contribute to modulation of anatomical, neurochemical, and physiological properties of neurons in sensorimotor circuits in both the intact and injured spinal cord. Neurotrophin signaling is associated with many post-SCI changes including maladaptive plasticity leading to pain and autonomic dysreflexia, but also therapeutic approaches such as training-induced locomotor improvement. Here we characterize expression of mRNA for neurotrophins and Trk receptors in lumbar dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and spinal cord after two different severities of mid-thoracic injury and at 6 and 12 weeks post-SCI. There was complex regulation that differed with tissue, injury severity, and survival time, including reversals of regulation between 6 and 12 weeks, and the data suggest that natural regulation of neurotrophins in the spinal cord may continue for months after birth. Our assessments determined that a coordination of gene expression emerged at the 12-week post-SCI time point and bioinformatic analyses address possible mechanisms. These data can inform studies meant to determine the role of the neurotrophin signaling system in post-SCI function and plasticity, and studies using this signaling system as a therapeutic approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Tyler Hougland
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville Louisville, KY, USA ; Laboratory of Neural Physiology and Plasticity, Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, Department of Neurological Surgery Louisville, KY, USA
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29
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Klimaschewski L, Hausott B, Angelov DN. The pros and cons of growth factors and cytokines in peripheral axon regeneration. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2013; 108:137-71. [PMID: 24083434 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-410499-0.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Injury to a peripheral nerve induces a complex cellular and molecular response required for successful axon regeneration. Proliferating Schwann cells organize into chains of cells bridging the lesion site, which is invaded by macrophages. Approximately half of the injured neuron population sends out axons that enter the glial guidance channels in response to secreted neurotrophic factors and neuropoietic cytokines. These lesion-associated polypeptides create an environment that is highly supportive for axon regrowth, particularly after acute injury, and ensure that the vast majority of regenerating axons are directed toward the distal nerve stump. Unfortunately, most neurotrophic factors and neuropoietic cytokines are also strong stimulators of axonal sprouting. Although some of the axonal branches will withdraw at later stages, the sprouting effect contributes to the misdirection of reinnervation that results in the lack of functional recovery observed in many patients with peripheral nerve injuries. Here, we critically review the role of neuronal growth factors and cytokines during axon regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. Their differential effects on axon elongation and sprouting were elucidated in various studies on intraneuronal signaling mechanisms following nerve lesion. The present data define a goal for future therapeutic strategies, namely, to selectively stimulate a Ras/Raf/ERK-mediated axon elongation program over an intrinsic PI3K-dependent axonal sprouting program in lesioned motor and sensory neurons. Instead of modulating growth factor or cytokine levels at the lesion site, targeting specific intraneuronal molecules, such as the negative feedback inhibitors of ERK signaling, has been shown to promote long-distance regeneration while avoiding sprouting of regenerating axons until they have reached their target areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Klimaschewski
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy and Histology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
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30
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Tamas A, Reglodi D, Farkas O, Kovesdi E, Pal J, Povlishock JT, Schwarcz A, Czeiter E, Szanto Z, Doczi T, Buki A, Bukovics P. Effect of PACAP in central and peripheral nerve injuries. Int J Mol Sci 2012; 13:8430-8448. [PMID: 22942712 PMCID: PMC3430243 DOI: 10.3390/ijms13078430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2012] [Revised: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a bioactive peptide with diverse effects in the nervous system. In addition to its more classic role as a neuromodulator, PACAP functions as a neurotrophic factor. Several neurotrophic factors have been shown to play an important role in the endogenous response following both cerebral ischemia and traumatic brain injury and to be effective when given exogenously. A number of studies have shown the neuroprotective effect of PACAP in different models of ischemia, neurodegenerative diseases and retinal degeneration. The aim of this review is to summarize the findings on the neuroprotective potential of PACAP in models of different traumatic nerve injuries. Expression of endogenous PACAP and its specific PAC1 receptor is elevated in different parts of the central and peripheral nervous system after traumatic injuries. Some experiments demonstrate the protective effect of exogenous PACAP treatment in different traumatic brain injury models, in facial nerve and optic nerve trauma. The upregulation of endogenous PACAP and its receptors and the protective effect of exogenous PACAP after different central and peripheral nerve injuries show the important function of PACAP in neuronal regeneration indicating that PACAP may also be a promising therapeutic agent in injuries of the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Tamas
- PTE-MTA “Lendulet” PACAP Research Team, Department of Anatomy, University of Pecs, Szigeti. u. 12, H-7624 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (D.R.); (E.C.)
| | - Dora Reglodi
- PTE-MTA “Lendulet” PACAP Research Team, Department of Anatomy, University of Pecs, Szigeti. u. 12, H-7624 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (D.R.); (E.C.)
| | - Orsolya Farkas
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - Erzsebet Kovesdi
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - Jozsef Pal
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - John T. Povlishock
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 1101 E. Marshall Street Richmond, Richmond, VA 23219, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Attila Schwarcz
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - Endre Czeiter
- PTE-MTA “Lendulet” PACAP Research Team, Department of Anatomy, University of Pecs, Szigeti. u. 12, H-7624 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (D.R.); (E.C.)
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - Zalan Szanto
- Department of Surgery, Medical School, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2., H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mail:
| | - Tamas Doczi
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - Andras Buki
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
| | - Peter Bukovics
- MTA-PTE Clinical Neuroscience MR Research Group, Department of Neurosurgery, University of Pecs, Ret u. 2, H-7623 Pecs, Hungary; E-Mails: (O.F.); (E.K.); (J.P.); (A.S.); (T.D.); (A.B.); (P.B.)
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31
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Neuroprotective effect of endogenous pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide on spinal cord injury. J Mol Neurosci 2012; 48:508-17. [PMID: 22674051 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-012-9817-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a neuroprotective peptide expressed in the central nervous system. To date, changes in the expression and effect of endogenous PACAP have not been clarified with respect to spinal cord injury (SCI). The aim of this study was to elucidate the expression pattern and function of endogenous PACAP on the contusion model of SCI using heterozygous PACAP knockout (PACAP(+/-)) and wild-type mice. Real-time polymerase chain reaction methods revealed that the level of PACAP mRNA increased gradually for 14 days after SCI and that PAC1R mRNA levels also increased for 7 days compared with intact control mice. PACAP and PAC1R immunoreactivities colabeled with a neuronal marker in the intact spinal cord. Seven days after SCI, PAC1R immunoreactivity was additionally co-expressed with an astrocyte marker. Wild-type mice gradually recovered motor function after 14 days, but PACAP(+/-) mice showed significantly impaired recovery from 3 days compared with wild-type mice. The injury volume at day 7 in PACAP(+/-) mice, and the number of single-stranded DNA-immunopositive cells as a marker of neuronal cell death at day 3 were significantly higher than values measured in wild-type mice. These data suggest that endogenous PACAP is upregulated by SCI and has a neuroprotective effect on the damaged spinal cord.
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32
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Patodia S, Raivich G. Downstream effector molecules in successful peripheral nerve regeneration. Cell Tissue Res 2012; 349:15-26. [PMID: 22580509 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-012-1416-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Accepted: 03/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The robust axon regeneration that occurs following peripheral nerve injury is driven by transcriptional activation of the regeneration program and by the expression of a wide range of downstream effector molecules from neuropeptides and neurotrophic factors to adhesion molecules and cytoskeletal adaptor proteins. These regeneration-associated effector molecules regulate the actin-tubulin machinery of growth-cones, integrate intracellular signalling and stimulatory and inhibitory signals from the local environment and translate them into axon elongation. In addition to the neuronally derived molecules, an important transcriptional component is found in locally activated Schwann cells and macrophages, which release a number of cytokines, growth factors and neurotrophins that support neuronal survival and axonal regeneration and that might provide directional guidance cues towards appropriate peripheral targets. This review aims to provide a comprehensive up-to-date account of the transcriptional regulation and functional role of these effector molecules and of the information that they can give us with regard to the organisation of the regeneration program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smriti Patodia
- Centre for Perinatal Brain Protection and Repair, University College London, Chenies Mews 86-96, London, WC1E 6HX, UK
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33
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Patodia S, Raivich G. Role of transcription factors in peripheral nerve regeneration. Front Mol Neurosci 2012; 5:8. [PMID: 22363260 PMCID: PMC3277281 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2012.00008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2011] [Accepted: 01/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Following axotomy, the activation of multiple intracellular signaling cascades causes the expression of a cocktail of regeneration-associated transcription factors which interact with each other to determine the fate of the injured neurons. The nerve injury response is channeled through manifold and parallel pathways, integrating diverse inputs, and controlling a complex transcriptional output. Transcription factors form a vital link in the chain of regeneration, converting injury-induced stress signals into downstream protein expression via gene regulation. They can regulate the intrinsic ability of axons to grow, by controlling expression of whole cassettes of gene targets. In this review, we have investigated the functional roles of a number of different transcription factors - c-Jun, activating transcription factor 3, cAMP response element binding protein, signal transducer, and activator of transcription-3, CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins β and δ, Oct-6, Sox11, p53, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cell, and ELK3 - in peripheral nerve regeneration. Studies involving use of conditional mutants, microarrays, promoter region mapping, and different injury paradigms, have enabled us to understand their distinct as well as overlapping roles in achieving anatomical and functional regeneration after peripheral nerve injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smriti Patodia
- Centre for Perinatal Brain Protection and Repair, University College London London, UK
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Zigmond RE. gp130 cytokines are positive signals triggering changes in gene expression and axon outgrowth in peripheral neurons following injury. Front Mol Neurosci 2012; 4:62. [PMID: 22319466 PMCID: PMC3262188 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2011.00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2011] [Accepted: 12/28/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Adult peripheral neurons, in contrast to adult central neurons, are capable of regeneration after axonal damage. Much attention has focused on the changes that accompany this regeneration in two places, the distal nerve segment (where phagocytosis of axonal debris, changes in the surface properties of Schwann cells, and induction of growth factors and cytokines occur) and the neuronal cell body (where dramatic changes in cell morphology and gene expression occur). The changes in the axotomized cell body are often referred to as the "cell body response." The focus of the current review is a family of cytokines, the glycoprotein 130 (gp130) cytokines, which produce their actions through a common gp130 signaling receptor and which function as injury signals for axotomized peripheral neurons, triggering changes in gene expression and in neurite outgrowth. These cytokines play important roles in the responses of sympathetic, sensory, and motor neurons to injury. The best studied of these cytokines in this context are leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and interleukin (IL)-6, but experiments with conditional gp130 knockout animals suggest that other members of this family, not yet determined, are also involved. The primary gp130 signaling pathway shown to be involved is the activation of Janus kinase (JAK) and the transcription factors Signal Transducers and Activators of Transcription (STAT), though other downstream pathways such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) may also play a role. gp130 signaling may involve paracrine, retrograde, and autocrine actions of these cytokines. Recent studies suggest that manipulation of this cytokine system can also stimulate regeneration by injured central neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E. Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, ClevelandOH, USA
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Kruse F, Bosse F, Vogelaar CF, Brazda N, Küry P, Gasis M, Müller HW. Cortical gene expression in spinal cord injury and repair: insight into the functional complexity of the neural regeneration program. Front Mol Neurosci 2011; 4:26. [PMID: 21994489 PMCID: PMC3182759 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2011.00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) results in the formation of a fibrous scar acting as a growth barrier for regenerating axons at the lesion site. We have previously shown (Klapka et al., 2005) that transient suppression of the inhibitory lesion scar in rat spinal cord leads to long distance axon regeneration, retrograde rescue of axotomized cortical motoneurons, and improvement of locomotor function. Here we applied a systemic approach to investigate for the first time specific and dynamic alterations in the cortical gene expression profile following both thoracic SCI and regeneration-promoting anti-scarring treatment (AST). In order to monitor cortical gene expression we carried out microarray analyses using total RNA isolated from layer V/VI of rat sensorimotor cortex at 1–60 days post-operation (dpo). We demonstrate that cortical neurons respond to injury by massive changes in gene expression, starting as early as 1 dpo. AST, in turn, results in profound modifications of the lesion-induced expression profile. The treatment attenuates SCI-triggered transcriptional changes of genes related to inhibition of axon growth and impairment of cell survival, while upregulating the expression of genes associated with axon outgrowth, cell protection, and neural development. Thus, AST not only modifies the local environment impeding spinal cord regeneration by reduction of fibrous scarring in the injured spinal cord, but, in addition, strikingly changes the intrinsic capacity of cortical pyramidal neurons toward enhanced cell maintenance and axonal regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Kruse
- Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Germany
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Xing Y, Chen X, Liu Z, Li H, Liu H, Li Z. Effects of Alpha 1- and Alpha 2-Adrenoreceptor Stimulation on Galanin mRNA Expression in Primary Cultured Superior Cervical Ganglion Neurons. Biomol Ther (Seoul) 2011. [DOI: 10.4062/biomolther.2011.19.3.315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Raivich G. Transcribing the path to neurological recovery-From early signals through transcription factors to downstream effectors of successful regeneration. Ann Anat 2011; 193:248-58. [PMID: 21501955 DOI: 10.1016/j.aanat.2011.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2010] [Revised: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The peripheral nervous system is known to regenerate comparatively well and this ability is mirrored in the de novo expression or upregulation of a wide variety of molecules involved in axonal outgrowth starting with transcription factors, but also including growth-stimulating substances, guidance and cell adhesion molecules, intracellular signaling enzymes and proteins involved in regulating cell-surface cytoskeletal interactions. Recent studies using pharmacological agents, and global as well as neuron-selective gene inactivation techniques have shed light on those endogenous molecules that play a non-redundant role in mediating regenerative axonal outgrowth in vivo. The aim of the current review is to sketch the sequence of molecular events from early sensors of injury to transcription factors to downstream effectors that cooperate in successful regeneration and functional recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gennadij Raivich
- Perinatal Brain Repair Group, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, University College London, 86-96 Chenies Mews, London, UK.
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Alston EN, Parrish DC, Hasan W, Tharp K, Pahlmeyer L, Habecker BA. Cardiac ischemia-reperfusion regulates sympathetic neuropeptide expression through gp130-dependent and independent mechanisms. Neuropeptides 2011; 45:33-42. [PMID: 21035185 PMCID: PMC3053070 DOI: 10.1016/j.npep.2010.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2010] [Revised: 10/04/2010] [Accepted: 10/04/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cardiac function is regulated by a balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic transmission. Neuropeptide Y (NPY) and galanin (GAL) released from cardiac sympathetic neurons inhibits parasympathetic transmission in the heart. Sympathetic peptides may contribute to autonomic imbalance, which is characterized by increased sympathetic and decreased parasympathetic transmission and contributes to life threatening cardiovascular pathologies. Several gp130 cytokines are increased in the heart after myocardial infarction (MI), and these cytokines stimulate neuropeptide expression in sympathetic neurons. We used mice whose sympathetic neurons lack the gp130 receptor (gp130(DBH-Cre/lox) mice) to ask if cytokine activation of gp130 regulated neuropeptide expression in cardiac sympathetic nerves after MI. Myocardial infarction decreased NPY mRNA through a gp130 independent mechanism and increased VIP and PACAP mRNA via gp130, while GAL mRNA was unchanged. Immunohistochemistry revealed a gp130-dependent increase in PACAP38 in cells of the stellate ganglion after MI, and PACAP was detected in pre-ganglionic fibers of all genotypes and surgical groups. VIP was identified in a few sympathetic nerve fibers in all genotypes and surgical groups. GAL and PACAP38 were not detected in sham hearts, but peptide immunoreactivity was high in the infarct three days after MI. Surprisingly, peptides were abundant in cells that co-labeled with macrophage markers F4/80 and MAC2, but were not detected in sympathetic axons. PACAP protects cardiac myocytes from apoptosis, and GAL stimulates axon regeneration in addition to inhibiting parasympathetic transmission. Thus, these peptides may play an important role in cardiac and neuronal remodeling after ischemia-reperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Beth A. Habecker
- Address correspondence to: Beth A. Habecker, Ph.D., Dept. of Physiology & Pharmacology, L334, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR 97239, TEL: (503) 494-0497, FAX: (503) 494-4352,
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Kosacka J, Schröder T, Bechmann I, Klöting N, Nowicki M, Mittag A, Gericke M, Spanel-Borowski K, Blüher M. PACAP up-regulates the expression of apolipoprotein D in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. DRG/3T3-L1 co-cultures study. Neurosci Res 2010; 69:8-16. [PMID: 20920539 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2010.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2010] [Revised: 09/20/2010] [Accepted: 09/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The existence of a cross-talk between nerves and fatty tissue is increasingly recognized. Using co-cultures of dorsal root ganglion (DRG)-derived cells and 3T3-L1 adipocytes, we have previously shown that the presence of fat cells enhances neurite outgrowth and number of synapses. Vice versa, neural cells induced expression of neurotrophic adipokines apolipoprotein D and E (ApoD, ApoE) and angiopoietin-1 (Ang-1) by adipocytes. Here, we tested whether pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating peptide (PACAP), which is released by sensory fibres and causes Ca(2+) influx into fat cells, is involved in ApoD induction. Using 3T3-L1 cell cultures, we found that PACAP at a dose of 1 nM up-regulated the expression of ApoD protein and mRNA approx. 2.5 fold. This effect was driven by ERK1/2 acting upon PAC1/VPAC2 receptors. In turn, PACAP-treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes in co-cultures with DRG cells enhanced neurite ramification of neurofilament 200 (NF200)-positive neurons (measured using fluorescence microscopy) and neurofilament 68 protein levels (measured using Western blot analysis). This effect could be blocked using the PAC1/VPAC2 antagonist PACAP(6-38). Scanning cytometry revealed PACAP/ApoD induced low density lipoprotein receptors (LDLR) and ApoE receptor 2 (apoER2) in NF200-positive cells. Thus, a bidirectional loop seems to exist regulating the innervation of fatty tissues: PACAP released from sensory fibres might stimulate fat cells to synthesize neurotrophic adipokines, which, in turn, support peripheral innervation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Kosacka
- Department of Internal Medicine III, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
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Beneng K, Renton T, Yilmaz Z, Yiangou Y, Anand P. Sodium channel Na v 1.7 immunoreactivity in painful human dental pulp and burning mouth syndrome. BMC Neurosci 2010; 11:71. [PMID: 20529324 PMCID: PMC2890014 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2202-11-71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2009] [Accepted: 06/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Voltage gated sodium channels Na v 1.7 are involved in nociceptor nerve action potentials and are known to affect pain sensitivity in clinical genetic disorders. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES To study Na v 1.7 levels in dental pulpitis pain, an inflammatory condition, and burning mouth syndrome (BMS), considered a neuropathic orofacial pain disorder. METHODS Two groups of patients were recruited for this study. One group consisted of patients with dental pulpitis pain (n = 5) and controls (n = 12), and the other patients with BMS (n = 7) and controls (n = 10). BMS patients were diagnosed according to the International Association for the Study of Pain criteria; a pain history was collected, including the visual analogue scale (VAS). Immunohistochemistry with visual intensity and computer image analysis were used to evaluate levels of Na v 1.7 in dental pulp tissue samples from the dental pulpitis group, and tongue biopsies from the BMS group. RESULTS There was a significantly increased visual intensity score for Na v 1.7 in nerve fibres in the painful dental pulp specimens, compared to controls. Image analysis showed a trend for an increase of the Na v 1.7 immunoreactive % area in the painful pulp group, but this was not statistically significant. When expressed as a ratio of the neurofilament % area, there was a strong trend for an increase of Na v 1.7 in the painful pulp group. Na v 1.7 immunoreactive fibres were seen in abundance in the sub-mucosal layer of tongue biopsies, with no significant difference between BMS and controls. CONCLUSION Na v 1.7 sodium channel may play a significant role in inflammatory dental pain. Clinical trials with selective Na v 1.7 channel blockers should prioritize dental pulp pain rather than BMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiran Beneng
- Dental Institute, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, Oral Surgery Department, Great Maze Pond, London, UK
| | - Tara Renton
- Dental Institute, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, Oral Surgery Department, Great Maze Pond, London, UK
| | - Zehra Yilmaz
- Dental Institute, King's College London, Guy's Hospital, Oral Surgery Department, Great Maze Pond, London, UK
| | - Yiangos Yiangou
- Peripheral Neuropathy Unit, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Praveen Anand
- Peripheral Neuropathy Unit, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, UK
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Mesnard NA, Alexander TD, Sanders VM, Jones KJ. Use of laser microdissection in the investigation of facial motoneuron and neuropil molecular phenotypes after peripheral axotomy. Exp Neurol 2010; 225:94-103. [PMID: 20570589 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2010] [Revised: 05/13/2010] [Accepted: 05/24/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism underlying axotomy-induced motoneuron loss is not fully understood, but appears to involve molecular changes within the injured motoneuron and the surrounding local microenvironment (neuropil). The mouse facial nucleus consists of six subnuclei which respond differentially to facial nerve transection at the stylomastoid foramen. The ventromedial (VM) subnucleus maintains virtually full facial motoneuron (FMN) survival following axotomy, whereas the ventrolateral (VL) subnucleus results in significant FMN loss with the same nerve injury. We hypothesized that distinct molecular phenotypes of FMN existed within the two subregions, one responsible for maintaining cell survival and the other promoting cell death. In this study, we used laser microdissection to isolate VM and VL facial subnuclear regions for molecular characterization. We discovered that, regardless of neuronal fate after injury, FMN in either subnuclear region respond vigorously to injury with a characteristic "regenerative" profile and additionally, the surviving VL FMN appear to compensate for the significant FMN loss. In contrast, significant differences in the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine mRNA in the surrounding neuropil response were found between the two subnuclear regions of the facial nucleus that support a causative role for glial and/or immune-derived molecules in directing the contrasting responses of the FMN to axonal transection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nichole A Mesnard
- Neuroscience Program, Loyola University Medical Center, Maywood, IL 60153, USA.
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Hill CE, Harrison BJ, Rau KK, Hougland MT, Bunge MB, Mendell LM, Petruska JC. Skin incision induces expression of axonal regeneration-related genes in adult rat spinal sensory neurons. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2010; 11:1066-73. [PMID: 20627820 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2010] [Revised: 01/26/2010] [Accepted: 02/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Skin incision and nerve injury both induce painful conditions. Incisional and postsurgical pain is believed to arise primarily from inflammation of tissue and the subsequent sensitization of peripheral and central neurons. The role of axonal regeneration-related processes in development of pain has only been considered when there has been injury to the peripheral nerve itself, even though tissue damage likely induces injury of resident axons. We sought to determine if skin incision would affect expression of regeneration-related genes such as activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) in dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. ATF3 is absent from DRG neurons of the normal adult rodent, but is induced by injury of peripheral nerves and modulates the regenerative capacity of axons. Image analysis of immunolabeled DRG sections revealed that skin incision led to an increase in the number of DRG neurons expressing ATF3. RT-PCR indicated that other regeneration-associated genes (galanin, GAP-43, Gadd45a) were also increased, further suggesting an injury-like response in DRG neurons. Our finding that injury of skin can induce expression of neuronal injury/regeneration-associated genes may impact how clinical postsurgical pain is investigated and treated. PERSPECTIVE Tissue injury, even without direct nerve injury, may induce a state of enhanced growth capacity in sensory neurons. Axonal regeneration-associated processes should be considered alongside nerve signal conduction and inflammatory/sensitization processes as possible mechanisms contributing to pain, particularly the transition from acute to chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin E Hill
- University of Miami, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Miami, Florida, USA
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Girard BM, Galli JR, Young BA, Vizzard MA, Parsons RL. PACAP expression in explant cultured mouse major pelvic ganglia. J Mol Neurosci 2010; 42:370-7. [PMID: 20407844 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-010-9359-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The major pelvic ganglia (MPG) contain both parasympathetic and sympathetic postganglionic neurons and provide much of the autonomic innervation to urogenital organs and components of the lower bowel. Whereas many parasympathetic neurons were found to express vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), no MPG neurons exhibited immunoreactivity for pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP). However, in 3-day cultured MPGs, numerous PACAP-IR cells and nerve fibers were present, and transcript levels for PACAP increased significantly. In 3-day cultured MPGs, PACAP immunoreactivity was seen in cells that were also immunoreactive for VIP or neuronal nitric oxide synthase, but not tyrosine hydroxylase, indicating that PACAP expression occurred preferentially in MPG parasympathetic postganglionic neurons. Transcript levels for the VPAC2, but not VPAC1 or PAC1 receptor, also increased significantly following 3 days in culture. Transcript levels of activating transcription factor 3 (ATF-3), a marker of cellular injury, were increased 64-fold in 3-day explants, and ATF-3-IR nuclei were evident in both TH-IR and nNOS-IR neurons as well as in non-neuronal cells. In sum, these results demonstrate that, although only the parasympathetic neurons in explant cultured MPGs increase expression of PACAP, both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons in the cultured MPG whole-mount increase expression of ATF-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatrice M Girard
- Departments of Anatomy and Neurobiology, College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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Hobson SA, Bacon A, Elliot-Hunt CR, Holmes FE, Kerr NCH, Pope R, Vanderplank P, Wynick D. Galanin acts as a trophic factor to the central and peripheral nervous systems. EXPERIENTIA SUPPLEMENTUM (2012) 2010; 102:25-38. [PMID: 21299059 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-0346-0228-0_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
The neuropeptide galanin is widely, but not ubiquitously, expressed in the adult nervous system. Its expression is markedly up-regulated in many neuronal tissues after nerve injury or disease. Over the last 10 years, we have demonstrated that the peptide plays a developmental survival role to subsets of neurons in the peripheral and central nervous systems with resulting phenotypic changes in neuropathic pain and cognition. Galanin also appears to play a trophic role to adult sensory neurons following injury, via activation of GalR2, by stimulating neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, galanin also plays a neuroprotective role to the hippocampus following excitotoxic injury, again mediated by activation of GalR2. Most recently, we have shown that galanin expression is markedly up-regulated in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions and in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model of MS. Over-expression of galanin in transgenic mice abolishes disease in the EAE model, whilst loss-of-function mutations in galanin or GalR2 increase disease severity. In summary, these studies demonstrate that a GalR2 agonist might have clinical utility in a variety of human diseases that affect the nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Hobson
- Department of Physiology, South Bristol, School of Medical Sciences, University Walk, Bristol University, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
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Sanchez A, Chiriva-Internati M, Grammas P. Transduction of PACAP38 protects primary cortical neurons from neurotoxic injury. Neurosci Lett 2008; 448:52-5. [PMID: 18938212 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2008] [Revised: 09/25/2008] [Accepted: 10/01/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Neurotrophic factors such as pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP38) are promising therapeutics for neurodegenerative diseases. However, delivery of trophic factors into brain neurons remains a challenge. The objective of this study is to determine whether adeno-associated virus (AAV) can mediate PACAP38 gene delivery into neurons in vitro and if transduction of AAV/PACAP38 into cortical neurons protects cells against neurotoxic insult. Primary cortical neuronal cultures are transduced with rAAV/PACAP38/GFP and cell survival against the nitric oxide releasing neurotoxin sodium nitroprusside (SNP) determined. GFP expression, a surrogate marker for successful transduction, is detected using fluorescent microscopy. The results show expression of GFP transgene and AAV capsid proteins in neurons. PACAP38 transduction significantly increases cell survival of neurons exposed to SNP. These results support the feasibility of using AAV-mediated delivery of PACAP38 to enhance neuronal survival and suggest that AAV-delivered PACAP38 maybe a therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alma Sanchez
- Garrison Institute on Aging, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA
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Abstract
Using a combination of the following, it is possible to investigate procedures to improve the morphological and functional regeneration of the facial nerve in animal models: 1) retrograde fluorescence tracing to analyse collateral axonal sprouting and the selectivity of reinnervation of the mimic musculature, 2) immunohistochemistry to analyse both the terminal axonal sprouting in the muscles and the axon reaction within the nucleus of the facial nerve, the peripheral nerve, and its environment, and 3) digital motion analysis of the muscles. To obtain good functional facial nerve regeneration, a reduction of terminal sprouting in the mimic musculature seems to be more important than a reduction of collateral sprouting at the lesion site. Promising strategies include acceleration of nerve regeneration, forced induced use of the paralysed face, mechanical stimulation of the face, and transplantation of nerve-growth-promoting olfactory epithelium at the lesion site.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Guntinas-Lichius
- Klinik und Poliklinik für Hals-, Nasen-, Ohrenkranke, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Lessingstrasse 2, 07740 Jena.
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47
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Ewert TJ, Gritman KR, Bader M, Habecker BA. Post-infarct cardiac sympathetic hyperactivity regulates galanin expression. Neurosci Lett 2008; 436:163-6. [PMID: 18384957 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2008.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2007] [Revised: 03/05/2008] [Accepted: 03/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The neuropeptide galanin is elevated in the cardiac sympathetic innervation after myocardial infarction (MI). Galanin inhibits vagal transmission and may support the regeneration of sympathetic nerves, thereby contributing to the development of arrhythmia and sudden cardiac death after MI. The reason for increased galanin production in sympathetic neurons after myocardial infarction is not known. Cardiac sympathetic neurons are activated chronically after cardiac ischemia-reperfusion, and activation of sympathetic neurons in culture stimulates galanin expression. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that increased sympathetic nerve activity stimulates galanin expression in cardiac sympathetic neurons after myocardial infarction. To test this hypothesis we used TGR(ASrAOGEN) transgenic rats, which lack brain angiotensinogen and do not exhibit post-infarct sympathetic hyperactivity. Hearts and stellate ganglia were collected 1 week after ischemia-reperfusion. Galanin mRNA was quantified by real-time PCR and peptide content was assayed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Galanin mRNA increased approximately 3-fold after MI in cardiac sympathetic neurons of both genotypes compared to unoperated and sham controls. Left ventricular galanin content, however, increased after MI only in Sprague-Dawley rats and not in AOGEN rats. These data suggest that post-infarct cardiac sympathetic hyperactivity stimulates galanin peptide production but is not required for increased galanin mRNA expression.
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Abstract
Sensory neurons show enhanced neurite outgrowth in vivo and in vitro following a conditioning lesion. Previous studies have shown that these effects are dependent on two members of the gp130 family of cytokines, leukemia inhibitory factor and interleukin-6. Here, we asked whether galanin, a neuropeptide induced by these cytokines, plays a role in the conditioning lesion response. Following a conditioning lesion, neurite outgrowth in culture was reduced in sensory neurons from galanin -/- mice compared with those from wild type controls. In neurons from wild type mice, the length of the longest neurite was increased 2.4-fold after a conditioning lesion, compared with 1.8-fold in neurons from knockout animals. The results indicate that the induction of galanin plays an important role in triggering the conditioning lesion response.
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Monaghan TK, Mackenzie CJ, Plevin R, Lutz EM. PACAP-38 induces neuronal differentiation of human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells via cAMP-mediated activation of ERK and p38 MAP kinases. J Neurochem 2007; 104:74-88. [PMID: 17995938 PMCID: PMC2230095 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2007.05018.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The intracellular signaling pathways mediating the neurotrophic actions of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) were investigated in human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Previously, we showed that SH-SY5Y cells express the PAC1 and VIP/PACAP receptor type 2 (VPAC2) receptors, and that the robust cAMP production in response to PACAP and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) was mediated by PAC1 receptors (Lutz et al. 2006). Here, we investigated the ability of PACAP-38 to differentiate SH-SY5Y cells by measuring morphological changes and the expression of neuronal markers. PACAP-38 caused a concentration-dependent increase in the number of neurite-bearing cells and an up-regulation in the expression of the neuronal proteins Bcl-2, growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43) and choline acetyltransferase: VIP was less effective than PACAP-38 and the VPAC2 receptor-specific agonist, Ro 25-1553, had no effect. The effects of PACAP-38 and VIP were blocked by the PAC1 receptor antagonist, PACAP6-38. As observed with PACAP-38, the adenylyl cyclase activator, forskolin, also induced an increase in the number of neurite-bearing cells and an up-regulation in the expression of Bcl-2 and GAP-43. PACAP-induced differentiation was prevented by the adenylyl cyclase inhibitor, 2′,5′-dideoxyadenosine (DDA), but not the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor, H89, or by siRNA-mediated knock-down of the PKA catalytic subunit. PACAP-38 and forskolin stimulated the activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP; p38 MAP kinase) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). PACAP-induced neuritogenesis was blocked by the MEK1 inhibitor PD98059 and partially by the p38 MAP kinase inhibitor SB203580. Activation of exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac) partially mimicked the effects of PACAP-38, and led to the phosphorylation of ERK but not p38 MAP kinase. These results provide evidence that the neurotrophic effects of PACAP-38 on human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells are mediated by the PAC1 receptor through a cAMP-dependent but PKA-independent mechanism, and furthermore suggest that this involves Epac-dependent activation of ERK as well as activation of the p38 MAP kinase signaling pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- T K Monaghan
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, Royal College, Glasgow, UK
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Impaired nerve regeneration and enhanced neuroinflammatory response in mice lacking pituitary adenylyl cyclase activating peptide. Neuroscience 2007; 151:63-73. [PMID: 18055122 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.09.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2007] [Revised: 09/27/2007] [Accepted: 10/04/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury models are used to investigate processes that can potentially be exploited in CNS injury. A consistent change that occurs in injured peripheral neurons is an induction in expression of pituitary adenylyl cyclase activating peptide (PACAP), a neuropeptide with putative neuroprotective and neuritogenic actions. PACAP-deficient mice were used here to investigate actions of endogenous PACAP after facial nerve injury. Although motor neuron survival after axotomy was not significantly different in PACAP deficient vs. wild type mice, recovery of axon regeneration after crush injury was significantly delayed. The impaired regeneration was associated with 8- to 12-fold increases in gene expression of proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interferon-gamma, interleukin (IL) -6, and a 90% decrease in the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-4 at the injury site. Similar cytokine changes and an increased microglial response were observed in the brainstem facial motor nucleus. Because immunocompromised animals such as SCID mice are known to exhibit peripheral nerve regeneration defects, the observations raise the novel hypothesis that PACAP is critically involved in a carefully controlled immune response that is necessary for proper nerve regeneration after injury.
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