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Zeng J, Liao Z, Yang H, Wang Q, Wu Z, Hua F, Zhou Z. T cell infiltration mediates neurodegeneration and cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2024; 193:106461. [PMID: 38437992 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2023] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disorder with pathological features of β-amyloid (Aβ) and hyperphosphorylated tau protein accumulation in the brain, often accompanied by cognitive decline. So far, our understanding of the extent and role of adaptive immune responses in AD has been quite limited. T cells, as essential members of the adaptive immune system, exhibit quantitative and functional abnormalities in the brains of AD patients. Dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in AD is considered one of the factors leading to T cell infiltration. Moreover, the degree of neuronal loss in AD is correlated with the quantity of T cells. We first describe the differentiation and subset functions of peripheral T cells in AD patients and provide an overview of the key findings related to BBB dysfunction and how T cells infiltrate the brain parenchyma through the BBB. Furthermore, we emphasize the risk factors associated with AD, including Aβ, Tau protein, microglial cells, apolipoprotein E (ApoE), and neuroinflammation. We discuss their regulation of T cell activation and proliferation, as well as the connection between T cells, neurodegeneration, and cognitive decline. Understanding the innate immune response is crucial for providing comprehensive personalized therapeutic strategies for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjian Zeng
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Zhiqiang Liao
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Hanqin Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Qiong Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Zhiyong Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China
| | - Fuzhou Hua
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China.
| | - Zhidong Zhou
- Department of Anesthesiology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, 330006 Nanchang, Jiangxi, China; Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology of Jiangxi Province, 1# Minde Road, 330006 Nanchang City, Jiangxi Province, China.
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2
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Blethen KE, Sprowls SA, Arsiwala TA, Wolford CP, Panchal DM, Fladeland RA, Glass MJ, Dykstra LP, Kielkowski BN, Blackburn JR, Andrick CJ, Lockman PR. Effects of whole-brain radiation therapy on the blood-brain barrier in immunocompetent and immunocompromised mouse models. Radiat Oncol 2023; 18:22. [PMID: 36732754 PMCID: PMC9896731 DOI: 10.1186/s13014-023-02215-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Approximately 20% of all cancer patients will develop brain metastases in their lifespan. The standard of care for patients with multiple brain metastases is whole-brain radiation therapy, which disrupts the blood-brain barrier. Previous studies have shown inflammatory mediators play a role in the radiation-mediated increase in permeability. Our goal was to determine if differential permeability post-radiation occurs between immunocompetent and immunocompromised mice. METHODS We utilized a commissioned preclinical irradiator to irradiate brains of C57Bl/6J wild-type and athymic nude mice. Acute (3-24 h) effects on blood-brain barrier integrity were evaluated with our in-situ brain perfusion technique and quantitative fluorescent and phosphorescent microscopy. The presence of inflammatory mediators in the brain and serum was determined with a proinflammatory cytokine panel. RESULTS Blood-brain barrier integrity and efflux transporter activity were altered in the immunocompetent mice 12 h following irradiation without similar observations in the immunocompromised mice. We observed increased TNF-α concentrations in the serum of wild-type mice immediately post-radiation and nude mice 12 h post-radiation. The brain concentration of CXCL1 was also increased in both mouse strains at the 12-h time point. CONCLUSIONS The immune response plays a role in the magnitude of blood-brain barrier disruption following irradiation in a time- and size-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Blethen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - S A Sprowls
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
- Department of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OH, USA
| | - T A Arsiwala
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - C P Wolford
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - D M Panchal
- Department of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Benjamin M. Statler College of Engineering and Mineral Resources, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - R A Fladeland
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - M J Glass
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
- Laboratory of Cancer Biology and Genetics, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - L P Dykstra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - B N Kielkowski
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - J R Blackburn
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - C J Andrick
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA
| | - P R Lockman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, 108 Biomedical Drive, Morgantown, WV, 26506, USA.
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3
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Neuroprotective Effect of Bcl-2 on Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Neuroinflammation in Cortical Neural Stem Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23126399. [PMID: 35742844 PMCID: PMC9223771 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23126399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/06/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases due to increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the central nervous system (CNS). Chronic neuroinflammation induced by neurotoxic molecules accelerates neuronal damage. B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) is generally accepted to be an important anti-apoptotic factor. However, the role of Bcl-2 in neuroprotection against neuroinflammation remains to be determined. The purpose of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective effect of Bcl-2 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced neuroinflammation in cortical neural stem cells (NSCs). LPS decreased mRNA and protein levels of Tuj-1, a neuron marker, and also suppressed neurite outgrowth, indicating that LPS results in inhibition of neuronal differentiation of NSCs. Furthermore, LPS treatment inhibited Bcl-2 expression during neuronal differentiation; inhibition of neuronal differentiation by LPS was rescued by Bcl-2 overexpression. LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), were decreased by Bcl-2 overexpression. Conversely, Bcl-2 siRNA increased the LPS-induced levels of IL-6 and TNF-α, and decreased neuronal differentiation of NSCs, raising the possibility that Bcl-2 mediates neuronal differentiation by inhibiting the LPS-induced inflammatory response in NSC. These results suggest that Bcl-2 has a neuroprotective effect by inhibiting the LPS-induced inflammatory response in NSCs.
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Pinto BF, Ribeiro LNB, da Silva GBRF, Freitas CS, Kraemer L, Oliveira FMS, Clímaco MC, Mourão FAG, Santos GSPD, Béla SR, Gurgel ILDS, Leite FDL, de Oliveira AG, Vilela MRSDP, Oliveira-Lima OC, Soriani FM, Fujiwara RT, Birbrair A, Russo RC, Carvalho-Tavares J. Inhalation of dimethyl fumarate-encapsulated solid lipid nanoparticles attenuate clinical signs of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and pulmonary inflammatory dysfunction in mice. Clin Sci (Lond) 2022; 136:81-101. [PMID: 34904644 DOI: 10.1042/cs20210792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The FDA-approved Dimethyl Fumarate (DMF) as an oral drug for Multiple Sclerosis (MS) treatment based on its immunomodulatory activities. However, it also caused severe adverse effects mainly related to the gastrointestinal system. OBJECTIVE Investigated the potential effects of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) containing DMF, administered by inhalation on the clinical signs, central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory response, and lung function changes in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). MATERIALS AND METHODS EAE was induced using MOG35-55 peptide in female C57BL/6J mice and the mice were treated via inhalation with DMF-encapsulated SLN (CTRL/SLN/DMF and EAE/SLN/DMF), empty SLN (CTRL/SLN and EAE/SLN), or saline solution (CTRL/saline and EAE/saline), every 72 h during 21 days. RESULTS After 21 days post-induction, EAE mice treated with DMF-loaded SLN, when compared with EAE/saline and EAE/SLN, showed decreased clinical score and weight loss, reduction in brain and spinal cord injury and inflammation, also related to the increased influx of Foxp3+ cells into the spinal cord and lung tissues. Moreover, our data revealed that EAE mice showed signs of respiratory disease, marked by increased vascular permeability, leukocyte influx, production of TNF-α and IL-17, perivascular and peribronchial inflammation, with pulmonary mechanical dysfunction associated with loss of respiratory volumes and elasticity, which DMF-encapsulated reverted in SLN nebulization. CONCLUSION Our study suggests that inhalation of DMF-encapsulated SLN is an effective therapeutic protocol that reduces not only the CNS inflammatory process and disability progression, characteristic of EAE disease, but also protects mice from lung inflammation and pulmonary dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Fernandes Pinto
- Neuroscience Group, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Lorena Natasha Brito Ribeiro
- Neuroscience Group, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Gisela Bevilacqua Rolfsen Ferreira da Silva
- Nanoneurobiophysics Research Group, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCAR), Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil
- State of São Paulo University (UNESP), Drugs and Medicines Department, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Camila Simões Freitas
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Immunology and Mechanics, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Lucas Kraemer
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Immunology and Mechanics, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Laboratory of Immunology and Genomics of Parasites, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Fabrício Marcus Silva Oliveira
- Laboratory of Immunology and Genomics of Parasites, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Marianna Carvalho Clímaco
- Laboratory of Immunology and Genomics of Parasites, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Flávio Afonso Gonçalves Mourão
- Neuroscience Group, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
- Center for Technology and Research in Magneto-Resonance (CTPMAG), Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Samantha Ribeiro Béla
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Isabella Luísa da Silva Gurgel
- Laboratory of Functional Genetics, Department of Genetics, Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Fábio de Lima Leite
- Nanoneurobiophysics Research Group, Department of Physics, Chemistry and Mathematics, Federal University of São Carlos (UFSCAR), Sorocaba, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Anselmo Gomes de Oliveira
- State of São Paulo University (UNESP), Drugs and Medicines Department, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Araraquara, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Maura Regina Silva da Páscoa Vilela
- Neuroscience Group, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Onésia Cristina Oliveira-Lima
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Goiás (UFG), Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Frederico Marianetti Soriani
- Laboratory of Functional Genetics, Department of Genetics, Ecology and Evolution, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Toshio Fujiwara
- Laboratory of Immunology and Genomics of Parasites, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Alexander Birbrair
- Department of Pathology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Remo Castro Russo
- Laboratory of Pulmonary Immunology and Mechanics, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Juliana Carvalho-Tavares
- Neuroscience Group, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Institute of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Silva RV, Morr AS, Mueller S, Koch SP, Boehm-Sturm P, Rodriguez-Sillke Y, Kunkel D, Tzschätzsch H, Kühl AA, Schnorr J, Taupitz M, Sack I, Infante-Duarte C. Contribution of Tissue Inflammation and Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption to Brain Softening in a Mouse Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:701308. [PMID: 34497486 PMCID: PMC8419310 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.701308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammatory processes occurring during multiple sclerosis cause disseminated softening of brain tissue, as quantified by in vivo magnetic resonance elastography (MRE). However, inflammation-mediated tissue alterations underlying the mechanical integrity of the brain remain unclear. We previously showed that blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption visualized by MRI using gadolinium-based contrast agent (GBCA) does not correlate with tissue softening in active experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, it is unknown how confined BBB changes and other inflammatory processes may determine local elasticity changes. Therefore, we aim to elucidate which inflammatory hallmarks are determinant for local viscoelastic changes observed in EAE brains. Hence, novel multifrequency MRE was applied in combination with GBCA-based MRI or very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOPs) in female SJL mice with induced adoptive transfer EAE (n = 21). VSOPs were doped with europium (Eu-VSOPs) to facilitate the post-mortem analysis. Accumulation of Eu-VSOPs, which was previously demonstrated to be sensitive to immune cell infiltration and ECM remodeling, was also found to be independent of GBCA enhancement. Following registration to a reference brain atlas, viscoelastic properties of the whole brain and areas visualized by either Gd or VSOP were quantified. MRE revealed marked disseminated softening across the whole brain in mice with established EAE (baseline: 3.1 ± 0.1 m/s vs. EAE: 2.9 ± 0.2 m/s, p < 0.0001). A similar degree of softening was observed in sites of GBCA enhancement i.e., mainly within cerebral cortex and brain stem (baseline: 3.3 ± 0.4 m/s vs. EAE: 3.0 ± 0.5 m/s, p = 0.018). However, locations in which only Eu-VSOP accumulated, mainly in fiber tracts (baseline: 3.0 ± 0.4 m/s vs. EAE: 2.6 ± 0.5 m/s, p = 0.023), softening was more pronounced when compared to non-hypointense areas (percent change of stiffness for Eu-VSOP accumulation: -16.81 ± 16.49% vs. for non-hypointense regions: -5.85 ± 3.81%, p = 0.048). Our findings suggest that multifrequency MRE is sensitive to differentiate between local inflammatory processes with a strong immune cell infiltrate that lead to VSOP accumulation, from disseminated inflammation and BBB leakage visualized by GBCA. These pathological events visualized by Eu-VSOP MRI and MRE may include gliosis, macrophage infiltration, alterations of endothelial matrix components, and/or extracellular matrix remodeling. MRE may therefore represent a promising imaging tool for non-invasive clinical assessment of different pathological aspects of neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela Vieira Silva
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna S Morr
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Radiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Susanne Mueller
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Experimental Neurology and Center for Stroke Research, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence and Charité Core Facility 7T Experimental MRIs, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Paul Koch
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Experimental Neurology and Center for Stroke Research, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence and Charité Core Facility 7T Experimental MRIs, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Boehm-Sturm
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Experimental Neurology and Center for Stroke Research, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence and Charité Core Facility 7T Experimental MRIs, Berlin, Germany
| | - Yasmina Rodriguez-Sillke
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Flow & Mass Cytometry Core Facility, Berlin, Germany
| | - Désirée Kunkel
- Berlin Institute of Health at Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Flow & Mass Cytometry Core Facility, Berlin, Germany
| | - Heiko Tzschätzsch
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Radiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anja A Kühl
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Schnorr
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Radiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Matthias Taupitz
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Radiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingolf Sack
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Department of Radiology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carmen Infante-Duarte
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Einstein Center for Neurosciences Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, ECRC Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Berlin, Germany
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6
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Stojić-Vukanić Z, Pilipović I, Arsenović-Ranin N, Dimitrijević M, Leposavić G. Sex-specific remodeling of T-cell compartment with aging: Implications for rat susceptibility to central nervous system autoimmune diseases. Immunol Lett 2021; 239:42-59. [PMID: 34418487 DOI: 10.1016/j.imlet.2021.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 06/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of multiple sclerosis (MS) and susceptibility of animals to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the most commonly used experimental model of MS, decrease with aging. Generally, autoimmune diseases develop as the ultimate outcome of an imbalance between damaging immune responses against self and regulatory immune responses (keeping the former under control). Thus, in this review the age-related changes possibly underlying this balance were discussed. Specifically, considering the central role of T cells in MS/EAE, the impact of aging on overall functional capacity (reflecting both overall count and individual functional cell properties) of self-reactive conventional T cells (Tcons) and FoxP3+ regulatory T cells (Tregs), as the most potent immunoregulatory/suppressive cells, was analyzed, as well. The analysis encompasses three distinct compartments: thymus (the primary lymphoid organ responsible for the elimination of self-reactive T cells - negative selection and the generation of Tregs, compensating for imperfections of the negative selection), peripheral blood/lymphoid tissues ("afferent" compartment), and brain/spinal cord tissues ("target" compartment). Given that the incidence of MS and susceptibility of animals to EAE are greater in women/females than in age-matched men/males, sex as independent variable was also considered. In conclusion, with aging, sex-specific alterations in the balance of self-reactive Tcons/Tregs are likely to occur not only in the thymus/"afferent" compartment, but also in the "target" compartment, reflecting multifaceted changes in both T-cell types. Their in depth understanding is important not only for envisaging effects of aging, but also for designing interventions to slow-down aging without any adverse effect on incidence of autoimmune diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zorica Stojić-Vukanić
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Pharmacy, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Ivan Pilipović
- Immunology Research Centre "Branislav Janković", Institute of Virology, Vaccines and Sera "Torlak", Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Nevena Arsenović-Ranin
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Pharmacy, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Mirjana Dimitrijević
- Department of Immunology, University of Belgrade - Institute for Biological Research "Siniša Stanković" - National Institute of Republic of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Gordana Leposavić
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Belgrade - Faculty of Pharmacy, Belgrade, Serbia.
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7
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Schregel K, Baufeld C, Palotai M, Meroni R, Fiorina P, Wuerfel J, Sinkus R, Zhang YZ, McDannold N, White PJ, Guttmann CRG. Targeted Blood Brain Barrier Opening With Focused Ultrasound Induces Focal Macrophage/Microglial Activation in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:665722. [PMID: 34054415 PMCID: PMC8149750 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.665722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a model of multiple sclerosis (MS). EAE reflects important histopathological hallmarks, dissemination, and diversity of the disease, but has only moderate reproducibility of clinical and histopathological features. Focal lesions are less frequently observed in EAE than in MS, and can neither be constrained to specific locations nor timed to occur at a pre-specified moment. This renders difficult any experimental assessment of the pathogenesis of lesion evolution, including its inflammatory, degenerative (demyelination and axonal degeneration), and reparatory (remyelination, axonal sprouting, gliosis) component processes. We sought to develop a controlled model of inflammatory, focal brain lesions in EAE using focused ultrasound (FUS). We hypothesized that FUS induced focal blood brain barrier disruption (BBBD) will increase the likelihood of transmigration of effector cells and subsequent lesion occurrence at the sonicated location. Lesion development was monitored with conventional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as well as with magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) and further analyzed by histopathological means. EAE was induced in 12 6-8 weeks old female C57BL/6 mice using myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptide. FUS-induced BBBD was performed 6, 7, and 9 days after immunization in subgroups of four animals and in an additional control group. MRI and MRE were performed on a 7T horizontal bore small animal MRI scanner. Imaging was conducted longitudinally 2 and 3 weeks after disease induction and 1 week after sonication in control animals, respectively. The scan protocol comprised contrast-enhanced T1-weighted and T2-weighted sequences as well as MRE with a vibration frequency of 1 kHz. Animals were sacrificed for histopathology after the last imaging time point. The overall clinical course of EAE was mild. A total of seven EAE animals presented with focal T2w hyperintense signal alterations in the sonicated hemisphere. These were most frequent in the group of animals sonicated 9 days after immunization. Histopathology revealed foci of activated microglia/macrophages in the sonicated right hemisphere of seven EAE animals. Larger cellular infiltrates or apparent demyelination were not seen. Control animals showed no abnormalities on MRI and did not have clusters of activated microglia/macrophages at the sites targeted with FUS. None of the animals had hemorrhages or gross tissue damage as potential side effects of FUS. EAE-animals tended to have lower values of viscoelasticity and elasticity in the sonicated compared to the contralateral parenchyma. This trend was significant when comparing the right sonicated to the left normal hemisphere and specifically the right sonicated compared to the left normal cortex in animals that underwent FUS-BBBD 9 days after immunization (right vs. left hemisphere: mean viscoelasticity 6.1 vs. 7.2 kPa; p = 0.003 and mean elasticity 4.9 vs. 5.7 kPa, p = 0.024; right vs. left cortex: mean viscoelasticity 5.8 vs. 7.5 kPa; p = 0.004 and mean elasticity 5 vs. 6.5 kPa; p = 0.008). A direct comparison of the biomechanical properties of focal T2w hyperintensities with normal appearing brain tissue did not yield significant results. Control animals showed no differences in viscoelasticity between sonicated and contralateral brain parenchyma. We here provide first evidence for a controlled lesion induction model in EAE using FUS-induced BBBD. The observed lesions in EAE are consistent with foci of activated microglia that may be interpreted as targeted initial inflammatory activity and which have been described as pre-active lesions in MS. Such foci can be identified and monitored with MRI. Moreover, the increased inflammatory activity in the sonicated brain parenchyma seems to have an effect on overall tissue matrix structure as reflected by changes of biomechanical parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Schregel
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Neuroradiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute of Neuroradiology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Caroline Baufeld
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Miklos Palotai
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Roberta Meroni
- Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.,Transplantation Research Center, Renal Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Paolo Fiorina
- Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States.,International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Science L. Sacco, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
| | - Jens Wuerfel
- MIAC AG and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ralph Sinkus
- Division of Imaging Sciences & Biomedical Engineering, King's College London, London, United Kingdom.,INSERM UMR S1148 - Laboratory for Vascular Translational Science, University Paris, Paris, France
| | - Yong-Zhi Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Nathan McDannold
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - P Jason White
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Charles R G Guttmann
- Department of Radiology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, United States
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8
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Lee NJ, Ha SK, Sati P, Absinta M, Luciano NJ, Lefeuvre JA, Schindler MK, Leibovitch EC, Ryu JK, Petersen MA, Silva AC, Jacobson S, Akassoglou K, Reich DS. Spatiotemporal distribution of fibrinogen in marmoset and human inflammatory demyelination. Brain 2019; 141:1637-1649. [PMID: 29688408 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awy082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory demyelinating disease of the central nervous system. Although it has been extensively studied, the proximate trigger of the immune response remains uncertain. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in the common marmoset recapitulates many radiological and pathological features of focal multiple sclerosis lesions in the cerebral white matter, unlike traditional experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in rodents. This provides an opportunity to investigate how lesions form as well as the relative timing of factors involved in lesion pathogenesis, especially during early stages of the disease. We used MRI to track experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis lesions in vivo to determine their age, stage of development, and location, and we assessed the corresponding histopathology post-mortem. We focused on the plasma protein fibrinogen-a marker for blood-brain barrier leakage that has also been linked to a pathogenic role in inflammatory demyelinating lesion development. We show that fibrinogen has a specific spatiotemporal deposition pattern, apparently deriving from the central vein in early experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis lesions <6 weeks old, and preceding both demyelination and visible gadolinium enhancement on MRI. Thus, fibrinogen leakage is one of the earliest detectable events in lesion pathogenesis. In slightly older lesions, fibrinogen is found inside microglia/macrophages, suggesting rapid phagocytosis. Quantification demonstrates positive correlation of fibrinogen deposition with accumulation of inflammatory cells, including microglia/macrophages and T cells. The peak of fibrinogen deposition coincides with the onset of demyelination and axonal loss. In samples from chronic multiple sclerosis cases, fibrinogen was found at the edge of chronic active lesions, which have ongoing demyelination and inflammation, but not in inactive lesions, suggesting that fibrinogen may play a role in sustained inflammation even in the chronic setting. In summary, our data support the notion that fibrinogen is a key player in the early pathogenesis, as well as sustained inflammation, of inflammatory demyelinating lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathanael J Lee
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University Medical Center, Georgetown University, Washington, DC 20007, USA
| | - Seung-Kwon Ha
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Pascal Sati
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Martina Absinta
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Nicholas J Luciano
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jennifer A Lefeuvre
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Matthew K Schindler
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Emily C Leibovitch
- Viral Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Jae Kyu Ryu
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Mark A Petersen
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Pediatrics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Afonso C Silva
- Cerebral Microcirculation Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Steven Jacobson
- Viral Immunology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Katerina Akassoglou
- Gladstone Institutes, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.,Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Daniel S Reich
- Translational Neuroradiology Section, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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9
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Park SY, Kang MJ, Han JS. Interleukin-1 beta promotes neuronal differentiation through the Wnt5a/RhoA/JNK pathway in cortical neural precursor cells. Mol Brain 2018; 11:39. [PMID: 29973222 PMCID: PMC6033214 DOI: 10.1186/s13041-018-0383-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) is a key mediator of inflammation and stress in the central nervous system (CNS), and is highly expressed in the developing brain. In this study, we investigated the possible role of IL-1β in neuronal differentiation of cortical neural precursor cells (NPCs). We showed that stimulation with IL-1β increased expression levels of neurotrophin-3 (NT3) and neurogenin 1 (Ngn1) and promoted neurite outgrowth. We also found that IL-1β increased mRNA and protein levels of Wnt5a. Knockdown of Wnt5a by transfection with Wnt5a siRNA inhibited IL-1β-induced neuronal differentiation. Moreover, IL-1β-induced Wnt5a expression was regulated by nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation, which is involved in IL-1β-mediated neuronal differentiation. To examine the role of Wnt5a in neuronal differentiation of NPCs, we exogenously added Wnt5a. We found that exogenous Wnt5a promotes neuronal differentiation, and activates the RhoA/Rho-associated kinase (ROCK)/c-jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway. In addition, Wnt5a-induced neuronal differentiation was blocked by RhoA siRNA, as well as by a specific Rho-kinase inhibitor (Y27632) or a SAPK/JNK inhibitor (SP600125). Furthermore, treatment with RhoA siRNA, Y27632, or SP600125 suppressed the IL-1β-induced neuronal differentiation. Therefore, these results suggest that the sequential Wnt5a/RhoA/ROCK/JNK pathway is involved in IL-1β-induced neuronal differentiation of NPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shin-Young Park
- Biomedical Research Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Jeong Kang
- Biomedical Research Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Joong-Soo Han
- Biomedical Research Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, Hanyang University, 222 Wangsimni-ro, Seongdong-gu, Seoul, 04763, Republic of Korea.
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10
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D'Elios MM, Aldinucci A, Amoriello R, Benagiano M, Bonechi E, Maggi P, Flori A, Ravagli C, Saer D, Cappiello L, Conti L, Valtancoli B, Bencini A, Menichetti L, Baldi G, Ballerini C. Myelin-specific T cells carry and release magnetite PGLA–PEG COOH nanoparticles in the mouse central nervous system. RSC Adv 2018; 8:904-913. [PMID: 35538965 PMCID: PMC9076978 DOI: 10.1039/c7ra11290d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Progress in nanotechnology has determined new strategies concerning drug delivery into the central nervous system for the treatment of degenerative and inflammatory diseases. To date, brain targeting through systemic drug administration, even in a nano-composition, is often unsuccessful. Therefore, we investigated the possibility of loading T lymphocytes with PGLA–PEG COOH magnetite nanoparticles (30 nm), which can be built up to easily bind drugs and monoclonal antibodies, and to exploit the ability of activated T cells to cross the blood–brain barrier and infiltrate the brain parenchyma. Iron oxide nanoparticles have been widely used in biomedical applications due to their theranostic properties and are therefore a well-established nanomaterial. The magnetite core is easily hybridized with polymeric compounds that may enhance the possibility of the nanoparticles entering cells with low phagocytic properties. Taking advantage of these material characteristics, after in vitro assessment of the viability and functionality of nano-loaded MOG35–55 specific T cells, we transferred cells containing the nano-cargo into naïve mice affected by experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of multiple sclerosis. By means of histological and immunohistological methods, we were able to identify the nano-loaded T cells in the central nervous system. Our data demonstrated that T cells containing nanomaterials hold the possibility of carrying and releasing nanoparticles in the brain. Magnetite nanoparticles enter non-phagocytic myelin-specific T cells and reach the central nervous system after in vivo transfer.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- M. M. D'Elios
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - A. Aldinucci
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug and Child Health
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - R. Amoriello
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug and Child Health
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - M. Benagiano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - E. Bonechi
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug and Child Health
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - P. Maggi
- Department of Neurology
- Hôpital CHU Brugmann-Université libre de Bruxelles-Bruxelles-Be
- Belgium
| | - A. Flori
- Fondazione CNR Regione Toscana G. Monasterio
- Pisa
- Italy
| | - C. Ravagli
- Research Center Colorobbia
- Cericol, Colorobbia Consulting
- Florence
- Italy
| | - D. Saer
- Research Center Colorobbia
- Cericol, Colorobbia Consulting
- Florence
- Italy
| | - L. Cappiello
- Research Center Colorobbia
- Cericol, Colorobbia Consulting
- Florence
- Italy
| | - L. Conti
- Department of Chemistry Ugo Schiff
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - B. Valtancoli
- Department of Chemistry Ugo Schiff
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | - A. Bencini
- Department of Chemistry Ugo Schiff
- University of Florence
- Italy
| | | | - G. Baldi
- Research Center Colorobbia
- Cericol, Colorobbia Consulting
- Florence
- Italy
| | - C. Ballerini
- Department of Neuroscience, Psychology, Drug and Child Health
- University of Florence
- Italy
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11
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Blackmore S, Hernandez J, Juda M, Ryder E, Freund GG, Johnson RW, Steelman AJ. Influenza infection triggers disease in a genetic model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:E6107-E6116. [PMID: 28696309 PMCID: PMC5544260 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1620415114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease of the central nervous system. Most MS patients experience periods of symptom exacerbation (relapses) followed by periods of partial recovery (remission). Interestingly, upper-respiratory viral infections increase the risk for relapse. Here, we used an autoimmune-prone T-cell receptor transgenic mouse (2D2) and a mouse-adapted human influenza virus to test the hypothesis that upper-respiratory viral infection can cause glial activation, promote immune cell trafficking to the CNS, and trigger disease. Specifically, we inoculated 2D2 mice with influenza A virus (Puerto Rico/8/34; PR8) and then monitored them for symptoms of inflammatory demyelination. Clinical and histological experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis was observed in ∼29% of infected 2D2 mice. To further understand how peripheral infection could contribute to disease onset, we inoculated wild-type C57BL/6 mice and measured transcriptomic alterations occurring in the cerebellum and spinal cord and monitored immune cell surveillance of the CNS by flow cytometry. Infection caused temporal alterations in the transcriptome of both the cerebellum and spinal cord that was consistent with glial activation and increased T-cell, monocyte, and neutrophil trafficking to the brain at day 8 post infection. Finally, Cxcl5 expression was up-regulated in the brains of influenza-infected mice and was elevated in cerebrospinal fluid of MS patients during relapse compared with specimens acquired during remission. Collectively, these data identify a mechanism by which peripheral infection may exacerbate MS as well as other neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Blackmore
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Jessica Hernandez
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Michal Juda
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Emily Ryder
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Gregory G Freund
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
- Department of Pathology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Rodney W Johnson
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Andrew J Steelman
- Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801;
- Neuroscience Program, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
- Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
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12
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Neil S, Huh J, Baronas V, Li X, McFarland HF, Cherukuri M, Mitchell JB, Quandt JA. Oral administration of the nitroxide radical TEMPOL exhibits immunomodulatory and therapeutic properties in multiple sclerosis models. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 62:332-343. [PMID: 28238951 PMCID: PMC5496657 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.02.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2017] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Therapies with both immunomodulatory and neuroprotective properties are thought to have the greatest promise in reducing the severity and progression of multiple sclerosis (MS). Several reactive oxygen (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are implicated in inflammatory-mediated damage to the central nervous system (CNS) in MS and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). TEMPOL (4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl) is a stable nitroxide radical with potent antioxidant activity. The goal of our studies was to investigate the immunomodulatory effects and therapeutic potential of orally-delivered TEMPOL in the mouse EAE model. Mice receiving TEMPOL chow ad libitum for 2weeks prior to induction of active EAE showed delayed onset and reduced incidence of disease compared to control-fed animals. Reduced disease severity was associated with limited microglial activation and fewer inflammatory infiltrates. TEMPOL's effects were immunomodulatory, not immunosuppressive: T cells produced less interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α, and TEMPOL-fed mice exhibited a shift towards TH2-type antibody responses. Both myeloid and myeloid-dendritic cells of TEMPOL-fed EAE animals had significantly lower levels of MHC class II expression than controls; CD40 was also significantly reduced. TEMPOL administration was associated with an enrichment of CD8+ T cell populations and CD4+FoxP3+ regulatory populations. TEMPOL reduced the severity of clinical disease when administered after the induction of disease, and also after the onset of clinical symptoms. To exclude effects on T cell priming in vivo, TEMPOL was tested with the passive transfer of encephalitogenic T cells and was found to reduce the incidence and peak severity of disease. Protection was associated with reduced infiltrates and a relative sparing of neurofilaments and axons. The ability of oral TEMPOL to reduce inflammation and axonal damage and loss demonstrate both anti-inflammatory and protective properties, with significant promise for the treatment of MS and related neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Neil
- University of British Columbia, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Jaebong Huh
- Neuroimmunology Branch, NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Victoria Baronas
- University of British Columbia, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Xinhui Li
- Neuroimmunology Branch, NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | | | | | | | - Jacqueline A. Quandt
- University of British Columbia, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, Vancouver, Canada,To whom correspondence should be addressed: University of British Columbia, Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, G227-2211 Wesbrook Mall, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 2B5, Canada,
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13
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Inflammation-induced brain endothelial activation leads to uptake of electrostatically stabilized iron oxide nanoparticles via sulfated glycosaminoglycans. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2017; 13:1411-1421. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2017.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 12/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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14
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Smorodchenko A, Schneider S, Rupprecht A, Hilse K, Sasgary S, Zeitz U, Erben RG, Pohl EE. UCP2 up-regulation within the course of autoimmune encephalomyelitis correlates with T-lymphocyte activation. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2017; 1863:1002-1012. [PMID: 28130201 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2017.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2016] [Revised: 01/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelinating autoimmune disorder of the central nervous system (CNS) associated with severe neurological disability. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial dysfunction play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of this disease. Several members of the mitochondrial uncoupling protein subfamily (UCP2-UCP5) were suggested to regulate ROS by diminishing the mitochondrial membrane potential and constitute therefore a promising pharmacological target for MS. To evaluate the role of different uncoupling proteins in neuroinflammation, we have investigated their expression patterns in murine brain and spinal cord (SC) during different stages of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model for MS. At mRNA and protein levels we found that only UCP2 is up-regulated in the SC, but not in brain. The increase in UCP2 expression was antigen-independent, reached its maximum between 14 and 21days in both OVA and MOG immunized animals and correlated with an augmented number of CD3+ T-lymphocytes in SC parenchyma. The decrease in abundance of UCP4 was due to neuronal injury and was only detected in CNS of MOG-induced EAE animals. The results provide evidence that the involvement of mitochondrial UCP2 in CNS inflammation during EAE may be mainly explained by the invasion of activated T-lymphocytes. This conclusion coincides with our previous observation that UCP2 is up-regulated in activated and rapidly proliferating T-cells and participates in fast metabolic re-programming of cells during proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alina Smorodchenko
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria; Institute of Vegetative Anatomy, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany.
| | - Stephanie Schneider
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Anne Rupprecht
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karoline Hilse
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Soleman Sasgary
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ute Zeitz
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Reinhold G Erben
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elena E Pohl
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
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15
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Lovelace MD, Varney B, Sundaram G, Franco NF, Ng ML, Pai S, Lim CK, Guillemin GJ, Brew BJ. Current Evidence for a Role of the Kynurenine Pathway of Tryptophan Metabolism in Multiple Sclerosis. Front Immunol 2016; 7:246. [PMID: 27540379 PMCID: PMC4972824 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2016.00246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The kynurenine pathway (KP) is the major metabolic pathway of the essential amino acid tryptophan (TRP). Stimulation by inflammatory molecules, such as interferon-γ (IFN-γ), is the trigger for induction of the KP, driving a complex cascade of production of both neuroprotective and neurotoxic metabolites, and in turn, regulation of the immune response and responses of brain cells to the KP metabolites. Consequently, substantial evidence has accumulated over the past couple of decades that dysregulation of the KP and the production of neurotoxic metabolites are associated with many neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, AIDS-related dementia, motor neurone disease, schizophrenia, Huntington’s disease, and brain cancers. In the past decade, evidence of the link between the KP and multiple sclerosis (MS) has rapidly grown and has implicated the KP in MS pathogenesis. KP enzymes, indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO-1) and tryptophan dioxygenase (highest expression in hepatic cells), are the principal enzymes triggering activation of the KP to produce kynurenine from TRP. This is in preference to other routes such as serotonin and melatonin production. In neurological disease, degradation of the blood–brain barrier, even if transient, allows the entry of blood monocytes into the brain parenchyma. Similar to microglia and macrophages, these cells are highly responsive to IFN-γ, which upregulates the expression of enzymes, including IDO-1, producing neurotoxic KP metabolites such as quinolinic acid. These metabolites circulate systemically or are released locally in the brain and can contribute to the excitotoxic death of oligodendrocytes and neurons in neurological disease principally by virtue of their agonist activity at N-methyl-d-aspartic acid receptors. The latest evidence is presented and discussed. The enzymes that control the checkpoints in the KP represent an attractive therapeutic target, and consequently several KP inhibitors are currently in clinical trials for other neurological diseases, and hence may make suitable candidates for MS patients. Underpinning these drug discovery endeavors, in recent years, several advances have been made in how KP metabolites are assayed in various biological fluids, and tremendous advancements have been made in how specimens are imaged to determine disease progression and involvement of various cell types and molecules in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Lovelace
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Bianca Varney
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Gayathri Sundaram
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Nunzio F Franco
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Mei Li Ng
- Faculty of Medicine, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Saparna Pai
- Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Chai K Lim
- Neuroinflammation Group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Gilles J Guillemin
- Neuroinflammation Group, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University , Sydney, NSW , Australia
| | - Bruce J Brew
- Applied Neurosciences Program, Peter Duncan Neurosciences Research Unit, St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Faculty of Medicine, St Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia; Department of Neurology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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16
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Ritzel RM, Crapser J, Patel AR, Verma R, Grenier JM, Chauhan A, Jellison ER, McCullough LD. Age-Associated Resident Memory CD8 T Cells in the Central Nervous System Are Primed To Potentiate Inflammation after Ischemic Brain Injury. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2016; 196:3318-30. [PMID: 26962232 PMCID: PMC4868658 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1502021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 02/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Aging is associated with an increase in basal inflammation in the CNS and an overall decline in cognitive function and poorer recovery following injury. Growing evidence suggests that leukocyte recruitment to the CNS is also increased with normal aging, but, to date, no systematic evaluation of these age-associated leukocytes has been performed. In this work, the effect of aging on CNS leukocyte recruitment was examined. Aging was associated with more CD45(high) leukocytes, primarily composed of conventional CD8(+) T cells. These results were strain independent and seen in both sexes. Intravascular labeling and immunohistology revealed the presence of parenchymal CD8(+) T cells in several regions of the brain, including the choroid plexus and meninges. These cells had effector memory (CD44(+)CD62L(-)) and tissue-resident phenotypes and expressed markers associated with TCR activation. Analysis of TCRvβ repertoire usage suggested that entry into the CNS is most likely stochastic rather than Ag driven. Correlational analyses revealed a positive association between CD8 T cell numbers and decreased proinflammatory function of microglia. However, the effects of cerebral ischemia and ex vivo stimulation of these cells dramatically increased production of TNF, IFN-γ, and MCP-1/CCL2. Taken together, we identified a novel population of resident memory, immunosurveillant CD8 T cells that represent a hallmark of CNS aging and appear to modify microglia homeostasis under normal conditions, but are primed to potentiate inflammation and leukocyte recruitment following ischemic injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodney M Ritzel
- Neuroscience Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030
| | - Joshua Crapser
- Neuroscience Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030
| | - Anita R Patel
- Neuroscience Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030
| | - Rajkumer Verma
- Neuroscience Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030
| | - Jeremy M Grenier
- Immunology Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030; and
| | - Anjali Chauhan
- Neuroscience Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030
| | - Evan R Jellison
- Immunology Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030; and
| | - Louise D McCullough
- Neuroscience Department, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06030; Department of Neurology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, TX 77370
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17
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Fleming JO, Weinstock JV. Clinical trials of helminth therapy in autoimmune diseases: rationale and findings. Parasite Immunol 2015; 37:277-92. [PMID: 25600983 DOI: 10.1111/pim.12175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Some helminths are major human pathogens. Recently, however, increased understanding of the immunoregulatory responses induced by this class of parasites, in combination with epidemiologic and animal studies, suggests that helminths may have therapeutic potential in autoimmune diseases (AD) and other conditions. This article reviews the rationale for and results of clinical trials to test the safety and efficacy of helminth therapy in AD. Also discussed are future prospects for investigation and the possibility that helminth treatment may serve as a probe to help reveal the pathogenesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- J O Fleming
- Neurology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
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18
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Millward JM, Guo J, Berndt D, Braun J, Sack I, Infante-Duarte C. Tissue structure and inflammatory processes shape viscoelastic properties of the mouse brain. NMR IN BIOMEDICINE 2015; 28:831-839. [PMID: 25963743 DOI: 10.1002/nbm.3319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2014] [Revised: 04/02/2015] [Accepted: 04/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance elastography (MRE) is an imaging method that reveals the mechanical properties of tissue, modelled as a combination of " viscosity" and " elasticity" . We recently showed reduced brain viscoelasticity in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients compared with healthy controls, and in the relapsing-remitting disease model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). However, the mechanisms by which these intrinsic tissue properties become altered remain unclear. This study investigates whether distinct regions in the mouse brain differ in their native viscoelastic properties, and how these properties are affected during chronic EAE in C57Bl/6 mice and in mice lacking the cytokine interferon-gamma. IFN-γ(-/-) mice exhibit a more severe EAE phenotype, with amplified inflammation in the cerebellum and brain stem. Brain scans were performed in the sagittal plane using a 7 T animal MRI scanner, and the anterior (cerebral) and posterior (cerebellar) regions analyzed separately. MRE investigations were accompanied by contrast-enhanced MRI scans, and by histopathology and gene expression analysis ex vivo. Compared with the cerebrum, the cerebellum in healthy mice has a lower viscoelasticity, i.e. it is intrinsically " softer" . This was seen both in the wild-type mice and the IFNγ(-/-) mice. During chronic EAE, C57Bl/6 mice did not show altered brain viscoelasticity. However, as expected, the IFNγ(-/-) mice showed a more severe EAE phenotype, and these mice did show altered brain elasticity during the course of disease. The magnitude of the elasticity reduction correlated with F4/80 gene expression, a marker for macrophages/microglia in inflamed central nervous system tissue. Together these results demonstrate that MRE is sensitive enough to discriminate between viscoelastic properties in distinct anatomical structures in the mouse brain, and to confirm a further relationship between cellular inflammation and mechanical alterations of the brain. This study underscores the utility of MRE to monitor pathological tissue alterations in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M Millward
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Charité - Universitätmedizin Berlin, Germany
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a joint cooperation between the Charité Medical Faculty and the Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jing Guo
- Department of Radiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - Dominique Berndt
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Charité - Universitätmedizin Berlin, Germany
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a joint cooperation between the Charité Medical Faculty and the Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jürgen Braun
- Department of Radiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingolf Sack
- Department of Radiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Germany
| | - Carmen Infante-Duarte
- Institute for Medical Immunology, Charité - Universitätmedizin Berlin, Germany
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, a joint cooperation between the Charité Medical Faculty and the Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
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19
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Morphofunctional adaptation of rat thymus structures to silicon consumption with drinking water. Bull Exp Biol Med 2015; 158:816-9. [PMID: 25894784 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-015-2869-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2013] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Administration of standardized drinking water containing 10 mg/liter silicon for 2 months adlibitum induced structural reorganization of the cortical and medullary layers of the thymiclobules in laboratory rats accompanied by functional activation of monocyte/macrophage cells and antigen-presenting cells was changed in morphological structures of the thymus. A possible mechanism of development of autoimmune processes under the effect of silicon is discussed.
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20
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Interaction of astrocytes and T cells in physiological and pathological conditions. Brain Res 2015; 1623:63-73. [PMID: 25813828 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 03/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) has long been recognized as a site of 'immune privilege' because of the existence of the blood brain barrier (BBB) which presumably isolates CNS from the peripheral immunosurveillance. Different from the peripheral organs, CNS is unique in response to all forms of CNS injury and disease which is mainly mediated by resident microglia and astrocyte. There is increasing evidence that immune cells are not only involved in neuroinflammation process but also the maintenance of CNS homeostasis. T cells, an important immune cell population, are involved in the pathogenesis of some neurological diseases by inducing either innate or adaptive immune responses. Astrocytes, which are the most abundant cell type in the CNS, maintain the integrity of BBB and actively participate in the initiation and progression of neurological diseases. Surprisingly, how astrocytes and T cells interact and the consequences of their interaction are not clear. In this review we briefly summarized T cells diversity and astrocyte function. Then, we examined the evidence for the astrocytes and T cells interaction under physiological and pathological conditions including ischemic stroke, multiple sclerosis, viral infection, and Alzheimer's disease. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Cell Interactions In Stroke.
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Dimou L, Götz M. Glial cells as progenitors and stem cells: new roles in the healthy and diseased brain. Physiol Rev 2014; 94:709-37. [PMID: 24987003 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00036.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The diverse functions of glial cells prompt the question to which extent specific subtypes may be devoted to a specific function. We discuss this by reviewing one of the most recently discovered roles of glial cells, their function as neural stem cells (NSCs) and progenitor cells. First we give an overview of glial stem and progenitor cells during development; these are the radial glial cells that act as NSCs and other glial progenitors, highlighting the distinction between the lineage of cells in vivo and their potential when exposed to a different environment, e.g., in vitro. We then proceed to the adult stage and discuss the glial cells that continue to act as NSCs across vertebrates and others that are more lineage-restricted, such as the adult NG2-glia, the most frequent progenitor type in the adult mammalian brain, that remain within the oligodendrocyte lineage. Upon certain injury conditions, a distinct subset of quiescent astrocytes reactivates proliferation and a larger potential, clearly demonstrating the concept of heterogeneity with distinct subtypes of, e.g., astrocytes or NG2-glia performing rather different roles after brain injury. These new insights not only highlight the importance of glial cells for brain repair but also their great potential in various aspects of regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leda Dimou
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Institute for Stem Cell Research, HelmholtzZentrum, Neuherberg, Germany; and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Magdalena Götz
- Physiological Genomics, Institute of Physiology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany; Institute for Stem Cell Research, HelmholtzZentrum, Neuherberg, Germany; and Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
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22
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Nathoo N, Yong VW, Dunn JF. Understanding disease processes in multiple sclerosis through magnetic resonance imaging studies in animal models. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2014; 4:743-56. [PMID: 24936425 PMCID: PMC4053634 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2014.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Revised: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
There are exciting new advances in multiple sclerosis (MS) resulting in a growing understanding of both the complexity of the disorder and the relative involvement of grey matter, white matter and inflammation. Increasing need for preclinical imaging is anticipated, as animal models provide insights into the pathophysiology of the disease. Magnetic resonance (MR) is the key imaging tool used to diagnose and to monitor disease progression in MS, and thus will be a cornerstone for future research. Although gadolinium-enhancing and T2 lesions on MRI have been useful for detecting MS pathology, they are not correlative of disability. Therefore, new MRI methods are needed. Such methods require validation in animal models. The increasing necessity for MRI of animal models makes it critical and timely to understand what research has been conducted in this area and what potential there is for use of MRI in preclinical models of MS. Here, we provide a review of MRI and magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) studies that have been carried out in animal models of MS that focus on pathology. We compare the MRI phenotypes of animals and patients and provide advice on how best to use animal MR studies to increase our understanding of the linkages between MR and pathology in patients. This review describes how MRI studies of animal models have been, and will continue to be, used in the ongoing effort to understand MS. MRI studies of pathology in various animal models of MS are reviewed. MRI phenotypes in animal models of MS and MS patients are compared. Animal MRI can increase understanding of links between MR and pathology in patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabeela Nathoo
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - V. Wee Yong
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jeff F. Dunn
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Experimental Imaging Centre, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
- Corresponding author at: Department of Radiology, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive, N.W., Calgary, Alberta T2N 4N1, Canada.
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23
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Hunger M, Budinger E, Zhong K, Angenstein F. Visualization of acute focal lesions in rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by magnetic nanoparticles, comparing different MRI sequences including phase imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 2013; 39:1126-35. [DOI: 10.1002/jmri.24280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Hunger
- Special Laboratory Non-Invasive Brain Imaging; Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology; Magdeburg Germany
| | - Eike Budinger
- Department of Auditory Learning and Speech; Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology; Magdeburg Germany
| | - Kai Zhong
- Department of Biomedical Magnetic Resonance; University of Magdeburg; Magdeburg Germany
| | - Frank Angenstein
- Special Laboratory Non-Invasive Brain Imaging; Leibniz Institute for Neurobiology; Magdeburg Germany
- Functional Neuroimaging Group; German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases within the Helmholtz Association; Magdeburg Germany
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24
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Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles highlight early involvement of the choroid plexus in central nervous system inflammation. ASN Neuro 2013; 5:e00110. [PMID: 23452162 PMCID: PMC3610189 DOI: 10.1042/an20120081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2012] [Revised: 02/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation during multiple sclerosis involves immune cell infiltration and disruption of the BBB (blood–brain barrier). Both processes can be visualized by MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), in multiple sclerosis patients and in the animal model EAE (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis). We previously showed that VSOPs (very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles) reveal CNS (central nervous system) lesions in EAE which are not detectable by conventional contrast agents in MRI. We hypothesized that VSOP may help detect early, subtle inflammatory events that would otherwise remain imperceptible. To investigate the capacity of VSOP to reveal early events in CNS inflammation, we induced EAE in SJL mice using encephalitogenic T-cells, and administered VSOP prior to onset of clinical symptoms. In parallel, we administered VSOP to mice at peak disease, and to unmanipulated controls. We examined the distribution of VSOP in the CNS by MRI and histology. Prior to disease onset, in asymptomatic mice, VSOP accumulated in the choroid plexus and in spinal cord meninges in the absence of overt inflammation. However, VSOP was undetectable in the CNS of non-immunized control mice. At peak disease, VSOP was broadly distributed; we observed particles in perivascular inflammatory lesions with apparently preserved glia limitans. Moreover, at peak disease, VSOP was prominent in the choroid plexus and was seen in elongated endothelial structures, co-localized with phagocytes, and diffusely disseminated in the parenchyma, suggesting multiple entry mechanisms of VSOP into the CNS. Thus, using VSOP we were able to discriminate between inflammatory events occurring in established EAE and, importantly, we identified CNS alterations that appear to precede immune cell infiltration and clinical onset.
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25
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Crossing the wall: The opening of endothelial cell junctions during infectious diseases. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2013; 45:1165-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biocel.2013.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Revised: 03/05/2013] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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26
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Manikwar P, Kiptoo P, Badawi AH, Büyüktimkin B, Siahaan TJ. Antigen-specific blocking of CD4-specific immunological synapse formation using BPI and current therapies for autoimmune diseases. Med Res Rev 2012; 32:727-64. [PMID: 21433035 PMCID: PMC4441537 DOI: 10.1002/med.20243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we discuss T-cell activation, etiology, and the current therapies of autoimmune diseases (i.e., MS, T1D, and RA). T-cells are activated upon interaction with antigen-presenting cells (APC) followed by a "bull's eye"-like formation of the immunological synapse (IS) at the T-cell-APC interface. Although the various disease-modifying therapies developed so far have been shown to modulate the IS and thus help in the management of these diseases, they are also known to present some undesirable side effects. In this study, we describe a novel and selective way to suppress autoimmunity by using a bifunctional peptide inhibitor (BPI). BPI uses an intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1)-binding peptide to target antigenic peptides (e.g., proteolipid peptide, glutamic acid decarboxylase, and type II collagen) to the APC and therefore modulate the immune response. The central hypothesis is that BPI blocks the IS formation by simultaneously binding to major histocompatibility complex-II and ICAM-1 on the APC and selectively alters the activation of T cells from T(H)1 to T(reg) and/or T(H)2 phenotypes, leading to tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prakash Manikwar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KA 66047, USA
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27
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Boato F, Hechler D, Rosenberger K, Lüdecke D, Peters EM, Nitsch R, Hendrix S. Interleukin-1 beta and neurotrophin-3 synergistically promote neurite growth in vitro. J Neuroinflammation 2011; 8:183. [PMID: 22200088 PMCID: PMC3275552 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-8-183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) are considered to exert detrimental effects during brain trauma and in neurodegenerative disorders. Consistently, it has been demonstrated that IL-1β suppresses neurotrophin-mediated neuronal cell survival rendering neurons vulnerable to degeneration. Since neurotrophins are also well known to strongly influence axonal plasticity, we investigated here whether IL-1β has a similar negative impact on neurite growth. We analyzed neurite density and length of organotypic brain and spinal cord slice cultures under the influence of the neurotrophins NGF, BDNF, NT-3 and NT-4. In brain slices, only NT-3 significantly promoted neurite density and length. Surprisingly, a similar increase of neurite growth was induced by IL-1β. Additionally, both factors increased the number of brain slices displaying maximal neurite growth. Furthermore, the co-administration of IL-1β and NT-3 significantly increased the number of brain slices displaying maximal neurite growth compared to single treatments. These data indicate that these two factors synergistically stimulate two distinct aspects of neurite outgrowth, namely neurite density and neurite length from acute organotypic brain slices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Boato
- Dept. of Functional Morphology & BIOMED Institute, Hasselt University, Belgium
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28
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Fumagalli S, Coles JA, Ejlerskov P, Ortolano F, Bushell TJ, Brewer JM, De Simoni MG, Dever G, Garside P, Maffia P, Carswell HV. In vivo real-time multiphoton imaging of T lymphocytes in the mouse brain after experimental stroke. Stroke 2011; 42:1429-36. [PMID: 21441145 DOI: 10.1161/strokeaha.110.603704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE To gain a better understanding of T cell behavior after stroke, we have developed real-time in vivo brain imaging of T cells by multiphoton microscopy after middle cerebral artery occlusion. METHODS Adult male hCD2-GFP transgenic mice that exhibit green fluorescent protein-labeled T cells underwent permanent left distal middle cerebral artery occlusion by electrocoagulation (n=6) or sham surgery (n=6) and then multiphoton laser imaging 72 hours later. RESULTS Extravasated T cell number significantly increased after middle cerebral artery occlusion versus sham. Two T cell populations existed after middle cerebral artery occlusion, possibly driven by 2 T cell subpopulations; 1 had significantly lower and the other significantly higher track velocity and displacement rate than sham. CONCLUSIONS The different motilities and behaviors of T cells observed using our imaging approach after stroke could reveal important mechanisms of immune surveillance for future therapeutic exploitations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Fumagalli
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, 161 Cathedral Street, Glasgow G4 0RE, UK
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29
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Peruga I, Hartwig S, Thöne J, Hovemann B, Gold R, Juckel G, Linker RA. Inflammation modulates anxiety in an animal model of multiple sclerosis. Behav Brain Res 2011; 220:20-9. [PMID: 21255614 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Revised: 12/27/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by inflammation, but also degenerative changes. Besides neurological deficits, the rate of affective disorders such as depression and anxiety is at least six fold increased. Many aspects of MS can be mimicked in the animal model of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (MOG-EAE). Here we investigate behavioral changes in C57BL/6 mice suffering from mild MOG-EAE. In the later phase of the disease, mice were subjected to behavioral tests including the light-dark-box (LD Box), the acoustic startle response (SR) with a pre-pulse inhibition protocol as well as the learned helplessness (LH) paradigm. Behavioral data were correlated with the motor performance in an open field and rotarod test (RR). In the RR and open field, there was no significant difference in the motor performance between controls and mice suffering from mild MOG-EAE. Yet EAE mice displayed an increased anxiety-like behavior with a 23% reduction of the time spent in the bright compartment of the LD Box as well as an increased SR. In the LH paradigm, mice suffering from MOG-EAE were twice as much prone to depressive-like behavior. These changes correlate with an increase of hippocampal tissue tumor necrosis factor alpha levels and neuronal loss in the hippocampus. Modulation of monoaminergic transmission by chronic application of the antidepressant amitriptyline resulted in a decreased startle reaction and increased hippocampal norepinephrine levels. These data imply that chronic inflammation in the CNS may impact on emotional responses in rodent models of anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabella Peruga
- Department of Neurology, St. Josef-Hospital, Ruhr-University Bochum, 44791 Bochum, Germany
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30
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Wuerfel E, Infante-Duarte C, Glumm R, Wuerfel JT. Gadofluorine M-enhanced MRI shows involvement of circumventricular organs in neuroinflammation. J Neuroinflammation 2010; 7:70. [PMID: 20955604 PMCID: PMC2978145 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-7-70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2010] [Accepted: 10/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Circumventricular organs (CVO) are cerebral areas with incomplete endothelial blood-brain barrier (BBB) and therefore regarded as "gates to the brain". During inflammation, they may exert an active role in determining immune cell recruitment into the brain. Methods In a longitudinal study we investigated in vivo alterations of CVO during neuroinflammation, applying Gadofluorine M- (Gf) enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, an animal model of multiple sclerosis. SJL/J mice were monitored by Gadopentate dimeglumine- (Gd-DTPA) and Gf-enhanced MRI after adoptive transfer of proteolipid-protein-specific T cells. Mean Gf intensity ratios were calculated individually for different CVO and correlated to the clinical disease course. Subsequently, the tissue distribution of fluorescence-labeled Gf as well as the extent of cellular inflammation was assessed in corresponding histological slices. Results We could show that the Gf signal intensity of the choroid plexus, the subfornicular organ and the area postrema increased significantly during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, correlating with (1) disease severity and (2) the delay of disease onset after immunization. For the choroid plexus, the extent of Gf enhancement served as a diagnostic criterion to distinguish between diseased and healthy control mice with a sensitivity of 89% and a specificity of 80%. Furthermore, Gf improved the detection of lesions, being particularly sensitive to optic neuritis. In correlated histological slices, Gf initially accumulated in the extracellular matrix surrounding inflammatory foci and was subsequently incorporated by macrophages/microglia. Conclusion Gf-enhanced MRI provides a novel highly sensitive technique to study cerebral BBB alterations. We demonstrate for the first time in vivo the involvement of CVO during the development of neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Wuerfel
- Experimental and Clinical Research Center, Charité - University Medicine Berlin, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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31
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In situ recognition of autoantigen as an essential gatekeeper in autoimmune CD8+ T cell inflammation. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:9317-22. [PMID: 20439719 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0913835107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A current paradigm states that non-antigen-specific inflammatory cues attract noncognate, bystander T cell specificities to sites of infection and autoimmune inflammation. Here we show that cues emanating from a tissue undergoing spontaneous autoimmune inflammation cannot recruit naive or activated bystander T cell specificities in the absence of local expression of cognate antigen. We monitored the recruitment of CD8(+) T cells specific for the prevalent diabetogenic epitope islet-specific glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit-related protein (IGRP)(206-214) in gene-targeted nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice expressing a T cell "invisible" IGRP(206-214) sequence. These mice developed islet inflammation and diabetes with normal incidence and kinetics, but their inflammatory lesions could recruit neither naive (endogenous or exogenous) nor ex vivo-activated IGRP(206-214)-reactive CD8(+) T cells. Conversely, IGRP(206-214)-reactive, but not nonautoreactive CD8(+) T cells rapidly homed to and accumulated in the inflamed islets of wild-type NOD mice. Our results indicate that CD8(+) T cell recruitment to a site of autoimmune inflammation results from an active process that is strictly dependent on local display of cognate pMHC and suggest that CD8(+) T cells contained in extralymphoid autoimmune lesions are largely autoreactive.
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32
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Zipp F. A new window in multiple sclerosis pathology: non-conventional quantitative magnetic resonance imaging outcomes. J Neurol Sci 2010; 287 Suppl 1:S24-9. [PMID: 20106345 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-510x(09)71297-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Recent findings suggest that neuronal pathology occurs early in the course of multiple sclerosis and seems to be responsible for accumulation of disability. Nonetheless, the nervous system has an intrinsic potential for repair and compensation in the neuronal component. Disease-modifying drugs such as glatiramer acetate interfere with, and down-regulate, inflammatory pathology and slow neurodegeneration. Moreover, certain regulatory cytokines and neurotrophic factors have the capacity to promote neuronal and axonal repair. Given the importance of neuronal injury in multiple sclerosis and the potential of certain treatments for neuronal repair, it is important to possess adequate and sensitive tools to visualise the pathology in the neuronal compartment. The most promising tools to measure neuronal and axonal damage in multiple sclerosis, as well as neuroprotection and repair, are whole brain volume change for quantification of general brain atrophy, and T1 hypointensity (black holes) and magnetisation transfer ratio for measuring evolution of lesion damage. Other promising techniques, such as diffusion tensor imaging-based fibre tracking and magnetic resonance spectroscopy may allow detailed analyses, but these are still in the experimental stage and are not available for routine clinical practice. Further paraclinical measurements such as optical coherence tomography for the evaluation of the anterior visual pathway may have potential as objective surrogate markers for neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frauke Zipp
- University Medicine Mainz, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Department of Neurology, Mainz, Germany.
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33
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Regulation of cytokine signaling and T-cell recruitment in the aging mouse brain in response to central inflammatory challenge. Brain Behav Immun 2010; 24:138-52. [PMID: 19765643 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2009.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2009] [Revised: 09/04/2009] [Accepted: 09/11/2009] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Aging is often accompanied by increased levels of inflammatory molecules in the organism, but age-related changes in the brain response to inflammatory challenges still require clarification. We here investigated in mice whether cytokine signaling and T-cell neuroinvasion undergo age-related changes. We first analyzed the expression of molecules involved in T-cell infiltration and cytokine signaling regulation in the septum and hippocampus of 2-3 months and 20- to 24-month-old mice at 4h after intracerebroventricular injections of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha or interferon-gammaversus saline injections. Transcripts of the chemokine CXCL9, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 and suppressor of cytokine signaling molecules (SOCS) 1 and 3 were increased in both age groups after cytokine injection; microglia-derived matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 12 mRNA was induced in old mice also after control saline injections. Age-related changes in ICAM-1 protein expression and T-cell infiltration were then analyzed in mice of 3-4, 8-9 and 15-16 months at 48h after TNF-alpha injections. ICAM-1 immunoreactivity, and Western blotting in striatum, septum, hippocampus and hypothalamus showed progressive age-related enhancement of TNF-alpha-elicited ICAM-1 upregulation. Double immunofluorescence revealed ICAM-1 expression in microglia and astrocytic processes. CD3(+), CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cells exhibited progressive age-related increases in brain parenchyma and choroid plexus after cytokine exposure. The findings indicate that the brain responses to inflammatory challenges are not only preserved with advancing age, but also include gradual amplification of ICAM-1 expression and T-cell recruitment. The data highlight molecular and cellular correlates of age-related increase of brain sensitivity to inflammatory stimuli, which could be involved in altered brain vulnerability during aging.
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Ortolano F, Maffia P, Dever G, Rodolico G, Millington OR, De Simoni MG, Brewer JM, Bushell TJ, Garside P, Carswell HV. Advances in imaging of new targets for pharmacological intervention in stroke: real-time tracking of T-cells in the ischaemic brain. Br J Pharmacol 2009; 159:808-11. [PMID: 20015295 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00527.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE T-cells may play a role in the evolution of ischaemic damage and repair, but the ability to image these cells in the living brain after a stroke has been limited. We aim to extend the technique of real-time in situ brain imaging of T-cells, previously shown in models of immunological diseases, to models of experimental stroke. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Male C57BL6 mice (6-8 weeks) (n= 3) received a total of 2-5 x 10(6) carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-labelled lymphocytes from donor C57BL6 mice via i.v. injection by adoptive transfer. Twenty-four hours later, recipient mice underwent permanent left distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) by electrocoagulation or by sham surgery under isoflurane anaesthesia. Female hCD2-green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgenic mice that exhibit GFP-labelled T-cells underwent MCAO. At 24 or 48 h post-MCAO, a sagittal brain slice (1500 microm thick) containing cortical branches of the occluded middle cerebral artery (MCA) was dissected and used for multiphoton laser scanning microscopy (MPLSM). KEY RESULTS Our results provide direct observations for the first time of dynamic T-cell behaviour in living brain tissue in real time and herein proved the feasibility of MPLSM for ex vivo live imaging of immune response after experimental stroke. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS It is hoped that these advances in the imaging of immune cells will provide information that can be harnessed to a therapeutic advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Ortolano
- Centre for Biophotonics, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK
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Robinson KM, Njus JM, Phillips DA, Proctor TM, Rooney WD, Jones RE. MR imaging of inflammation during myelin-specific T cell-mediated autoimmune attack in the EAE mouse spinal cord. Mol Imaging Biol 2009; 12:240-9. [PMID: 19949987 DOI: 10.1007/s11307-009-0272-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2009] [Revised: 05/13/2009] [Accepted: 07/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of this study is to detect myelin-specific T cells, key pathological mediators in early multiple sclerosis, and the corresponding animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), in the mouse spinal cord. PROCEDURES T cells were labeled with the iron-based, magnetic resonance (MR) contrast reagent, Feridex, and the transfection reagent, protamine sulfate, resulting in approximately 100% iron-labeling efficiency. Feridex-labeling did not alter the induction of EAE by T cells, and recipients were imaged by a 12-T MR instrument. RESULTS Focal hypointense lesions were resolvable to gray or white matter of the lumbar spinal cord in T(2)-weighted images of the recipients of Feridex-labeled T cells. Lesions corresponded to histological evidence of inflammatory lesions and iron-labeled cells in eight-of-eight mice. In contrast, hypointense lesions were not observed eight-of-eight recipients of unlabeled T cells. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate and provide methodologies for labeling, detecting, and extracting MRI-detectable foci of iron-labeled cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine M Robinson
- V.A. Medical Center, VA R&D 23, Bldg 101, 3710 SW US Veteran's Hospital Rd, Portland, OR 97239, USA
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Enhanced microglial clearance of myelin debris in T cell-infiltrated central nervous system. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 2009; 68:845-56. [PMID: 19606068 DOI: 10.1097/nen.0b013e3181ae0236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute multiple sclerosis lesions are characterized by accumulation of T cells and macrophages, destruction of myelin and oligodendrocytes, and axonal damage. There is, however, limited information on neuroimmune interactions distal to sites of axonal damage in the T cell-infiltrated central nervous system. We investigated T-cell infiltration, myelin clearance, microglial activation, and phagocytic activity distal to sites of axonal transection through analysis of the perforant pathway deafferented dentate gyrus in SJL mice that had received T cells specific for myelin basic protein (TMBP) or ovalbumin (TOVA). The axonal lesion of TMBP-recipient mice resulted in lesion-specific recruitment of large numbers of T cells in contrast to very limited T-cell infiltration in TOVA-recipient and -naïve perforant pathway-deafferented mice. By double immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy, infiltration with TMBP but not TOVA enhanced the microglial response to axonal transection and microglial phagocytosis of myelin debris associated with the degenerating axons. Because myelin antigen-specific immune responses may provoke protective immunity, increased phagocytosis of myelin debris might enhance regeneration after a neural antigen-specific T cell-mediated immune response in multiple sclerosis.
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Beyond blood brain barrier breakdown - in vivo detection of occult neuroinflammatory foci by magnetic nanoparticles in high field MRI. J Neuroinflammation 2009; 6:20. [PMID: 19660125 PMCID: PMC2731086 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-6-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2009] [Accepted: 08/06/2009] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Gadopentate dimeglumine (Gd-DTPA) enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is widely applied for the visualization of blood brain barrier (BBB) breakdown in multiple sclerosis and its animal model, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Recently, the potential of magnetic nanoparticles to detect macrophage infiltration by MRI was demonstrated. We here investigated a new class of very small superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (VSOP) as novel contrast medium in murine adoptive-transfer EAE. Methods EAE was induced in 17 mice via transfer of proteolipid protein specific T cells. MR images were obtained before and after application of Gd-DTPA and VSOP on a 7 Tesla rodent MR scanner. The enhancement pattern of the two contrast agents was compared, and correlated to histology, including Prussian Blue staining for VSOP detection and immunofluorescent staining against IBA-1 to identify macrophages/microglia. Results Both contrast media depicted BBB breakdown in 42 lesions, although differing in plaques appearances and shapes. Furthermore, 13 lesions could be exclusively visualized by VSOP. In the subsequent histological analysis, VSOP was localized to microglia/macrophages, and also diffusely dispersed within the extracellular matrix. Conclusion VSOP showed a higher sensitivity in detecting BBB alterations compared to Gd-DTPA enhanced MRI, providing complementary information of macrophage/microglia activity in inflammatory plaques that has not been visualized by conventional means.
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Hestvik ALK, Skorstad G, Vartdal F, Holmøy T. Idiotope-specific CD4(+) T cells induce apoptosis of human oligodendrocytes. J Autoimmun 2009; 32:125-32. [PMID: 19250800 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaut.2009.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2008] [Revised: 01/09/2009] [Accepted: 01/26/2009] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
CD4(+) T cells specific for immunologic non-self determinants on self-IgG, idiotopes (Id), can be raised from cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS). To test if Id-specific CD4(+) T cells have the potential to destroy oligodendrocytes (ODCs), we analyzed their ability to induce apoptosis of human ODC cell lines. Id-specific CD4(+) T cells stimulated with either Id-bearing B cells, Id-peptide presented by other antigen presenting cells, or by anti-CD3/anti-CD28 in the absence of accessory cells induced DNA fragmentation and killed ODCs. Killing required contact between the ODCs and the T cells, it did not depend on the cytokine profile of the T cells, it was independent of other cell types, and was inhibited by a general caspase inhibitor and an anti-Fas antibody. Activated CD4(+) T cells specific for glutamic acid decarboxylase 65 also induced apoptosis, showing that killing does not depend on cognate interaction between T cells and target cells but rather on the activation status of the T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Lise Karlsgot Hestvik
- Institute of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo University Hospital Rikshospitalet, Oslo, Norway.
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Siffrin V, Brandt AU, Radbruch H, Herz J, Boldakowa N, Leuenberger T, Werr J, Hahner A, Schulze-Topphoff U, Nitsch R, Zipp F. Differential immune cell dynamics in the CNS cause CD4+ T cell compartmentalization. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 132:1247-58. [PMID: 19179377 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awn354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In the course of autoimmune CNS inflammation, inflammatory infiltrates form characteristic perivascular lymphocyte cuffs by mechanisms that are not yet well understood. Here, intravital two-photon imaging of the brain in anesthetized mice, with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, revealed the highly dynamic nature of perivascular immune cells, refuting suggestions that vessel cuffs are the result of limited lymphocyte motility in the CNS. On the contrary, vessel-associated lymphocyte motility is an actively promoted mechanism which can be blocked by CXCR4 antagonism. In vivo interference with CXCR4 in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis disrupted dynamic vessel cuffs and resulted in tissue-invasive migration. CXCR4-mediated perivascular lymphocyte movement along CNS vessels was a key feature of CD4(+) T cell subsets in contrast to random motility of CD8(+) T cells, indicating a dominant role of the perivascular area primarily for CD4(+) T cells. Our results visualize dynamic T cell motility in the CNS and demonstrate differential CXCR4-mediated compartmentalization of CD4(+) T-cell motility within the healthy and diseased CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Siffrin
- Cecilie Vogt Clinic for Neurology in the HKBB, Charité - University Medicine Berlin and Max Delbrueck Centre for Molecular Medicine, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Abstract
In making a selection of cellular tools and animal models for generating screening assays in the search for new drugs, one needs to take into consideration the practicality of their use in the drug discovery process. Conducting high-throughput primary screens using libraries of small molecules, close to 1 million members in size, requires the generation of large numbers of cells which are easily acquired, reliably enriched, and reproducibly responsive to standard positive controls. These cells need to be similar in form and function to their counterparts in human disease. In vitro assays that can be mechanized by using robots can therefore save time and costs. In selecting in vivo models, consideration must be given to the species and strain of animal chosen, the appropriateness of the model to human disease, the extent of animal husbandry required during the in-life pharmacological assessment, the technical aspects of generating the model and harvesting the tissues for analyses, the cost of research tools in terms of time and money (demyelinating and remyelinating agents, amount of compound to be generated), and the length of time required for drug testing in the model. A consideration of the translational aspects of the in vivo model compared to those used in the clinic is also important. These themes will be developed with examples for drug discovery in the field of CNS demyelination and repair, specifically as it pertains to multiple sclerosis.
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Brown MA, Sayed BA, Christy A. Mast cells and the adaptive immune response. J Clin Immunol 2008; 28:671-6. [PMID: 18802742 DOI: 10.1007/s10875-008-9247-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2008] [Accepted: 05/10/2008] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The idea that the innate and adaptive immune systems are not separate entities is no longer new. In fact, it is surprising that this paradigm was accepted without question for so long. Many innate cells express cell surface molecules and soluble mediators that are essential for the development and activation of T cells and B cells. Yet among the innate cell populations, mast cells may play the major role in regulating adaptive immune cell function. DISCUSSION This role first came to light in studies of mast cells and their involvement in the autoimmune disease experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, the major rodent model of multiple sclerosis and has subsequently been verified in many in vitro and in vivo model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa A Brown
- Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
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Hamann I, Zipp F, Infante-Duarte C. Therapeutic targeting of chemokine signaling in Multiple Sclerosis. J Neurol Sci 2008; 274:31-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2008.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2008] [Revised: 07/02/2008] [Accepted: 07/04/2008] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Recent studies show that peripheral injury activates both neuronal and nonneuronal or glial components of the peripheral and central cellular circuitry. The subsequent neuron-glia interactions contribute to pain hypersensitivity. This review will briefly discuss novel findings that have shed light on the cellular mechanisms of neuron-glia interactions in persistent pain. RECENT FINDINGS Two fundamental questions related to neuron-glia interactions in pain mechanisms have been addressed: what are the signals that lead to central glial activation after injury and how do glial cells affect central nervous system neuronal activity and promote hyperalgesia? SUMMARY Evidence indicates that central glial activation depends on nerve inputs from the site of injury and release of chemical mediators. Hematogenous immune cells may migrate to/infiltrate the brain and circulating inflammatory mediators may penetrate the blood-brain barrier to participate in central glial responses to injury. Inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1beta released from glia may facilitate pain transmission through its coupling to neuronal glutamate receptors. This bidirectional neuron-glia signaling plays a key role in glial activation, cytokine production and the initiation and maintenance of hyperalgesia. Recognition of the contribution of the mutual neuron-glia interactions to central sensitization and hyperalgesia prompts new treatment for chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Ren
- Department of Neural and Pain Sciences, Dental School and Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201-1586, USA
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Actively induced EAE in Lewis rats: characterization of spleen and spinal cord infiltrating lymphocytes by flow cytometry during the course of the disease. J Neuroimmunol 2008; 199:67-74. [PMID: 18572253 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2008.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2008] [Revised: 05/15/2008] [Accepted: 05/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Actively induced Lewis rat Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) is a highly reproducible model for portraying the acute phase of multiple sclerosis. Our aim was to get more information about this model by means of flow cytometry looking at potential markers for tracing new treatments' efficacy. Thus we characterized the changes occurring in encephalitogenic TCR Vbeta8.2(+) frequency and the adhesion molecule alpha4 integrin expression in both spleen and spinal cord T cells. The increase in both these parameters was observed only in spinal cord infiltrating T cells while relevant changes in spleen cell composition were observed as early as disease onset.
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Spitsin S, Portocarrero C, Phares TW, Kean RB, Brimer CM, Koprowski H, Hooper DC. Early blood-brain barrier permeability in cerebella of PLSJL mice immunized with myelin basic protein. J Neuroimmunol 2008; 196:8-15. [PMID: 18406473 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2008.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2007] [Revised: 01/29/2008] [Accepted: 02/04/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is dramatically but transiently compromised in the cerebella of myelin basic protein immunized mice at least 1 week prior to the development of the paralytic phase of experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE). Treatment of mice with the peroxynitrite-dependent radical scavenger uric acid (UA) during the first week after immunization blocks the early increase in cerebellar BBB permeability and the subsequent development of clinical signs of EAE. These results indicate that the early loss of BBB integrity in the cerebellum is likely to be a necessary step in the development of paralytic EAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei Spitsin
- Thomas Jefferson University, 1020 Locust St., JAH room 470C, Philadelphia, PA 19107, United States.
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New developments in understanding and treating neuroinflammation. J Mol Med (Berl) 2008; 86:975-85. [DOI: 10.1007/s00109-007-0292-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2007] [Revised: 10/24/2007] [Accepted: 11/05/2007] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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