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Laksono BM, Sooksawasdi Na Ayudhya S, Aguilar-Bretones M, Embregts CWE, van Nierop GP, van Riel D. Human B cells and dendritic cells are susceptible and permissive to enterovirus D68 infection. mSphere 2024; 9:e0052623. [PMID: 38259063 PMCID: PMC10900886 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00526-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Enterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is predominantly associated with mild respiratory infections, but can also cause severe respiratory disease and extra-respiratory complications, including acute flaccid myelitis. Systemic dissemination of EV-D68 is crucial for the development of extra-respiratory diseases, but it is currently unclear how EV-D68 spreads systemically (viremia). We hypothesize that immune cells contribute to the systemic dissemination of EV-D68, as this is a mechanism commonly used by other enteroviruses. Therefore, we investigated the susceptibility and permissiveness of human primary immune cells for different EV-D68 isolates. In human peripheral blood mononuclear cells inoculated with EV-D68, only B cells were susceptible but virus replication was limited. However, in B cell-rich cultures, such as Epstein-Barr virus-transformed B-lymphoblastoid cell line (BLCL) and primary lentivirus-transduced B cells, which better represent lymphoid B cells, were productively infected. Subsequently, we showed that dendritic cells (DCs), particularly immature DCs, are susceptible and permissive for EV-D68 infection and that they can spread EV-D68 to autologous BLCL. Altogether, our findings suggest that immune cells, especially B cells and DCs, could play an important role in the pathogenesis of EV-D68 infection. Infection of these cells may contribute to systemic dissemination of EV-D68, which is an essential step toward the development of extra-respiratory complications.IMPORTANCEEnterovirus D68 (EV-D68) is an emerging respiratory virus that has caused outbreaks worldwide since 2014. EV-D68 infects primarily respiratory epithelial cells resulting in mild respiratory diseases. However, EV-D68 infection is also associated with extra-respiratory complications, including polio-like paralysis. It is unclear how EV-D68 spreads systemically and infects other organs. We hypothesized that immune cells could play a role in the extra-respiratory spread of EV-D68. We showed that EV-D68 can infect and replicate in specific immune cells, that is, B cells and dendritic cells (DCs), and that virus could be transferred from DCs to B cells. Our data reveal a potential role of immune cells in the pathogenesis of EV-D68 infection. Intervention strategies that prevent EV-D68 infection of immune cells will therefore potentially prevent systemic spread of virus and thereby severe extra-respiratory complications.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Debby van Riel
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
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2
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Małaczewska J, Wróbel M, Kaczorek-Łukowska E, Rękawek W. Enterovirus E infects bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Implications for pathogenesis? J Vet Res 2023; 67:517-527. [PMID: 38130447 PMCID: PMC10730555 DOI: 10.2478/jvetres-2023-0061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Enterovirus E (EV-E) is a common viral pathogen endemic in cattle worldwide. Little is known, however, about its potential interactions with bovine immune cells. Material and Methods The EV-E-permissiveness of bovine peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) was evaluated. The infectious titres of extracellular virus were measured and the intracellular viral RNA levels were determined by reverse transcription quantitative PCR after cell inoculation. The effects of EV-E on cell viability and proliferative response were investigated with a methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium bromide reduction assay, the percentages of main lymphocyte subsets and oxidative burst activity of blood phagocytes were determined with flow cytometry, and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion was measured with an ELISA. Results Enterovirus E productively infected bovine PBMCs. The highest infectious dose of EV-E decreased cell viability and T-cell proliferation. All of the tested doses of virus inhibited the proliferation of high responding to lipopolysaccharide B cells and stimulated the secretion of interleukin 1β, interleukin 6 and tumour necrosis factor α pro-inflammatory cytokines. Conclusion Interactions of EV-E with bovine immune cells may indicate potential evasion mechanisms of the virus. There is also a risk that an infection with this virus can predispose the organism to secondary infections, especially bacterial ones.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Wojciech Rękawek
- Department of Internal Diseases with Clinic, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, 10–719Olsztyn, Poland
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3
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Owusu IA, Quaye O, Passalacqua KD, Wobus CE. Egress of non-enveloped enteric RNA viruses. J Gen Virol 2021; 102:001557. [PMID: 33560198 PMCID: PMC8515858 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A long-standing paradigm in virology was that non-enveloped viruses induce cell lysis to release progeny virions. However, emerging evidence indicates that some non-enveloped viruses exit cells without inducing cell lysis, while others engage both lytic and non-lytic egress mechanisms. Enteric viruses are transmitted via the faecal-oral route and are important causes of a wide range of human infections, both gastrointestinal and extra-intestinal. Virus cellular egress, when fully understood, may be a relevant target for antiviral therapies, which could minimize the public health impact of these infections. In this review, we outline lytic and non-lytic cell egress mechanisms of non-enveloped enteric RNA viruses belonging to five families: Picornaviridae, Reoviridae, Caliciviridae, Astroviridae and Hepeviridae. We discuss factors that contribute to egress mechanisms and the relevance of these mechanisms to virion stability, infectivity and transmission. Since most data were obtained in traditional two-dimensional cell cultures, we will further attempt to place them into the context of polarized cultures and in vivo pathogenesis. Throughout the review, we highlight numerous knowledge gaps to stimulate future research into the egress mechanisms of these highly prevalent but largely understudied viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene A. Owusu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Osbourne Quaye
- West African Centre for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Karla D. Passalacqua
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
- Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Christiane E. Wobus
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-5620, USA
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4
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Majer A, McGreevy A, Booth TF. Molecular Pathogenicity of Enteroviruses Causing Neurological Disease. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:540. [PMID: 32328043 PMCID: PMC7161091 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses are single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses that primarily cause self-limiting gastrointestinal or respiratory illness. In some cases, these viruses can invade the central nervous system, causing life-threatening neurological diseases including encephalitis, meningitis and acute flaccid paralysis (AFP). As we near the global eradication of poliovirus, formerly the major cause of AFP, the number of AFP cases have not diminished implying a non-poliovirus etiology. As the number of enteroviruses linked with neurological disease is expanding, of which many had previously little clinical significance, these viruses are becoming increasingly important to public health. Our current understanding of these non-polio enteroviruses is limited, especially with regards to their neurovirulence. Elucidating the molecular pathogenesis of these viruses is paramount for the development of effective therapeutic strategies. This review summarizes the clinical diseases associated with neurotropic enteroviruses and discusses recent advances in the understanding of viral invasion of the central nervous system, cell tropism and molecular pathogenesis as it correlates with host responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Majer
- Viral Diseases Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Alan McGreevy
- Viral Diseases Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.,Department of Biology, University of Winnipeg, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - Timothy F Booth
- Viral Diseases Division, National Microbiology Laboratory, Winnipeg, MB, Canada.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
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5
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Schulte BM, Gielen PR, Kers-Rebel ED, Prosser AC, Lind K, Flodström-Tullberg M, Tack CJ, Elving LD, Adema GJ. Enterovirus Exposure Uniquely Discriminates Type 1 Diabetes Patients with a Homozygous from a Heterozygous Melanoma Differentiation-Associated Protein 5/Interferon Induced with Helicase C Domain 1 A946T Genotype. Viral Immunol 2016; 29:389-97. [PMID: 27482829 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2015.0140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In children at risk for type 1 diabetes, innate immune activity is detected before seroconversion. Enterovirus infections have been linked to diabetes development, and a polymorphism (A946T) in the innate immune sensor recognizing enterovirus RNA, interferon-induced with helicase C domain 1/melanoma differentiation-associated protein 5, predisposes to disease. We hypothesized that the strength of innate antienteroviral responses is affected in autoimmune type 1 diabetes patients and linked to the A946T polymorphism. We compared induction of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and dendritic cells (DCs) in healthy individuals and diabetes patients upon stimulation with enterovirus, enterovirus-antibody complexes, or ligands mimicking infection in relation to the A946T polymorphism. Overall, PBMCs of diabetes patients and healthy donors showed comparable ISG induction upon stimulation. No differences were observed in DCs. Interestingly, the data imply that the magnitude of responses to enterovirus and enterovirus-antibody complexes in PBMCs is critically influenced by the A946T polymorphism and elevated in heterozygotes compared to TT homozygous individuals in autoimmune diabetes patients, but not healthy controls. These data imply an intrinsic difference in the responses to enterovirus and enterovirus-antibody complexes in diabetes patients carrying a TT risk genotype compared to heterozygotes that may influence control of enterovirus clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M Schulte
- 1 Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Paul R Gielen
- 1 Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Esther D Kers-Rebel
- 1 Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Amy C Prosser
- 1 Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Katharina Lind
- 2 Department of Medicine HS, Karolinska Institutet , The Center for Infectious Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Malin Flodström-Tullberg
- 2 Department of Medicine HS, Karolinska Institutet , The Center for Infectious Medicine, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cees J Tack
- 3 Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Lammy D Elving
- 3 Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Gosse J Adema
- 1 Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center , Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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6
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Smith-Norowitz TA, Carvajal-Raga S, Weedon J, Joks R, Norowitz KB, Weaver D, Durkin HG, Hammerschlag MR, Kohlhoff S. Increased seroprevalence of Enterovirus 71 IgE antibodies in asthmatic compared with non-asthmatic children. Ir J Med Sci 2016; 186:495-503. [PMID: 27440276 DOI: 10.1007/s11845-016-1480-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asthma is a common pediatric chronic inflammatory airway disease. Respiratory viral infections are frequent infectious triggers for exacerbations of asthma. OBJECTIVE We sought to determine whether Enterovirus 71 (EV71), a ubiquitous virus that causes systemic inflammatory responses in children but is not a known respiratory pathogen, can also serve as an infectious trigger for asthma. METHODS Specific EV71 IgE and IgM antibodies (Abs), total serum IgE, and IL-2 and IL-4 cytokine levels in serum of asthmatic and non-asthmatic children (N = 42, ages 5-19; N = 35, ages 1-20, respectively) were measured (ELISA). RESULTS Asthmatic children had higher EV71 IgE Ab levels than non-asthmatic (P < 0.001). Non-asthmatic children had significantly higher EV71 IgM Ab levels than asthmatic (P < 0.001). Despite low serum IgE levels of non-asthmatic, compared with asthmatic (P < 0.001), the non-asthmatic children produced significantly more IL-2 and IL-4 than asthmatic (P < 0.001; P < 0.001). The ages of the asthmatics, but not the non-asthmatics had a significant effect on the levels of EV 71 IgE Abs (P = 0.02; P = 0.356). A test of difference between these two slopes was significant. However, the ages of the non-asthmatic, but not the asthmatic children had a significant effect on the levels of EV 71 IgM Abs; a test of difference between these two slopes was significant. CONCLUSIONS Increased specific EV71 IgE Ab responses may indicate that EV71 infection may also be an infectious trigger in asthma. However, the role of specific EV71 IgM Abs, Th2 cytokines, and age in non-asthmatic children should be further studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- T A Smith-Norowitz
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA. .,Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA.
| | - S Carvajal-Raga
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - J Weedon
- Statistical Design and Analysis Research Division, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - R Joks
- Department of Medicine, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA.,Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - K B Norowitz
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - D Weaver
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - H G Durkin
- Department of Pathology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA.,Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - M R Hammerschlag
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
| | - S Kohlhoff
- Department of Pediatrics, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Box 49, 450 Clarkson Ave., Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA.,Center for Allergy and Asthma Research, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York, 11203, USA
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7
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Schulte BM, Kers-Rebel ED, Bottino R, Piganelli JD, Galama JMD, Engelse MA, de Koning EJP, Adema GJ. Distinct activation of primary human BDCA1(+) dendritic cells upon interaction with stressed or infected β cells. Clin Exp Immunol 2016; 184:293-307. [PMID: 26888163 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Derailment of immune responses can lead to autoimmune type 1 diabetes, and this can be accelerated or even induced by local stress caused by inflammation or infection. Dendritic cells (DCs) shape both innate and adaptive immune responses. Here, we report on the responses of naturally occurring human myeloid BDCA1(+) DCs towards differentially stressed pancreatic β cells. Our data show that BDCA1(+) DCs in human pancreas-draining lymph node (pdLN) suspensions and blood-derived BDCA1(+) DCs both effectively engulf β cells, thus mimicking physiological conditions. Upon uptake of enterovirus-infected, but not mock-infected cells, BDCA1(+) DCs induced interferon (IFN)-α/β responses, co-stimulatory molecules and proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Notably, induction of stress in β cells by ultraviolet irradiation, culture in serum-free medium or cytokine-induced stress did not provoke strong DC activation, despite efficient phagocytosis. DC activation correlated with the amount of virus used to infect β cells and required RNA within virally infected cells. DCs encountering enterovirus-infected β cells, but not those incubated with mock-infected or stressed β cells, suppressed T helper type 2 (Th2) cytokines and variably induced IFN-γ in allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR). Thus, stressed β cells have little effect on human BDCA1(+) DC activation and function, while enterovirus-infected β cells impact these cells significantly, which could help to explain their role in development of autoimmune diabetes in individuals at risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Schulte
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - E D Kers-Rebel
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - R Bottino
- Department of Pediatrics, Diabetes Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - J D Piganelli
- Department of Pediatrics, Diabetes Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - J M D Galama
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen
| | - M A Engelse
- Department of Nephrology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden
| | - E J P de Koning
- Department of Nephrology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden.,Department of Endocrinology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden.,Hubrecht Institute, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - G J Adema
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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8
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Neurotropic Enterovirus Infections in the Central Nervous System. Viruses 2015; 7:6051-66. [PMID: 26610549 PMCID: PMC4664993 DOI: 10.3390/v7112920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses are a group of positive-sense single stranded viruses that belong to the Picornaviridae family. Most enteroviruses infect humans from the gastrointestinal tract and cause mild symptoms. However, several enteroviruses can invade the central nervous system (CNS) and result in various neurological symptoms that are correlated to mortality associated with enteroviral infections. In recent years, large outbreaks of enteroviruses occurred worldwide. Therefore, these neurotropic enteroviruses have been deemed as re-emerging pathogens. Although these viruses are becoming large threats to public health, our understanding of these viruses, especially for non-polio enteroviruses, is limited. In this article, we review recent advances in the trafficking of these pathogens from the peripheral to the central nervous system, compare their cell tropism, and discuss the effects of viral infections in their host neuronal cells.
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9
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Alidjinou EK, Sané F, Trauet J, Copin MC, Hober D. Coxsackievirus B4 Can Infect Human Peripheral Blood-Derived Macrophages. Viruses 2015; 7:6067-79. [PMID: 26610550 PMCID: PMC4664995 DOI: 10.3390/v7112924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 11/14/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Beyond acute infections, group B coxsackieviruses (CVB) are also reported to play a role in the development of chronic diseases, like type 1 diabetes. The viral pathogenesis mainly relies on the interplay between the viruses and innate immune response in genetically-susceptible individuals. We investigated the interaction between CVB4 and macrophages considered as major players in immune response. Monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) generated with either M-CSF or GM-CSF were inoculated with CVB4, and infection, inflammation, viral replication and persistence were assessed. M-CSF-induced MDM, but not GM-CSF-induced MDM, can be infected by CVB4. In addition, enhancing serum was not needed to infect MDM in contrast with parental monocytes. The expression of viral receptor (CAR) mRNA was similar in both M-CSF and GM-CSF MDM. CVB4 induced high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNFα) in both MDM populations. CVB4 effectively replicated and persisted in M-CSF MDM, but IFNα was produced in the early phase of infection only. Our results demonstrate that CVB4 can replicate and persist in MDM. Further investigations are required to determine whether the interaction between the virus and MDM plays a role in the pathogenesis of CVB-induced chronic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enagnon Kazali Alidjinou
- Laboratoire de virologie EA3610, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Lille, CHU de Lille 59037, France.
| | - Famara Sané
- Laboratoire de virologie EA3610, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Lille, CHU de Lille 59037, France.
| | - Jacques Trauet
- Laboratoire d'immunologie, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Lille, CHU de Lille 59037, France.
| | - Marie-Christine Copin
- Laboratoire d'anatomie pathologique, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Lille, CHU de Lille 59037, France.
| | - Didier Hober
- Laboratoire de virologie EA3610, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Lille, CHU de Lille 59037, France.
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10
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Schulte BM, Gielen PR, Kers-Rebel ED, Schreibelt G, van Kuppeveld FJM, Adema GJ. Enterovirus-infected β-cells induce distinct response patterns in BDCA1+ and BDCA3+ human dendritic cells. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0121670. [PMID: 25806537 PMCID: PMC4373773 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Enteroviruses often cause mild disease, yet are also linked to development of autoimmune diabetes. Dendritic cells (DCs) shape both innate and adaptive immune responses, including anti-viral responses. How different human DC subsets shape anti-viral responses, whether they have complementary or overlapping functions and how this relates to autoimmune responses is largely unknown. We used enterovirus-infected β-cells and freshly isolated human myeloid DC (mDC) subsets as a model for autoimmune type 1 diabetes. Our data show that both the BDCA1+ and BDCA3+ mDC subsets engulf mock- as well as virus-infected β-cells, albeit BDCA1+ mDCs are more efficient. Uptake of enterovirus-infected, but not mock-infected cells, activated both DC subsets as indicated by the induction of co-stimulatory molecules and secretion of type I and type III interferons. Both subsets produced similar amounts of interferon-α, yet the BDCA3+ DC were superior in IFN-λ production. The BDCA1+ mDCs more strongly upregulated PD-L1, and were superior in IL-12 and IL-10 production as compared to the BDCA3+ DC. Despite lack of IL-12 production by the BDCA3+ DC, both BDCA1+ and BDCA3+ DCs activated T cells in allogeneic mixed lymphocyte reaction towards a Th1-type reactivity while suppressing Th2-associated cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M. Schulte
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud university medical center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Paul R. Gielen
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud university medical center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Esther D. Kers-Rebel
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud university medical center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gerty Schreibelt
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud university medical center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank J. M. van Kuppeveld
- Virology Division, Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Gosse J. Adema
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Radboud university medical center, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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11
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Antiviral activity of GuiQi polysaccharides against enterovirus 71 in vitro. Virol Sin 2013; 28:352-9. [PMID: 24254889 DOI: 10.1007/s12250-013-3376-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2013] [Accepted: 11/08/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, we have investigated the antiviral activity of GuiQi polysaccharides (GQP) upon enterovirus 71 (EV71) in vitro. An assay using methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT), and analyses of cytopathic effects (CPE) were used to examine the antiviral activity of GQP upon Vero cells infected with EV71. The results revealed that GQP at concentrations below 31.2 μg/mL exhibited significant antiviral effects upon EV71 when applied under three different experimental protocols. GQP was most strongly active in preventing the adsorption of EV71 to target cells and in this respect it was significantly more effective than ribavirin. In addition, it was clear that GQP could inhibit viral replication when added to cells 2 h after infection, but if added at the point of infection its effect was weak. GQP is considered to be less toxic than ribavirin, and may warrant further evaluation as a possible agent in the treatment of hand, foot and mouth disease (HFMD).
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12
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Schulte BM, Kers-Rebel ED, Prosser AC, Galama JMD, van Kuppeveld FJM, Adema GJ. Differential susceptibility and response of primary human myeloid BDCA1(+) dendritic cells to infection with different Enteroviruses. PLoS One 2013; 8:e62502. [PMID: 23638101 PMCID: PMC3634769 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxsackie B viruses (CVBs) and echoviruses (EVs) form the Human Enterovirus-B (HEV-B) species within the family Picornaviridae. HEV-B infections are widespread and generally cause mild disease; however, severe infections occur and HEV-B are associated with various chronic diseases such as cardiomyopathy and type 1 diabetes. Dendritic cells (DCs) are the professional antigen-presenting cells of our immune system and initiate and control immune responses to invading pathogens, yet also maintain tolerance to self-antigens. We previously reported that EVs, but not CVBs, can productively infect in vitro generated monocyte-derived DCs. The interactions between HEV-B and human myeloid DCs (mDCs) freshly isolated from blood, however, remain unknown. Here, we studied the susceptibility and responses of BDCA1(+) mDC to HEV-B species and found that these mDC are susceptible to EV, but not CVB infection. Productive EV7 infection resulted in massive, rapid cell death without DC activation. Contrary, EV1 infection, which resulted in lower virus input at the same MOI, resulted in DC activation as observed by production of type I interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs), upregulation of co-stimulatory and co-inhibitory molecules (CD80, CD86, PDL1) and production of IL-6 and TNF-α, with a relative moderate decrease in cell viability. EV1-induced ISG expression depended on virus replication. CVB infection did not affect DC viability and resulted in poor induction of ISGs and CD80 induction in part of the donors. These data show for the first time the interaction between HEV-B species and BDCA1(+) mDCs isolated freshly from blood. Our data indicate that different HEV-B species can influence DC homeostasis in various ways, possibly contributing to HEV-B associated pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M. Schulte
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences & Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Esther D. Kers-Rebel
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences & Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Amy C. Prosser
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences & Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jochem M. D. Galama
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences & Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank J. M. van Kuppeveld
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences & Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gosse J. Adema
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences & Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Vlachos C, Schulte BM, Magiatis P, Adema GJ, Gaitanis G. Malassezia-derived indoles activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor and inhibit Toll-like receptor-induced maturation in monocyte-derived dendritic cells. Br J Dermatol 2012; 167:496-505. [PMID: 22533375 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2133.2012.11014.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a nuclear receptor and transcriptional regulator with pleiotropic effects. The production of potent AhR ligands by Malassezia yeasts, such as indirubin, indolo[3,2-b]carbazole (ICZ), tryptanthrin and malassezin, has been associated with the pathogenesis of seborrhoeic dermatitis and pityriasis versicolor. Antigen-presenting cells in the skin can encounter microbes in the presence of these bioactive metabolites that could potentially modulate their function. OBJECTIVES To study the effects of the aforementioned naturally occurring ligands on AhR activation and Toll-like receptor (TLR)-induced maturation in human monocyte-derived dendritic cells (moDCs). METHODS These indoles were screened for AhR activation capacity in moDCs employing CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 induction as read out and for their effects on the function of moDCs after TLR-ligand stimulation. RESULTS Indirubin and ICZ were the most potent AhR ligands and were selected for subsequent experiments. Concurrent exposure of moDCs to indirubin or ICZ together with TLR agonists significantly augmented the AhR-mediated CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 gene expression. Additionally, mature DCs that were subsequently stimulated with AhR ligands showed increased AhR target gene expression. Moreover, these ligands limited TLR-induced phenotypic maturation (CD80, CD83, CD86, MHC II upregulation) of moDCs, reduced secretion of the inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-12, and decreased their ability to induce alloreactive T-lymphocyte proliferation. CONCLUSIONS These results demonstrate that AhR agonists of yeast origin are able to inhibit moDC responses to TLR ligands and that moDCs can adapt through increased transcription of metabolizing enzymes such as CYP1A1 and CYP1B1.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Vlachos
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Po Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands
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14
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Seiskari T, Kondrashova A, Tauriainen S, Knip M, Viskari H, Haapala AM, Hyöty H. Role of enterovirus infections in IgE sensitization. J Med Virol 2012; 84:268-71. [PMID: 22170547 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.23186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Among other infectious agents, enteroviruses have been associated with protection against allergic diseases. The aim of the present study was to confirm these findings using a highly sensitive and specific neutralization antibody assay and to investigate whether the protective effect is related to certain enterovirus serotypes. Antibodies against 12 enterovirus serotypes were measured in 60 children who were positive for allergen-specific IgE and in 190 control children. Echoviruses seemed to be more protective than coxsackie-B-viruses and echovirus 11 had the strongest independent protective effect (P = 0.001; OR = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.18-0.67). The results support previous observations suggesting that infections by certain enterovirus types are associated with protection against IgE sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tapio Seiskari
- Department of Virology, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.
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15
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A human coronavirus responsible for the common cold massively kills dendritic cells but not monocytes. J Virol 2012; 86:7577-87. [PMID: 22553325 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00269-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Human coronaviruses are associated with upper respiratory tract infections that occasionally spread to the lungs and other organs. Although airway epithelial cells represent an important target for infection, the respiratory epithelium is also composed of an elaborate network of dendritic cells (DCs) that are essential sentinels of the immune system, sensing pathogens and presenting foreign antigens to T lymphocytes. In this report, we show that in vitro infection by human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) induces massive cytopathic effects in DCs, including the formation of large syncytia and cell death within only few hours. In contrast, monocytes are much more resistant to infection and cytopathic effects despite similar expression levels of CD13, the membrane receptor for HCoV-229E. While the differentiation of monocytes into DCs in the presence of granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-4 requires 5 days, only 24 h are sufficient for these cytokines to sensitize monocytes to cell death and cytopathic effects when infected by HCoV-229E. Cell death induced by HCoV-229E is independent of TRAIL, FasL, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and caspase activity, indicating that viral replication is directly responsible for the observed cytopathic effects. The consequence of DC death at the early stage of HCoV-229E infection may have an impact on the early control of viral dissemination and on the establishment of long-lasting immune memory, since people can be reinfected multiple times by HCoV-229E.
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Kemball CC, Flynn CT, Hosking MP, Botten J, Whitton JL. Wild-type coxsackievirus infection dramatically alters the abundance, heterogeneity, and immunostimulatory capacity of conventional dendritic cells in vivo. Virology 2012; 429:74-90. [PMID: 22551767 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2011] [Revised: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 04/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In vitro studies have shown that enteroviruses employ strategies that may impair the ability of DCs to trigger T cell immunity, but it is unclear how these viruses affect DCs in vivo. Here, we evaluate the effects of wild-type (wt) coxsackievirus B3 on DCs in vitro and in a murine model in vivo. Although CVB3 does not productively infect the vast majority of DCs, virus infection profoundly reduces splenic conventional DC numbers and diminishes their capacity to prime naïve CD8(+) T cells in vitro. In contrast to recombinant CVB3, highly pathogenic wt virus infection significantly diminishes the host's capacity to mount T cell responses, which is temporally associated with the loss of CD8α(+) DCs. Our findings demonstrate that enterovirus infection substantially alters the number, heterogeneity, and stimulatory capacity of DCs in vivo, and these dramatic immunomodulatory effects may weaken the host's capacity to mount antiviral T cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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17
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Huang HI, Weng KF, Shih SR. Viral and host factors that contribute to pathogenicity of enterovirus 71. Future Microbiol 2012; 7:467-79. [DOI: 10.2217/fmb.12.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The single-stranded RNA virus enterovirus 71 (EV71), which belongs to the Picornaviridae family, has caused epidemics worldwide, particularly in the Asia–Pacific region. Most EV71 infections result in mild clinical symptoms, including herpangina and hand, foot and mouth disease. However, serious pathological complications have also been reported, especially for young children. The mechanisms of EV71 disease progression remain unclear. The pathogenesis of adverse clinical outcomes may relate to many factors, including cell tropism, cell death and host immune responses. This article reviews the recent advances in the identification of factors determining EV71 cell tropism, the associated mechanisms of viral infection-induced cell death and the interplay between EV71 and immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsing-I Huang
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Department of Medical Biotechnology & Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Kuo-Feng Weng
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
- The Center for Molecular & Clinical Immunology, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shin-Ru Shih
- Research Center for Emerging Viral Infections, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Department of Medical Biotechnology & Laboratory Science, Chang Gung University, Kwei-Shan Tao-Yuan, Taiwan, Republic of China
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Smura T, Ylipaasto P, Klemola P, Kaijalainen S, Kyllönen L, Sordi V, Piemonti L, Roivainen M. Cellular tropism of human enterovirus D species serotypes EV-94, EV-70, and EV-68 in vitro: implications for pathogenesis. J Med Virol 2011; 82:1940-9. [PMID: 20872722 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Enterovirus 94 (EV-94) is an enterovirus serotype described recently which, together with EV-68 and EV-70, forms human enterovirus D species. This study investigates the seroprevalences of these three serotypes and their abilities to infect, replicate, and damage cell types considered to be essential for enterovirus-induced diseases. The cell types studied included human leukocyte cell lines, primary endothelial cells, and pancreatic islets. High prevalence of neutralizing antibodies against EV-68 and EV-94 was found in the Finnish population. The virus strains studied had wide leukocyte tropism. EV-94 and EV-68 were able to produce infectious progeny in leukocyte cell lines with monocytic, granulocytic, T-cell, or B-cell characteristics. EV-94 and EV-70 were capable of infecting primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells, whereas EV-68 had only marginal progeny production and did not induce cytopathic effects in these cells. Intriguingly, EV-94 was able to damage pancreatic islet β-cells, to infect, replicate, and cause necrosis in human pancreatic islets, and to induce proinflammatory and chemoattractive cytokine expression in endothelial cells. These results suggest that HEV-D viruses may be more prevalent than has been thought previously, and they provide in vitro evidence that EV-94 may be a potent pathogen and should be considered a potentially diabetogenic enterovirus type.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teemu Smura
- Intestinal Viruses Unit, Division of Health Protection, Department of Infectious Disease Surveillance and Control, National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Helsinki, Finland.
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Foot-and-mouth disease virus exhibits an altered tropism in the presence of specific immunoglobulins, enabling productive infection and killing of dendritic cells. J Virol 2010; 85:2212-23. [PMID: 21177807 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02180-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) causes an acute vesicular disease of farm animals. The development of successful control strategies is limited by an incomplete understanding of the immune response to FMDV. Dendritic cells (DC) mediate the induction of immunity to pathogens, but their role in FMDV infection of cattle is uncharacterized. Bovine monocyte-derived DC (moDC) were exposed to integrin-binding and cell culture-adapted strains of FMDV in vitro. MoDC were not largely susceptible to infection by integrin-binding FMDV but were susceptible to culture-adapted virus. Binding specific antibodies to integrin-binding FMDV at neutralizing or subneutralizing IgG concentrations significantly enhanced infection via CD32 (FcγR). Monocytes also expressed CD32 but were nonsusceptible to FMDV immune complex (IC) infection, indicating a requirement for additional factors involved in cellular susceptibility. Infection of moDC by the FMDV IC was productive and associated with high levels of cell death. Infected moDC were unable to efficiently stimulate FMDV-specific CD4(+) memory T cells, but exposing moDC to IC containing inactivated FMDV resulted in significantly increased T cell stimulation. Thus, neutralized FMDV concurrently loses its ability to infect susceptible cells while gaining the capacity to infect immune cells. This represents a change in the tropism of FMDV that could occur after the onset of the antibody response. We propose that IC could dynamically influence the anti-FMDV immune response and that this may explain why the early immune response to FMDV has evolved toward T cell independence in vivo. Moreover, we propose that DC targeting could prove useful in the development of effective vaccines against FMDV.
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Kemball CC, Alirezaei M, Whitton JL. Type B coxsackieviruses and their interactions with the innate and adaptive immune systems. Future Microbiol 2010; 5:1329-47. [PMID: 20860480 PMCID: PMC3045535 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.10.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxsackieviruses are important human pathogens, and their interactions with the innate and adaptive immune systems are of particular interest. Many viruses evade some aspects of the innate response, but coxsackieviruses go a step further by actively inducing, and then exploiting, some features of the host cell response. Furthermore, while most viruses encode proteins that hinder the effector functions of adaptive immunity, coxsackieviruses and their cousins demonstrate a unique capacity to almost completely evade the attention of naive CD8(+) T cells. In this artcle, we discuss the above phenomena, describe the current status of research in the field, and present several testable hypotheses regarding possible links between virus infection, innate immune sensing and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C Kemball
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Mehrdad Alirezaei
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - J Lindsay Whitton
- Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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21
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Schein CH, Oezguen N, van der Heden van Noort GJ, Filippov DV, Paul A, Kumar E, Braun W. NMR solution structure of poliovirus uridylyated peptide linked to the genome (VPgpU). Peptides 2010; 31:1441-8. [PMID: 20441784 PMCID: PMC2905501 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2010.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2010] [Revised: 04/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Picornaviruses have a 22-24 amino acid peptide, VPg, bound covalently at the 5' end of their RNA, that is essential for replication. VPgs are uridylylated at a conserved tyrosine to form VPgpU, the primer of RNA synthesis by the viral polymerase. This first complete structure for any uridylylated VPg, of poliovirus type 1 (PV1)-VPgpU, shows that conserved amino acids in VPg stabilize the bound UMP, with the uridine atoms involved in base pairing and chain elongation projected outward. Comparing this structure to PV1-VPg and partial structures of VPg/VPgpU from other picornaviruses suggests that enteroviral polymerases require a more stable VPg structure than does the distantly related aphthovirus, foot and mouth disease virus (FMDV). The glutamine residue at the C-terminus of PV1-VPgpU lies in back of the uridine base and may stabilize its position during chain elongation and/or contribute to base specificity. Under in vivo-like conditions with the authentic cre(2C) hairpin RNA and Mg(2+), 5-methylUTP cannot compete with UTP for VPg uridylyation in an in vitro uridylyation assay, but both nucleotides are equally incorporated by PV1-polymerase with Mn(2+) and a poly-A RNA template. This indicates the 5 position is recognized under in vivo conditions. The compact VPgpU structure docks within the active site cavity of the PV-polymerase, close to the position seen for the fragment of FMDV-VPgpU with its polymerase. This structure could aid in design of novel enterovirus inhibitors, and stabilization upon uridylylation may also be pertinent for post-translational uridylylation reactions that underlie other biological processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine H Schein
- Computational Biology, Sealy Center for Structural Biology and Molecular Biophysics, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0857, USA.
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22
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Schulte BM, Kramer M, Ansems M, Lanke KH, van Doremalen N, Piganelli JD, Bottino R, Trucco M, Galama JM, Adema GJ, van Kuppeveld FJ. Phagocytosis of enterovirus-infected pancreatic beta-cells triggers innate immune responses in human dendritic cells. Diabetes 2010; 59:1182-91. [PMID: 20071599 PMCID: PMC2857898 DOI: 10.2337/db09-1071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Type 1 diabetes is a chronic endocrine disorder in which enteroviruses, such as coxsackie B viruses and echoviruses, are possible environmental factors that can trigger or accelerate disease. The development or acceleration of type 1 diabetes depends on the balance between autoreactive effector T-cells and regulatory T-cells. This balance is particularly influenced by dendritic cells (DCs). The goal of this study was to investigate the interaction between enterovirus-infected human pancreatic islets and human DCs. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS In vitro phagocytosis of human or porcine primary islets or Min6 mouse insuloma cells by DCs was investigated by flow cytometry and confocal analysis. Subsequent innate DC responses were monitored by quantitative PCR and Western blotting of interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). RESULTS In this study, we show that both mock- and coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3)-infected human and porcine pancreatic islets were efficiently phagocytosed by human monocyte-derived DCs. Phagocytosis of CVB3-infected, but not mock-infected, human and porcine islets resulted in induction of ISGs in DCs, including the retinoic acid-inducible gene (RIG)-I-like helicases (RLHs), RIG-I, and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 (Mda5). Studies with murine Min6 insuloma cells, which were also efficiently phagocytosed, revealed that increased ISG expression in DCs upon encountering CVB-infected cells resulted in an antiviral state that protected DCs from subsequent enterovirus infection. The observed innate antiviral responses depended on RNA within the phagocytosed cells, required endosomal acidification, and were type I interferon dependent. CONCLUSIONS Human DCs can phagocytose enterovirus-infected pancreatic cells and subsequently induce innate antiviral responses, such as induction of RLHs. These responses may have important consequences for immune homeostasis in vivo and may play a role in the etiology of type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara M. Schulte
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Matthijs Kramer
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Marleen Ansems
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Kjerstin H.W. Lanke
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Neeltje van Doremalen
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Jon D. Piganelli
- Department of Pediatrics, Diabetes Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Rita Bottino
- Department of Pediatrics, Diabetes Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Massimo Trucco
- Department of Pediatrics, Diabetes Institute, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jochem M.D. Galama
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Gosse J. Adema
- Department of Tumor Immunology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Frank J.M. van Kuppeveld
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Nijmegen Centre for Molecular Life Sciences and Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
- Corresponding author: Frank J.M. van Kuppeveld,
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Kemball CC, Harkins S, Whitmire JK, Flynn CT, Feuer R, Whitton JL. Coxsackievirus B3 inhibits antigen presentation in vivo, exerting a profound and selective effect on the MHC class I pathway. PLoS Pathog 2009; 5:e1000618. [PMID: 19834548 PMCID: PMC2757675 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Many viruses encode proteins whose major function is to evade or disable the host T cell response. Nevertheless, most viruses are readily detected by host T cells, and induce relatively strong T cell responses. Herein, we employ transgenic CD4+ and CD8+ T cells as sensors to evaluate in vitro and in vivo antigen presentation by coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), and we show that this virus almost completely inhibits antigen presentation via the MHC class I pathway, thereby evading CD8+ T cell immunity. In contrast, the presentation of CVB3-encoded MHC class II epitopes is relatively unencumbered, and CVB3 induces in vivo CD4+ T cell responses that are, by several criteria, phenotypically normal. The cells display an effector phenotype and mature into multi-functional CVB3-specific memory CD4+ T cells that expand dramatically following challenge infection and rapidly differentiate into secondary effector cells capable of secreting multiple cytokines. Our findings have implications for the efficiency of antigen cross-presentation during coxsackievirus infection. Many viruses—for example, large DNA viruses like smallpox virus and herpesviruses—encode several proteins whose major function is to combat the host's immune response, but these proteins usually battle in vain; in general, the mammalian immune system is sufficiently accomplished to penetrate this viral armor, allowing the infected animal to mount an immune response that can eradicate—or, at least, suppress—the infectious agent. Here, we show that coxsackievirus, a small RNA virus, carries a far more powerful punch than its larger DNA cousins; it almost entirely evades detection by host CD8+ T cells, which usually are one of the key components of an antiviral immune response. How does the virus achieve such success? Normally, when a virus infects a cell, certain host proteins capture small fragments of the virus and display them on the cell's surface, allowing them to be detected by the host immune system—usually, by cells called CD8+ T cells. We show here that coxsackievirus very effectively prevents these “flags” from reaching the cell surface in a form that can trigger naïve T cells to respond; in effect, the virus renders the cell “invisible” to CD8+ T cells, creating a cocoon in which the virus can multiply undisturbed by host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher C. Kemball
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Stephanie Harkins
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Jason K. Whitmire
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Claudia T. Flynn
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Ralph Feuer
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, California, United States of America
| | - J. Lindsay Whitton
- Department of Immunology and Microbial Science, SP30-2110, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Enterovirus 71 (EV71) causes death and long-term neurologic sequelae in hundreds of thousands of young children, but its pathogenesis remains elusive. Dendritic cells (DCs) play a crucial role in antiviral immunity by functioning as professional antigen-presenting cells to prime T cells and by secreting cytokines to modulate immune responses. Here, we show that EV71 productively infected human immature DCs and expressed viral antigen in DCs. EV71 entry into DCs was partially mediated by DC-SIGN. Further analyses revealed that EV71 increased the viability, activation, release of cytokines, interleukin-6, interleukin-12, and tumor necrosis factor-α in DCs. Moreover, EV71 enabled DCs to stimulate T-cell proliferation. Collectively, these findings suggest that EV71 infection of human DCs in vivo is very likely to elicit protective immunity, because in infected mice, both T cells and IL-6 function to reduce mortality.
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Enumeration and functional evaluation of virus-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in lymphoid and peripheral sites of coxsackievirus B3 infection. J Virol 2008; 82:4331-42. [PMID: 18305030 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02639-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested that coxsackievirus B (CVB) activates CD8(+) T cells in vivo, but the extent of this activation and the antigen specificity of the CD8(+) T cells remain uncertain. Furthermore, CVB-induced CD4(+) T-cell responses have not been carefully investigated. Herein, we evaluate CD8(+) and CD4(+) T-cell responses both in a secondary lymphoid organ (spleen) and in peripheral tissues (heart and pancreas), using a recombinant CVB3 (rCVB3.6) that encodes well-characterized CD8(+) and CD4(+) T-cell epitopes. Despite reaching high levels in vivo, rCVB3.6 failed to trigger a marked expansion of CD8(+) or CD4(+) T cells, and T-cell activation was surprisingly limited. Furthermore, epitope-specific effector functions could not be detected using highly sensitive in vivo and ex vivo assays. Moreover, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I tetramer analysis indicated that our inability to detect CVB3-specific CD8(+) T-cell responses could not be explained by the cells being dysfunctional. In contrast to naïve T cells, epitope-specific memory CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells proliferated markedly, indicating that both of the rCVB3.6-encoded epitopes were presented by their respective MHC molecules in vivo. These data are consistent with the observation that several CVB3 proteins can limit the presentation of viral epitopes on the surface of infected cells and suggest that the level of MHC/peptide complex is sufficient to trigger memory but not naïve T cells. Finally, our findings have implications for the biological significance of cross-priming, a process thought by some to be important for the induction of antiviral CD8(+) T-cell responses.
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Phagocytosis of picornavirus-infected cells induces an RNA-dependent antiviral state in human dendritic cells. J Virol 2008; 82:2930-7. [PMID: 18184700 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02376-07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) play a central role in instructing antiviral immune responses. DCs, however, can become targeted by different viruses themselves. We recently demonstrated that human DCs can be productively infected with echoviruses (EVs), but not coxsackie B viruses (CVBs), both of which are RNA viruses belonging to the Enterovirus genus of the Picornaviridae family. We now show that phagocytosis of CVB-infected, type I interferon-deficient cells induces an antiviral state in human DCs. Uptake of infected cells increased the expression of the cytoplasmic RNA helicases retinoic acid-inducible gene I and melanoma differentiation-associated gene 5 as well as other interferon-stimulated genes and protected DCs against subsequent infection with EV9. These effects depended on recognition of viral RNA and could be mimicked by exposure to the synthetic double-stranded RNA analogue poly(I:C) but not other Toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. Blocking endosomal acidification abrogated protection, suggesting a role for TLRs in the acquisition of an antiviral state in DCs. In conclusion, recognition of viral RNA rapidly induces an antiviral state in human DCs. This might provide a mechanism by which DCs protect themselves against viruses when attracted to an environment with ongoing infection.
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