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Baz AA, Hao H, Lan S, Li Z, Liu S, Jin X, Chen S, Chu Y. Emerging insights into macrophage extracellular traps in bacterial infections. FASEB J 2024; 38:e23767. [PMID: 38924166 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202400739r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/12/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Macrophages possess a diverse range of well-defined capabilities and roles as phagocytes, encompassing the regulation of inflammation, facilitation of wound healing, maintenance of tissue homeostasis, and serving as a crucial element in the innate immune response against microbial pathogens. The emergence of extracellular traps is a novel strategy of defense that has been observed in several types of innate immune cells. In response to infection, macrophages are stimulated and produce macrophage extracellular traps (METs), which take the form of net-like structures, filled with strands of DNA and adorned with histones and other cellular proteins. METs not only capture and eliminate microorganisms but also play a role in the development of certain diseases such as inflammation and autoimmune disorders. The primary objective of this study is to examine the latest advancements in METs for tackling bacterial infections. We also delve into the current knowledge and tactics utilized by bacteria to elude or endure the effects of METs. Through this investigation, we hope to shed light on the intricate interactions between bacteria and the host's immune system, particularly in the context of microbicidal effector mechanisms of METs. The continued exploration of METs and their impact on host defense against various pathogens opens up new avenues for understanding and potentially manipulating the immune system's response to infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Adel Baz
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
- Botany and Microbiology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Huafang Hao
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shimei Lan
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
| | - Zhangcheng Li
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shuang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
| | - Xiangrui Jin
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
| | - Shengli Chen
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
| | - Yuefeng Chu
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, China
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Ruminant Disease Prevention and Control (West), Ministry of Agricultural and Rural Affairs, Lanzhou, China
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2
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Azevedo IR, Amamura TA, Isaac L. Human leptospirosis: In search for a better vaccine. Scand J Immunol 2023; 98:e13316. [PMID: 39008520 DOI: 10.1111/sji.13316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 07/03/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a neglected disease caused by bacteria of the genus Leptospira and is more prevalent in tropical and subtropical countries. This pathogen infects humans and other animals, responsible for the most widespread zoonosis in the world, estimated to be responsible for 60 000 deaths and 1 million cases per year. To date, commercial vaccines against human leptospirosis are available only in some countries such as Japan, China, Cuba and France. These vaccines prepared with inactivated Leptospira (bacterins) induce a short-term and serovar-specific immune response, with strong adverse side effects. To circumvent these limitations, several research groups are investigating new experimental vaccines in order to ensure that they are safe, efficient, and protect against several pathogenic Leptospira serovars, inducing sterilizing immunity. Most of these protocols use attenuated cultures, preparations after LPS removal, recombinant proteins or DNA from pathogenic Leptospira spp. The aim of this review was to highlight several promising vaccine candidates, considering their immunogenicity, presence in different pathogenic Leptospira serovars, their role in virulence or immune evasion and other factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabela Resende Azevedo
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Thais Akemi Amamura
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lourdes Isaac
- Department of Immunology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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3
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Du L, Wu Y, Pan Y, Wang L, Zhang H, Li J, Liu Y, Zhang H, He P. Lipopolysaccharide and Glycolipoprotein Coordinately Triggered Necroptosis Contributes to the Pathogenesis of Leptospira Infection in Mice. J Infect Dis 2023; 228:944-956. [PMID: 37166078 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a recurring but neglected zoonotic disease caused by pathogenic Leptospira. The explicit underlying mechanism of necroptosis and its role in Leptospira infection have not yet been elucidated. Here we reported that leptospiral pathogen-associated molecular patterns, lipopolysaccharide, and glycolipoprotein activate the necroptotic RIPK1-RIPK3-MLKL cascade through the TLR4 signaling pathway in mouse macrophages. Using the murine acute leptospirosis model, we reveal that abolition of necroptosis exhibited significantly improved outcomes in acute phases, with enhanced eradication of Leptospira from liver, mild clinical symptoms, and decreased cytokine production. RIPK3 was also found to exert a necroptosis-independent function in CXCL1 production and neutrophil recruitment, with the consequence of improved Leptospira control. These findings improve our understanding of the mechanism of Leptospira-macrophage interactions, indicating potential therapeutic values by targeting necroptosis signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Du
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yunqiang Wu
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuqing Pan
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Lingxia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Haiwei Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiayin Li
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ya'nan Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Haibing Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Nutrition, Metabolism and Food Safety, Shanghai Institute of Nutrition and Health, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping He
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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4
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Asoh T, Miyahara S, Villanueva SYAM, Kanemaru T, Takigawa T, Mori H, Gloriani NG, Yoshida SI, Saito M. Protective role of stratum corneum in percutaneous Leptospira infection in a hamster model. Microb Pathog 2023; 182:106243. [PMID: 37422175 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2023.106243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 06/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
Leptospira enters humans and animals through injured skin or mucous membranes by direct or indirect contact with urine excreted from infected reservoirs. Individuals with cut or scratched skin are at high risk of infection and are recommended to be protected from contact with Leptospira, but the risk of infection via skin without apparent wounds is unknown. We hypothesized that the stratum corneum of the epidermis might prevent percutaneous invasion of leptospires. We established a stratum corneum deficient model of hamsters using the tape stripping method. The mortality rate of hamsters lacking stratum corneum that were exposed to Leptospira was higher than that of controls with shaved skin, and was not significantly different from an epidermal wound group. These results indicated that the stratum corneum plays a critical role in protecting the host against leptospiral entry. We also examined the migration of leptospires through the monolayer of HaCaT cells (human keratinocyte cell line) using Transwell. The number of pathogenic leptospires penetrating the HaCaT cell monolayers was higher than that of non-pathogenic leptospires. Furthermore, scanning and transmission electron microscopic observations revealed that the bacteria penetrated the cell monolayers through both intracellular and intercellular routes. This suggested that pathogenic Leptospira can migrate easily through keratinocyte layers and is associated with virulence. Our study further highlights the importance of the stratum corneum as a critical barrier against the invasion of Leptospira found in contaminated soil and water. Hence, preventative measures against contact infection should be taken, even without visible skin wounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuma Asoh
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan; Hamanomachi Hospital, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Satoshi Miyahara
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Sharon Yvette Angelina M Villanueva
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines
| | - Takaaki Kanemaru
- Department of Morphology Core Unit, Kyushu University Hospital, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Tomoya Takigawa
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Mori
- Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Nina G Gloriani
- Department of Medical Microbiology, College of Public Health, University of the Philippines, Manila, Philippines; Department of Pathology, St. Luke's Medical Center, Quezon City, Philippines
| | - Shin-Ichi Yoshida
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Mitsumasa Saito
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, Japan; Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Occupational and Environmental Health, Japan, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka, Japan.
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5
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Huete SG, Benaroudj N. The Arsenal of Leptospira Species against Oxidants. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1273. [PMID: 37372003 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12061273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are byproducts of oxygen metabolism produced by virtually all organisms living in an oxic environment. ROS are also produced by phagocytic cells in response to microorganism invasion. These highly reactive molecules can damage cellular constituents (proteins, DNA, and lipids) and exhibit antimicrobial activities when present in sufficient amount. Consequently, microorganisms have evolved defense mechanisms to counteract ROS-induced oxidative damage. Leptospira are diderm bacteria form the Spirochaetes phylum. This genus is diverse, encompassing both free-living non-pathogenic bacteria as well as pathogenic species responsible for leptospirosis, a widespread zoonotic disease. All leptospires are exposed to ROS in the environment, but only pathogenic species are well-equipped to sustain the oxidative stress encountered inside their hosts during infection. Importantly, this ability plays a pivotal role in Leptospira virulence. In this review, we describe the ROS encountered by Leptospira in their different ecological niches and outline the repertoire of defense mechanisms identified so far in these bacteria to scavenge deadly ROS. We also review the mechanisms controlling the expression of these antioxidants systems and recent advances in understanding the contribution of Peroxide Stress Regulators in Leptospira adaptation to oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel G Huete
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Spirochètes, CNRS UMR 6047, F-75015 Paris, France
| | - Nadia Benaroudj
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, Biologie des Spirochètes, CNRS UMR 6047, F-75015 Paris, France
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6
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Bonhomme D, Hernandez-Trejo V, Papadopoulos S, Pigache R, Fanton d'Andon M, Outlioua A, Boneca IG, Werts C. Leptospira interrogans Prevents Macrophage Cell Death and Pyroptotic IL-1β Release through Its Atypical Lipopolysaccharide. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 210:459-474. [PMID: 36602965 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans are bacteria that can infect all vertebrates and are responsible for leptospirosis, a neglected zoonosis. Some hosts, such as humans, are susceptible to the disease, whereas mice are resistant and get chronically colonized. Although leptospires escape recognition by some immune receptors, they activate the NOD-like receptor pyrin 3-inflammasome and trigger IL-1β secretion. Classically, IL-1β secretion is associated with lytic inflammatory cell death called pyroptosis, resulting from cytosolic LPS binding to inflammatory caspases, such as caspase 11. Interestingly, we showed that L. interrogans and Leptospira biflexa do not trigger cell death in either murine, human, hamster, or bovine macrophages, escaping both pyroptosis and apoptosis. We showed, in murine cells, that the mild IL-1β secretion induced by leptospires occurred through nonlytic caspase 8-dependent gasdermin D pore formation and not through activation of caspase 11/noncanonical inflammasome. Strikingly, we demonstrated a potent antagonistic effect of pathogenic L. interrogans and their atypical LPS on spontaneous and Escherichia coli LPS-induced cell death. Indeed, LPS of L. interrogans efficiently prevents caspase 11 dimerization and subsequent massive gasdermin D cleavage. Finally, we showed that pyroptosis escape by leptospires prevents massive IL-1β release, and we consistently found no major role of IL-1R in controlling experimental leptospirosis in vivo. Overall, to our knowledge, our findings described a novel mechanism by which leptospires dampen inflammation, thus potentially contributing to their stealthiness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Delphine Bonhomme
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Veronica Hernandez-Trejo
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Stylianos Papadopoulos
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Rémi Pigache
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Martine Fanton d'Andon
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Ahmed Outlioua
- INSERM, UMR_S 1197, Hôpital Paul Brousse, Villejuif, France.,Université Paris-Saclay, Paris, France; and.,Health and Environment Laboratory, Aïn Chock Faculty of Sciences, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Ivo G Boneca
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Werts
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
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Zhao X, Guo J, Jia X, Yang Y, Liu L, Nie W, Fang Z. Internalization of Leptospira interrogans via diverse endocytosis mechanisms in human macrophages and vascular endothelial cells. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010778. [PMID: 36137081 PMCID: PMC9531806 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis, one of the leading global causes of morbidity and mortality, is an emerging public health problem, particularly in large urban centers of developing countries. Leptospirosis results from infection with an organism belonging to the Leptospira genus L. interrogans. The extensive invasive ability has previously been documented, however a mechanism that describes how the organism is internalized by human macrophages and transmigrates through human blood vessel remains poorly understood. In the present study, we utilized a human macrophage and vascular endothelial cell line to study the diverse invasive mechanisms by which L. interrogans infections occur. We found that THP-1 and HUVEC had a diverse expression of cell receptors and L. interrogans entered THP-1 and HUVEC by different pathways. In the macrophage model cell line, ITGB1/FAK-signaling mediated microfilament dependent endocytosis with lysosome fusion, whereas ITGB1/CAV-1/PI3K-signaling mediated microfilament dependent endocytosis and transcytosis without lysosome fusion in the endothelial cell model. Shedding of pathogenic leptospires from HUVEC displayed higher viability than those from THP-1. The monolayer of HUVEC maintained integrity during the infection, while 3D imaging showed that leptospires were transmigrated both intra- and intercellularly. These results indicate that endocytosis of leptospires in human macrophages and human vascular endothelial cells are quite different, macrophages are responsible for eliminating leptospires in the human body during the infection while vascular endothelial cells facilitate dissemination of leptospires from blood vessels into target organs where they cause injury. Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease which causes 1.03 million cases and 58,900 deaths each year. Human infections occur when the primary reservoir hosts, such as rodents, contaminate food and water with leptospires. Unlike other bacterial pathogens, leptospires invade the human body through mucosal barriers and enter the bloodstream, which can result in septicemia. Left untreated, leptospirosis can spread into multiple organs and tissues such as lungs, liver and kidneys. Pathological features of this disease include high fever, myalgia, lymphadenectasis, hemorrhaging and jaundice. Human macrophages and vascular endothelial cells play important roles in eliminating and preventing the transmission of this pathogen. We speculated that leptospires could be neutralized in macrophages and subsequently transported by vascular endothelial cells throughout the human body. In this research, the diverse mechanisms of human macrophages and vascular endothelial cells infected by leptospires were explored. Our findings can be used to improve the treatment, prevention, and supervision regarding leptospire transmission and infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhao
- Institute of Health Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XZ); (ZF)
| | - Jun Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Health of Tianjin, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaoyuan Jia
- College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yaling Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Health of Tianjin, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, China
| | - Lijuan Liu
- Institute of Health Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, China
| | - Weizhong Nie
- Department of health quarantine, Qinhuangdao Customs District, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Zhiqiang Fang
- Institute of Health Quarantine, Chinese Academy of Inspection and Quarantine, Beijing, China
- * E-mail: (XZ); (ZF)
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8
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Santecchia I, Bonhomme D, Papadopoulos S, Escoll P, Giraud-Gatineau A, Moya-Nilges M, Vernel-Pauillac F, Boneca IG, Werts C. Alive Pathogenic and Saprophytic Leptospires Enter and Exit Human and Mouse Macrophages With No Intracellular Replication. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:936931. [PMID: 35899053 PMCID: PMC9310662 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.936931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans are pathogenic bacteria responsible for leptospirosis, a zoonosis impacting 1 million people per year worldwide. Leptospires can infect all vertebrates, but not all hosts develop similar symptoms. Human and cattle may suffer from mild to acute illnesses and are therefore considered as sensitive to leptospirosis. In contrast, mice and rats remain asymptomatic upon infection, although they get chronically colonized in their kidneys. Upon infection, leptospires are stealth pathogens that partially escape the recognition by the host innate immune system. Although leptospires are mainly extracellular bacteria, it was suggested that they could also replicate within macrophages. However, contradictory data in the current literature led us to reevaluate these findings. Using a gentamicin–protection assay coupled to high-content (HC) microscopy, we observed that leptospires were internalized in vivo upon peritoneal infection of C57BL/6J mice. Additionally, three different serotypes of pathogenic L. interrogans and the saprophytic L. biflexa actively infected both human (PMA differentiated) THP1 and mouse RAW264.7 macrophage cell lines. Next, we assessed the intracellular fate of leptospires using bioluminescent strains, and we observed a drastic reduction in the leptospiral intracellular load between 3 h and 6 h post-infection, suggesting that leptospires do not replicate within these cells. Surprisingly, the classical macrophage microbicidal mechanisms (phagocytosis, autophagy, TLR–mediated ROS, and RNS production) were not responsible for the observed decrease. Finally, we demonstrated that the reduction in the intracellular load was associated with an increase of the bacteria in the supernatant, suggesting that leptospires exit both human and murine macrophages. Overall, our study reevaluated the intracellular fate of leptospires and favors an active entrance followed by a rapid exit, suggesting that leptospires do not have an intracellular lifestyle in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Santecchia
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Delphine Bonhomme
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Stylianos Papadopoulos
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Pedro Escoll
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, Unité Biologie des Bactéries Intracellulaires, Paris, France
| | - Alexandre Giraud-Gatineau
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, Unité de Biologie des Spirochètes, Paris, France
| | - Maryse Moya-Nilges
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, Plateforme de Bio-imagerie Ultrastructurale, Paris, France
| | - Frédérique Vernel-Pauillac
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Ivo Gomperts Boneca
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Werts
- Institut Pasteur, Université Cité Paris, CNRS UMR6047, INSERM U1306, Unité de Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- *Correspondence: Catherine Werts,
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Implication of the IL-10-Expression Signature in the Pathogenicity of Leptospira-Infected Macrophages. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0259521. [PMID: 35638785 PMCID: PMC9241676 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02595-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis, an emerging infectious disease caused by pathogenic Leptospira spp., occurs in ecoregions with heavy rainfall and has public health implications. Macrophages are the major anti-Leptospira phagocytes that infiltrate the kidneys during renal leptospirosis, which is caused by leptospires residing in the renal tubules. The pathogenicity of Leptospira spp. in immune effector cells such as macrophages is not well understood. To evaluate this pathogenesis, we characterized and compared the transcriptome-wide alterations in macrophages infected with pathogenic and nonpathogenic Leptospira spp. Using transcriptome data and quantitative reverse transcription PCR analysis, at 2 h postinfection, the hypoxia-inducible factor-1α-dependent glycolysis pathway was implicated in pathogenic Leptospira-infected macrophages but not in nonpathogenic leptospiral infections. Immune-related biological processes were mostly activated in pathogenic Leptospira-infected macrophages, and flow cytometry investigations revealed that classically activated macrophages represent the predominant polarization status. At 24 h after infection, biological pathways associated with interleukin-10, IL-10, signaling the induction of macrophage tolerance, as well as higher levels of IL-10 mRNA and protein expression, were observed in nonpathogenic Leptospira-infected macrophages compared to in pathogenic leptospiral infection. Following leptospiral infection of macrophages, strong IL-10-expressing transcriptome signatures were observed following nonpathogenic leptospiral infection. The transcriptional programs generated in Leptospira-infected macrophages revealed an inflammatory milieu following the production of a critical anti-inflammatory cytokine, IL-10, which is implicated in controlling the pathogenicity of activated macrophages. These findings imply that IL-10-mediated anti-inflammatory responses and tolerance in activated macrophages induced by nonpathogenic Leptospira spp. infection reduce inflammation and tissue damage, thus providing a potential therapeutic target for leptospirosis. IMPORTANCE Activation of macrophages by Leptospira spp. infection is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of leptospirosis. To evaluate the innate macrophage responses to Leptospira spp., specifically pathogenic versus nonpathogenic Leptospira spp., we characterized the entire transcriptome-wide alterations in infected macrophages. We showed that hypoxia-inducible factor-1α and immune-related pathways are activated in pathogenic leptospiral-infected macrophages. We confirmed the significantly high levels of IL-10-expressing signatures and tolerance in activated macrophages caused by nonpathogenic Leptospira infection. Furthermore, nonpathogenic leptospiral infections attenuated macrophage activation responses. These findings suggest a potential therapeutic strategy for the immune microenvironment caused by macrophage activation driven by IL-10 overexpression, which may contribute to regulating inflammation in leptospirosis.
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10
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Sato Y, Hermawan I, Kakita T, Okano S, Imai H, Nagai H, Kimura R, Yamashiro T, Kajita T, Toma C. Analysis of human clinical and environmental Leptospira to elucidate the eco-epidemiology of leptospirosis in Yaeyama, subtropical Japan. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022; 16:e0010234. [PMID: 35358181 PMCID: PMC8970387 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leptospirosis, a zoonosis caused by species in the spirochete genus Leptospira, is endemic to the Yaeyama region in Okinawa, subtropical Japan. Species of the P1 subclade “virulent” group, within the genus Leptospira, are the main etiological agents of leptospirosis in Okinawa. However, their environmental persistence is poorly understood. This study used a combination of bacterial isolation and environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding methods to understand the eco-epidemiology of leptospirosis in this endemic region. Findings Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) characterized twelve human clinical L. interrogans isolates belonging to the P1 subclade “virulent” subgroup and 11 environmental soil isolates of the P1subclade “low virulent” subgroup (genetically related to L. kmetyi, n = 1; L. alstonii, n = 4; L. barantonii, n = 6) from the Yaeyama region targeting four virulence-related genes (lipL32, ligA, ligB and lpxD1). Clinical isolates were PCR positive for at least three targeted genes, while all environmental isolates were positive only for lipL32. Analysis of infected renal epithelial cells with selected clinical and environmental strains, revealed the disassembly of cell-cell junctions for the Hebdomadis clinical strain serogroup. Comparison of leptospiral eDNA during winter and summer identified operational taxonomic units corresponding to the species isolated from soil samples (L. kmetyi and L. barantonii) and additional P2 subclade species (L. licerasiae, L. wolffii-related, among others) that were not detected by soil cultivation. Total Leptospira read counts were higher in summer than in winter and the analysis of leptospiral/animal eDNA relationship suggested Rattus spp. as a potential reservoir animal. Conclusion Our study demonstrated high environmental Leptospira diversity in the Yaeyama region, particularly during summer, when most of the leptospirosis cases are reported. In addition, several Leptospira species with pathogenic potential were identified that have not yet been reported in Yaeyama; however, the environmental persistence of P1 subclade species previously isolated from human clinical cases in this region was absent, suggesting the need of further methodology development and surveillance. Leptospirosis is a widespread bacterial zoonosis and one of the most important acute febrile infectious disease in tropical and subtropical regions, which is difficult to differentiate from other infectious diseases common in these regions. Leptospirosis is endemic to Okinawa prefecture, the southernmost prefecture of Japan, where the infection occurs mainly after recreational activities in rivers in the northern part of Okinawa Main Island and the Yaeyama region. This study combined several methods such as bacterial isolation from soil and environmental DNA metabarcoding from river water samples to understand the persistence of Leptospira outside the human host, leptospiral diversity in the environment, and their potential reservoir animals in the wild environment of the Yaeyama region. Although this study didn’t confirm the environmental persistence of Leptospira species previously isolated from clinical cases, several newly reported Leptospira species with pathogenic potential from the Yaeyama region suggested the need for continual surveillance to improve leptospirosis control and prevention in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukuto Sato
- Research Laboratory Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- Center for Strategic Research Project, Organization for Research Promotion, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- * E-mail: (YS); (CT)
| | - Idam Hermawan
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Kakita
- Department of Biological Sciences, Okinawa Prefectural Institute of Health and Environment, Uruma-shi, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Sho Okano
- Department of Biological Sciences, Okinawa Prefectural Institute of Health and Environment, Uruma-shi, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Imai
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science; Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Japan
| | - Hiroto Nagai
- Department of Chemistry, Biology and Marine Science; Faculty of Science, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Kimura
- Department of Human Biology and Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Tetsu Yamashiro
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Tadashi Kajita
- Iriomote Station, Tropical Biosphere Research Center, University of the Ryukyus, Taketomi, Okinawa, Japan
- United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Kagoshima University, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Claudia Toma
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nishihara, Okinawa, Japan
- * E-mail: (YS); (CT)
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11
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Gut microbiota involved in leptospiral infections. THE ISME JOURNAL 2022; 16:764-773. [PMID: 34588617 PMCID: PMC8857230 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-021-01122-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a re-emerging zoonotic disease worldwide. Intestinal bleeding is a common but neglected symptom in severe leptospirosis. The regulatory mechanism of the gut microbiota on leptospirosis is still unclear. In this study, we found that Leptospira interrogans infection changed the composition of the gut microbiota in mice. Weight loss and an increased leptospiral load in organs were observed in the gut microbiota-depleted mice compared with those in the control mice. Moreover, fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) to the microbiota-depleted mice reversed these effects. The phagocytosis response and inflammatory response in bone marrow-derived macrophages and thioglycolate-induced peritoneal macrophages were diminished in the microbiota-depleted mice after infection. However, the phagocytosis response and inflammatory response in resident peritoneal macrophage were not affected in the microbiota-depleted mice after infection. The diminished macrophage disappearance reaction (bacterial entry into the peritoneum acutely induced macrophage adherence to form local clots and out of the fluid phase) led to an increased leptospiral load in the peritoneal cavity in the microbiota-depleted mice. In addition, the impaired capacity of macrophages to clear leptospires increased leptospiral dissemination in Leptospira-infected microbiota-depleted mice. Our study identified the microbiota as an endogenous defense against L. interrogans infection. Modulating the structure and function of the gut microbiota may provide new individualized preventative strategies for the control of leptospirosis and related spirochetal infections.
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12
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Prado LG, Barbosa AS. Understanding the Renal Fibrotic Process in Leptospirosis. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms221910779. [PMID: 34639117 PMCID: PMC8509513 DOI: 10.3390/ijms221910779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a neglected infectious disease caused by pathogenic species of the genus Leptospira. The acute disease is well-described, and, although it resembles other tropical diseases, it can be diagnosed through the use of serological and molecular methods. While the chronic renal disease, carrier state, and kidney fibrosis due to Leptospira infection in humans have been the subject of discussion by researchers, the mechanisms involved in these processes are still overlooked, and relatively little is known about the establishment and maintenance of the chronic status underlying this infectious disease. In this review, we highlight recent findings regarding the cellular communication pathways involved in the renal fibrotic process, as well as the relationship between renal fibrosis due to leptospirosis and CKD/CKDu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luan Gavião Prado
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia, Instituto Butantan, Avenida Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil;
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Angela Silva Barbosa
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia, Instituto Butantan, Avenida Vital Brasil, 1500, São Paulo 05503-900, Brazil;
- Correspondence:
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13
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Shetty A, Kundu S, Gomes-Solecki M. Inflammatory Signatures of Pathogenic and Non-Pathogenic Leptospira Infection in Susceptible C3H-HeJ Mice. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:677999. [PMID: 34249775 PMCID: PMC8264587 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.677999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The exact global impact of leptospirosis is unknown due to inadequate surveillance systems in place in most low-income countries. In this study, we analyzed the differences in mouse inflammatory signatures involved in pathogenic versus non-pathogenic Leptospira recognition at 24h and 72h post infection. Injection of C3H-HeJ mice with non-pathogenic L. biflexa increased circulation of a few chemokines (5/21, 24%) without secretion of cytokines in blood that resulted in engagement of resident macrophages, dendritic cells, neutrophils and NK cells without engagement of T cells. In contrast, pathogenic L. interrogans induced circulation of a much higher panel of chemokines (18/21, 86%) and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines (11/19, 58%) in blood with a resulting signaling cascade leading to engagement of macrophages, dendritic cells, monocytes, NK cells and T cells without engagement of neutrophils. Although neutrophils do not appear to be engaged, a considerable number of chemokines that recruit other granulocytes such as eosinophils and basophils were also increased at 72h post infection with L. interrogans. Overall, the data suggest that prevention of dissemination of L. biflexa is associated with an early engagement of the innate immune response characterized by upregulation of a few chemokines that results in an efficacious phagocytic response without an overwhelming increase of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, when macrophages fail to clear a pathogenic serovar such as L. interrogans, the adaptive response (T cells) is engaged to help out, but the resulting chemo-cytokine storm mediates a robust but non-resolving inflammatory response to pathogenic Leptospira that results in dissemination, kidney colonization, pathology and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Advait Shetty
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Suman Kundu
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States
| | - Maria Gomes-Solecki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States,Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, TN, United States,*Correspondence: Maria Gomes-Solecki,
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14
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Wang Y, Fan X, Du L, Liu B, Xiao H, Zhang Y, Wu Y, Liu F, Chang YF, Guo X, He P. Scavenger receptor A1 participates in uptake of Leptospira interrogans serovar Autumnalis strain 56606v and inflammation in mouse macrophages. Emerg Microbes Infect 2021; 10:939-953. [PMID: 33929941 PMCID: PMC8153709 DOI: 10.1080/22221751.2021.1925160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis, caused by pathogenic Leptospira species, has emerged as a widespread zoonotic disease worldwide. Macrophages mediate the elimination of pathogens through phagocytosis and cytokine production. Scavenger receptor A1 (SR-A1), one of the critical receptors mediating this process, plays a complicated role in innate immunity. However, the role of SR-A1 in the immune response against pathogenic Leptospira invasion is unknown. In the present study, we found that SR-A1 is an important nonopsonic phagocytic receptor on murine macrophages for Leptospira. However, intraperitoneal injection of leptospires into WT mice presented with more apparent jaundice, subcutaneous hemorrhaging, and higher bacteria burdens in blood and tissues than that of SR-A1-/- mice. Exacerbated cytokine and inflammatory mediator levels were also observed in WT mice and higher recruited macrophages in the liver than those of SR-A1-/- mice. Our findings collectively reveal that although beneficial in the uptake of Leptospira by macrophage, SR-A1 might be exploited by Leptospira to modulate inflammatory activation and increase the susceptibility of infection in the host. These results provide our new insights into the innate immune response during early infection by L. interrogans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanchun Wang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Department of Clinical Laboratory, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xia Fan
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Lin Du
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Boyu Liu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Haihan Xiao
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yunqiang Wu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Fuli Liu
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yung-Fu Chang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Xiaokui Guo
- Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health; School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping He
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Key Laboratory of Parasite and Vector Biology, Ministry of Health; School of Global Health, Chinese Center for Tropical Diseases Research, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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15
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Sebastián I, Okura N, Humbel BM, Xu J, Hermawan I, Matsuura C, Hall M, Takayama C, Yamashiro T, Nakamura S, Toma C. Disassembly of the apical junctional complex during the transmigration of Leptospira interrogans across polarized renal proximal tubule epithelial cells. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13343. [PMID: 33864347 PMCID: PMC8459228 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens have evolved multiple strategies to disassemble epithelial cell apical junctional complexes (AJCs) and infect epithelial cells. Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonotic infection, mainly caused by Leptospira interrogans, and its dissemination across host cell barriers is essential for its pathogenesis. However, the mechanism of bacterial dissemination across epithelial cell barriers remains poorly characterised. In this study, we analysed the interaction of L. interrogans with renal proximal tubule epithelial cells (RPTECs) and found that at 24 hr post‐infection, L. interrogans remain in close contact with the plasma membrane of the RPTEC by extracellularly adhering or crawling. Leptospira interrogans cleaved E‐cadherin and induced its endocytosis with release of the soluble N‐terminal fragment into the extracellular medium. Concomitantly, a gradual decrease in transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), mislocalisation of AJC proteins (occludin, claudin‐10, ZO‐1, and cingulin) and cytoskeletal rearrangement were observed. Inhibition of clathrin‐mediated E‐cadherin endocytosis prevented the decrease in TEER. We showed that disassembly of AJCs in epithelial cells and transmigration of bacteria through the paracellular route are important for the dissemination of L. interrogans in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Sebastián
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Okura
- Department of Molecular Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Bruno M Humbel
- Imaging Section, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan.,Microscopy Center, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil.,Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Juntendo University Graduate School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Jun Xu
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan.,Department of Animal Microbiology, Graduate School of Agricultural Science, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Idam Hermawan
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Chiaki Matsuura
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Malgorzata Hall
- Imaging Section, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Chitoshi Takayama
- Department of Molecular Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Tetsu Yamashiro
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Shuichi Nakamura
- Department of Applied Physics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Claudia Toma
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
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16
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Samrot AV, Sean TC, Bhavya KS, Sahithya CS, Chan-drasekaran S, Palanisamy R, Robinson ER, Subbiah SK, Mok PL. Leptospiral Infection, Pathogenesis and Its Diagnosis-A Review. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10020145. [PMID: 33535649 PMCID: PMC7912936 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10020145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a perplexing conundrum for many. In the existing literature, the pathophysiological mechanisms pertaining to leptospirosis is still not understood in full. Considered as a neglected tropical zoonotic disease, leptospirosis is culminating as a serious problem worldwide, seemingly existing as co-infections with various other unrelated diseases, including dengue and malaria. Misdiagnosis is also common as non-specific symptoms are documented extensively in the literature. This can easily lead to death, as the severe form of leptospirosis (Weil's disease) manifests as a complex of systemic complications, especially renal failure. The virulence of Leptospira sp. is usually attributed to the outer membrane proteins, including LipL32. With an armament of virulence factors at their disposal, their ability to easily adhere, invade and replicate within cells calls for a swift refinement in research progress to establish their exact pathophysiological framework. As an effort to reconstitute the current knowledge on leptospirosis, the basis of leptospiral infection, including its risk factors, classification, morphology, transmission, pathogenesis, co-infections and clinical manifestations are highlighted in this review. The various diagnostic techniques are also outlined with emphasis on their respective pros and cons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antony V. Samrot
- School of Bioscience, Faculty of Medicine, Bioscience and Nursing, MAHSA University, Jenjarom, Selangor 42610, Malaysia;
- Correspondence: (A.V.S.); (P.L.M.)
| | - Tan Chuan Sean
- School of Bioscience, Faculty of Medicine, Bioscience and Nursing, MAHSA University, Jenjarom, Selangor 42610, Malaysia;
| | - Karanam Sai Bhavya
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 627 011, India; (K.S.B.); (C.S.S.); (S.C.); (R.P.)
| | - Chamarthy Sai Sahithya
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 627 011, India; (K.S.B.); (C.S.S.); (S.C.); (R.P.)
| | - SaiPriya Chan-drasekaran
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 627 011, India; (K.S.B.); (C.S.S.); (S.C.); (R.P.)
| | - Raji Palanisamy
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Bio and Chemical Engineering, Sathyabama Institute of Science and Technology, Jeppiaar Nagar, Chennai, Tamil Nadu 627 011, India; (K.S.B.); (C.S.S.); (S.C.); (R.P.)
| | - Emilin Renitta Robinson
- Department of Food Processing Technology, Karunya Institute of Technology and Science, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu 641 114, India;
| | - Suresh Kumar Subbiah
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
- Department of Biotechnology, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research (BIHER), Selaiyur, Tamil Nadu 600 073, India
- Genetics and Regenerative Medicine Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
| | - Pooi Ling Mok
- Department of Biotechnology, Bharath Institute of Higher Education and Research (BIHER), Selaiyur, Tamil Nadu 600 073, India
- Genetics and Regenerative Medicine Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jouf University, Sakaka P.O. Box 2014, Aljouf Province, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: (A.V.S.); (P.L.M.)
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17
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Haake DA, Matsunaga J. Leptospiral Immunoglobulin-Like Domain Proteins: Roles in Virulence and Immunity. Front Immunol 2021; 11:579907. [PMID: 33488581 PMCID: PMC7821625 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.579907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The virulence mechanisms required for infection and evasion of immunity by pathogenic Leptospira species remain poorly understood. A number of L. interrogans surface proteins have been discovered, lying at the interface between the pathogen and host. Among these proteins, the functional properties of the Lig (leptospiral immunoglobulin-like domain) proteins have been examined most thoroughly. LigA, LigB, and LigC contain a series of, 13, 12, and 12 closely related domains, respectively, each containing a bacterial immunoglobulin (Big) -like fold. The multidomain region forms a mostly elongated structure that exposes a large surface area. Leptospires wield the Lig proteins to promote interactions with a range of specific host proteins, including those that aid evasion of innate immune mechanisms. These diverse binding events mediate adhesion of L. interrogans to the extracellular matrix, inhibit hemostasis, and inactivate key complement proteins. These interactions may help L. interrogans overcome the physical, hematological, and immunological barriers that would otherwise prevent the spirochete from establishing a systemic infection. Despite significant differences in the affinities of the LigA and LigB proteins for host targets, their functions overlap during lethal infection of hamsters; virulence is lost only when both ligA and ligB transcription is knocked down simultaneously. Lig proteins have been shown to be promising vaccine antigens through evaluation of a variety of different adjuvant strategies. This review serves to summarize current knowledge of Lig protein roles in virulence and immunity and to identify directions needed to better understand the precise functions of the Lig proteins during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A. Haake
- Division of Infectious Diseases, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Departments of Medicine, and Microbiology, Immunology, and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - James Matsunaga
- Research Service, VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
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Bertuzzi M, Howell GJ. Single-Cell Analysis of Fungal Uptake in Cultured Airway Epithelial Cells Using Differential Fluorescent Staining and Imaging Flow Cytometry. Methods Mol Biol 2021; 2260:83-109. [PMID: 33405032 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1182-1_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
The respiratory epithelium is the initial point of host contact for inhaled particles, leading to orchestrated, but highly heterogeneous, responses. Human airway epithelial cells (AECs) play a crucial role in host defense by promoting uptake and killing of inhaled microorganisms and concomitant cytokine production in order to recruit professional phagocytes to the site of infection. However, inhaled pathogens can also reside and replicate intracellularly to evade host immune defenses or circulating antimicrobial drugs, ultimately causing apoptosis or cell death of the infected AECs. Imaging flow cytometry (IFC) combines flow cytometry, fluorescent microscopy, and advanced data-processing algorithms to dissect the heterogeneity of the interaction of AECs and inhaled microorganisms and its outcomes at the single-cell level. Here, we describe a novel single-cell approach based on differential fluorescent staining and state-of-the-art IFC to identify, quantify, and analyze individual host-pathogen complexes from cultured AECs infected with spores of the major human fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Bertuzzi
- Manchester Fungal Infection Group, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Core Technology Facility Building, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
| | - Gareth J Howell
- Flow Cytometry Core Facility, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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19
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Santecchia I, Ferrer MF, Vieira ML, Gómez RM, Werts C. Phagocyte Escape of Leptospira: The Role of TLRs and NLRs. Front Immunol 2020; 11:571816. [PMID: 33123147 PMCID: PMC7573490 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.571816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The spirochetal bacteria Leptospira spp. are causative agents of leptospirosis, a globally neglected and reemerging zoonotic disease. Infection with these pathogens may lead to an acute and potentially fatal disease but also to chronic asymptomatic renal colonization. Both forms of disease demonstrate the ability of leptospires to evade the immune response of their hosts. In this review, we aim first to recapitulate the knowledge and explore the controversial data about the opsonization, recognition, intracellular survival, and killing of leptospires by scavenger cells, including platelets, neutrophils, macrophages, and dendritic cells. Second, we will summarize the known specificities of the recognition or escape of leptospire components (the so-called microbial-associated molecular patterns; MAMPs) by the pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) of the Toll-like and NOD-like families. These PRRs are expressed by phagocytes, and their stimulation by MAMPs triggers pro-inflammatory cytokine and chemokine production and bactericidal responses, such as antimicrobial peptide secretion and reactive oxygen species production. Finally, we will highlight recent studies suggesting that boosting or restoring phagocytic functions by treatments using agonists of the Toll-like or NOD receptors represents a novel prophylactic strategy and describe other potential therapeutic or vaccine strategies to combat leptospirosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Santecchia
- Institut Pasteur, Microbiology Department, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR 2001 Microbiologie intégrative et Moléculaire, Paris, France
- INSERM, Equipe Avenir, Paris, France
- Université de Paris, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - María Florencia Ferrer
- Laboratorio de Virus Animales, Instituto de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Monica Larucci Vieira
- Departamento de Microbiologia, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (UFMG), Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Martín Gómez
- Laboratorio de Virus Animales, Instituto de Biotecnología y Biología Molecular, CONICET-Universidad Nacional de La Plata, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Catherine Werts
- Institut Pasteur, Microbiology Department, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- CNRS, UMR 2001 Microbiologie intégrative et Moléculaire, Paris, France
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20
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Wafa EI, Wilson-Welder JH, Hornsby RL, Nally JE, Geary SM, Bowden NB, Salem AK. Poly(diaminosulfide) Microparticle-Based Vaccine for Delivery of Leptospiral Antigens. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:534-544. [PMID: 31895553 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.9b01257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a debilitating infectious disease that detrimentally affects both animals and humans; therefore, disease prevention has become a high priority to avoid high incidence rates of disease in the herd and break the transmission cycle to humans. Thus, there remains an important unmet need for a prophylactic vaccine that can provide long-term immunity against leptospirosis in cattle. Herein, a novel vaccine formulation was developed where poly(diaminosulfide) polymer was employed to fabricate microparticles encapsulating the antigen of Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo strain HB15B203 (L203-PNSN). A prime-boost vaccination with a L203-PNSN microparticle formulation increased the population of L203-specific CD3+ T cells and CD21+ B cells to levels that were significantly higher than those of cattle vaccinated with L203-AlOH or the vehicle control (empty PNSN microparticles and blank AlOH). In addition, L203-PNSN was demonstrated to stimulate durable humoral immune responses as evidenced by the increases in the antibody serum titers following the vaccination. It was also found that cattle vaccinated with L203-PNSN produced higher macroscopic agglutinating titers than cattle in other groups. Thus, it can be concluded that L203-PNSN is a novel first-in-class microparticle-based Leptospira vaccine that represents a powerful platform with the potential to serve as a prophylactic vaccine against leptospiral infection in cattle.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jennifer H Wilson-Welder
- Infectious Bacterial Disease Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agriculture Research Service , United States Department of Agriculture , Ames , Iowa 50010 , United States
| | - Richard L Hornsby
- Infectious Bacterial Disease Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agriculture Research Service , United States Department of Agriculture , Ames , Iowa 50010 , United States
| | - Jarlath E Nally
- Infectious Bacterial Disease Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agriculture Research Service , United States Department of Agriculture , Ames , Iowa 50010 , United States
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21
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Abstract
Macrophages are phagocytic cells that constitute the primary barrier against pathogens. After phagocytosis a single-membraned vesicle that contains the pathogen is formed. This phagosome undergoes a maturation process to acquire an increasingly antimicrobial environment. Leptospiral uptake by macrophages induces the formation of a Leptospira-containing phagosome (LCP). The kinetics of lysosomal marker recruitment by the LCP is correlated with virulence. This chapter presents a protocol to study the intracellular trafficking of Leptospira spp. within macrophages by fluorescent labeling bacteria and different markers of the phagocytic pathway. We also describe a method to evaluate the bacterial survival within macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Toma
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan.
| | - Toshihiko Suzuki
- Department of Bacterial Pathogenesis, Infection and Host Response, Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, Japan
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22
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Liu J, Cai J, Fan P, Zhang N, Cao Y. The Abilities of Salidroside on Ameliorating Inflammation, Skewing the Imbalanced Nucleotide Oligomerization Domain-Like Receptor Family Pyrin Domain Containing 3/Autophagy, and Maintaining Intestinal Barrier Are Profitable in Colitis. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:1385. [PMID: 31849652 PMCID: PMC6901016 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.01385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Salidroside (Sal), as a major glycoside extracted from Rhodiola rosea L., has exhibited its mighty anti-aging, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, and neuroprotective effects in many diseases. Recently, it has showed its protective effect in colitis mice by activating the SIRT1/FoxOs pathway. Whereas, it is not known whether Sal has other protective mechanisms on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. In this study, we investigated the protective effects and mechanisms of Sal on DSS-induced colitis in mice. The results demonstrated Sal was a competent candidate in the treatment of ulcerative colitis (UC). Sal remitted DSS-induced disease activity index (DAI), colon length shortening, and colonic pathological damage. Simultaneously, Sal alleviated excessive inflammation by reversing the IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-10 protein levels in DSS-treated mice. Western blot analysis revealed that Sal inhibited p65 and p38 activation together with peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPARγ) up-regulation. In addition, Sal skewed the imbalanced activation of nucleotide oligomerization domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 inflammasome and autophagy contributing to colitis recovery. The damaged intestinal barrier induced by DSS was also alleviated along with plasma lipopolysaccharides (LPS) reduction after Sal treatment. In vitro, Sal showed PPARγ-dependent anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. In summary, our results demonstrated that Sal might be an effective factor for UC treatment and its pharmacological value deserved further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiuxi Liu
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Jiapei Cai
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Peng Fan
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Naisheng Zhang
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yongguo Cao
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Jilin University, Changchun, China
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23
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Werts C. Interaction of Leptospira with the Innate Immune System. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2019; 415:163-187. [PMID: 29038956 DOI: 10.1007/82_2017_46] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Innate immunity encompasses immediate host responses that detect and respond to microbes. Besides recognition by the complement system (see the chapter by A. Barbosa, this volume), innate immunity concerns cellular responses. These are triggered through recognition of conserved microbial components (called MAMPs) by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), leading, through secretion of cytokines, antimicrobial peptides, and immune mediators, to cellular recruitment and phagocytosis. Leptospira spp. are successful zoonotic pathogenic bacteria that obviously overcome the immune system of their hosts. The first part of this chapter summarizes what is known about leptospires recognition and interaction with phagocytes and other innate immune cells, and the second part describes specific interactions of leptospiral MAMPs with PRRs from the TLR and NLR families. On the one hand, pathogenic leptospires appear to escape macrophage and neutrophil phagocytosis. On the other hand, studies about PRR sensing of leptospires remain very limited, but suggest that pathogenic leptospires escape some of the PRRs in a host-specific manner, due to peculiar cell wall specificities or post-translational modifications that may impair their recognition. Further studies are necessary to clarify the mechanisms and consequences of leptospiral escape on phagocytic functions and hopefully give clues to potential therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring the defective activation of PRRs by pathogenic Leptospira spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Werts
- Unité Biologie et Génétique de La Paroi Bactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France.
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24
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Bovine macrophages responses to the infection with virulent and attenuated Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona. Vet Microbiol 2019; 233:124-132. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Santecchia I, Vernel-Pauillac F, Rasid O, Quintin J, Gomes-Solecki M, Boneca IG, Werts C. Innate immune memory through TLR2 and NOD2 contributes to the control of Leptospira interrogans infection. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007811. [PMID: 31107928 PMCID: PMC6544334 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans are pathogenic spirochetes responsible for leptospirosis, a worldwide reemerging zoonosis. Many Leptospira serovars have been described, and prophylaxis using inactivated bacteria provides only short-term serovar-specific protection. Therefore, alternative approaches to limit severe leptospirosis in humans and morbidity in cattle would be welcome. Innate immune cells, including macrophages, play a key role in fighting infection and pathogen clearance. Recently, it has been shown that functional reprograming of innate immune cells through the activation of pattern recognition receptors leads to enhanced nonspecific antimicrobial responses upon a subsequent microbial encounter. This mechanism is known as trained immunity or innate immune memory. We have previously shown that oral treatment with Lactobacillus plantarum confers a beneficial effect against acute leptospirosis. Here, using a macrophage depletion protocol and live imaging in mice, we established the role of peritoneal macrophages in limiting the initial dissemination of leptospires. We further showed that intraperitoneal priming of mice with CL429, a TLR2 and NOD2 agonist known to mimic the modulatory effect of Lactobacillus, alleviated acute leptospiral infection. The CL429 treatment was characterized as a training effect since i.) it was linked to peritoneal macrophages that produced ex vivo more pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines against 3 different pathogenic serovars of Leptospira, independently of the presence of B and T cells, ii.) it had systemic effects on splenic cells and bone marrow derived macrophages, and iii.) it was sustained for 3 months. Importantly, trained macrophages produced more nitric oxide, a potent antimicrobial compound, which has not been previously linked to trained immunity. Accordingly, trained macrophages better restrict leptospiral survival. Finally, we could use CL429 to train ex vivo human monocytes that produced more cytokines upon leptospiral stimulation. In conclusion, host-directed treatment using a TLR2/NOD2 agonist could be envisioned as a novel prophylactic strategy against acute leptospirosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Santecchia
- Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Groupe Avenir, INSERM, Paris, France
- Université Paris Descartes, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Frédérique Vernel-Pauillac
- Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Groupe Avenir, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Orhan Rasid
- Chromatine et Infection G5, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Jessica Quintin
- Immunologie des infections fongiques G5, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Maria Gomes-Solecki
- University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Biochemistry, Memphis, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Ivo G. Boneca
- Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Groupe Avenir, INSERM, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Werts
- Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Institut Pasteur, Groupe Avenir, INSERM, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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26
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Silva PLD, Lauretti-Ferreira F, Caldas de Lima M, Lima SS, Covarrubias AE, De Franco M, Carvalho E, Ho PL, da Costa RMA, Martins EAL, Da Silva JB. Phagocytosis of Leptospira by leukocytes from mice with different susceptibility to leptospirosis and possible role of chemokines. BMC Microbiol 2019; 19:4. [PMID: 30616505 PMCID: PMC6323685 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-018-1371-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis caused by pathogenic prokaryotic microbes of the genus Leptospira. Although there are several reports in the literature, host-pathogen interaction is still poorly understood. The role of chemokine expression is important on the chemotaxis, activation and regulation of immune cells. Recent studies have shown that their expression profiles play an important role on the severity of leptospirosis outcome. We evaluated the phagocytosis of Leptospira by spleens cells from C3H/HeJ, C3H/HePas and BALB/c mouse strains, respectively susceptible, intermediate and resistant to leptospirosis, and by RAW 264.7 macrophages. Besides, we evaluated the effects of CCL2 treatment on the phagocytosis. The cells were incubated with or without CCL2 chemokine, and infected with virulent L. interrogans sv Copenhageni. Cells and culture supernatants were collected for subsequent analysis. Results The number of leptospires was higher in BALB/c cells, CCL2 pre-treated or only infected groups, when compared to C3H/HeJ and C3H/HePas cells. Indeed, CCL2 activation did not interfere in the phagocytosis of Leptospira. Expression of chemokines CXCL5 and CCL8 levels were significantly inhibited in infected BALB/c cells when compared to the non-infected control. Conclusions Higher ability to phagocytosis and early modulation of some chemokines correlated with the resistance to leptospirosis disease. Exposure to CCL2 did not interfere on phagocytosis of Leptospira in our experimental conditions, but acted in the modulation of chemokines expression during Leptospira infection. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12866-018-1371-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Ambart E Covarrubias
- School of Medical Technology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University San Sebastian, Concepción, Chile
| | | | - Eneas Carvalho
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Paulo Lee Ho
- Seção de Vacinas Aeróbicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Renata M A da Costa
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil.,Present address: Global Antibiotics Research and Development Partnership (GARDP), Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi), Chemin Louis-Dunant 15, 1202, Geneva, Switzerland
| | | | - Josefa B Da Silva
- Laboratório de Bacteriologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Raffray L, Giry C, Vandroux D, Fayeulle S, Moiton MP, Gerber A, Jaffar-Bandjee MC, Gasque P. The monocytosis during human leptospirosis is associated with modest immune cell activation states. Med Microbiol Immunol 2018; 208:667-678. [PMID: 30542761 DOI: 10.1007/s00430-018-0575-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a life-threatening zoonotic disease and it has been hypothesized that the innate immune system fails to control the infection through ill-characterized mechanisms. The aim of this observational study was to better evaluate the activation processes of monocytes at the early stage of the disease. Blood samples were taken from healthy donors (n = 37) and patients hospitalized for either non-severe (n = 25) or severe (n = 32) leptospirosis. Monocyte cell counts and phenotypes were assessed by flow cytometry. We analysed the expression of several cell activation markers: CD14, CD16, HLA-DR, CD69, TLR2, TLR4, CD11b and CD11c. Although monocyte values at admittance were not significantly different from controls, patients experienced significant monocytosis at 1.33 × 109/L (p < 0.0001 compared to controls: 0.56 × 109/L) during their hospital stay. This monocytosis observed during hospital stay was correlated to several surrogate markers of organ injury. Non-classical (CD14-CD16+) and intermediate (CD14+CD16+) monocyte subsets increased compared to controls (p < 0.05). Accordingly, classical monocyte subset (CD14+CD16-) showed decreased percentages (p < 0.0001). Levels of several cell surface activation molecules were decreased: HLA-DR involved in MHC class II antigen presentation, integrins CD11b and CD11c implicated in phagocytosis and cell recruitment (p < 0.0001). None of these parameters had a prognostic value. Results from this study showed that during acute human leptospirosis, patients experienced monocytosis with a switch toward an inflammation-related phenotype contrasted by low expression levels of markers implicated in monocyte function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loic Raffray
- Université de La Réunion, CNRS 9192, INSERM U1187, IRD 249, UMR PIMIT, CHU de La Réunion, Unité Mixte Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT), Plateforme Technologique CYROI, Sainte-Clotilde, La Réunion, France. .,Internal Medicine Unit, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France.
| | - Claude Giry
- Microbiology/Virology Laboratory, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France
| | - David Vandroux
- Intensive Care Unit, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France
| | | | - Marie-Pierre Moiton
- Infectious and Tropical Diseases Unit, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France
| | - Anne Gerber
- Internal Medicine Unit, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France
| | - Marie-Christine Jaffar-Bandjee
- Université de La Réunion, CNRS 9192, INSERM U1187, IRD 249, UMR PIMIT, CHU de La Réunion, Unité Mixte Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT), Plateforme Technologique CYROI, Sainte-Clotilde, La Réunion, France.,CNR arboviroses, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France.,Microbiology/Virology Laboratory, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France
| | - Philippe Gasque
- Université de La Réunion, CNRS 9192, INSERM U1187, IRD 249, UMR PIMIT, CHU de La Réunion, Unité Mixte Processus Infectieux en Milieu Insulaire Tropical (PIMIT), Plateforme Technologique CYROI, Sainte-Clotilde, La Réunion, France.,Biology laboratory, Immunology sector, LICE-OI, CHU La Réunion site Félix Guyon, Allée des Topazes, St Denis, La Réunion, France
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28
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Ferrer MF, Scharrig E, Charo N, Rípodas AL, Drut R, Carrera Silva EA, Nagel A, Nally JE, Montes de Oca DP, Schattner M, Gómez RM. Macrophages and Galectin 3 Control Bacterial Burden in Acute and Subacute Murine Leptospirosis That Determines Chronic Kidney Fibrosis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 8:384. [PMID: 30425972 PMCID: PMC6218566 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have suggested that macrophages may contribute to acute Leptospira dissemination, as well as having a major role in kidney fibrosis. Our aim was to characterize the role of macrophages and galectin 3 (Gal-3) on the survival, clinical course, bacterial burden, interstitial nephritis, and chronic kidney fibrosis in Leptospira interrogans serovar Copenhageni (LIC)-induced experimental murine leptospirosis. C57BL/6J mice depleted of macrophages by liposome-encapsulated clodronate treatment and infected with LIC presented a higher bacterial burden, had reduced subacute nephritis and enhanced chronic kidney fibrosis relative to untreated, infected mice. Moreover, LIC infection in mice whose Gal-3 was disrupted (Lgals3−/–) had a higher bacterial burden and enhanced subacute nephritis and chronic kidney fibrosis when compared to C57BL/6J wild-type mice. Chronic fibrosis did not correlate with higher transcription levels of TGF-β1 or IL-13 in the kidneys. Kidney fibrosis was found in chronically infected rats as well as in wild infected rats. On the other hand, human fibroblast cultures exhibited enhanced differentiation to myofibroblasts after treatment with LIC. Our results demonstrate that macrophages and Gal-3 play a critical role in controlling the LIC burden but has a minor role in subsequent fibrosis. Instead, kidney fibrosis was better correlated with bacterial burden. Taken together, our results do not support a role for macrophages to disseminate leptospires during acute infection, nor in chronic kidney fibrosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- María F Ferrer
- Laboratory of Animal Viruses, Institute of Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, UNLP-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Emilia Scharrig
- Laboratory of Animal Viruses, Institute of Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, UNLP-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
| | - Nancy Charo
- Laboratory of Experimental Thrombosis, Institute of Experimental Medicine, National Academy of Medicine-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Ricardo Drut
- Division of Pathology, Children Hospital "Superiora Sor María Ludovica", La Plata, Argentina
| | - Eugenio A Carrera Silva
- Laboratory of Experimental Thrombosis, Institute of Experimental Medicine, National Academy of Medicine-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ariel Nagel
- Biotechnology Institute, National Institute of Agricultural Technology (INTA-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jarlath E Nally
- Infectious Bacterial Diseases Research Unit, National Animal Disease Center, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Daniela P Montes de Oca
- Ecology, Genetics and Evolution Department, Exact and Natural Sciences Faculty, and Ecology, Genetics and Evolution Institute of Buenos Aires, UBA-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Mirta Schattner
- Laboratory of Experimental Thrombosis, Institute of Experimental Medicine, National Academy of Medicine-CONICET, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Ricardo M Gómez
- Laboratory of Animal Viruses, Institute of Biotechnology and Molecular Biology, UNLP-CONICET, La Plata, Argentina
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29
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Yamaguchi T, Higa N, Okura N, Matsumoto A, Hermawan I, Yamashiro T, Suzuki T, Toma C. Characterizing interactions of Leptospira interrogans with proximal renal tubule epithelial cells. BMC Microbiol 2018; 18:64. [PMID: 29973159 PMCID: PMC6030750 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-018-1206-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leptospira interrogans is a pathogenic, spirochetal bacterium that is responsible for leptospirosis, an emerging worldwide zoonosis. Leptospires colonize the renal proximal tubules and chronically infect the kidney. Live bacteria are excreted into urine, contaminating the environment. While it is well known that leptospires can persist in the kidneys without signs of disease for several months, the interactions of leptospires with the proximal renal epithelial tubule cells that allow the chronic renal colonization have not been elucidated yet. In the present study, we compared the interactions between a virulent, low passage (LP) strain and a cultured-attenuated, high passage (HP) strain with renal proximal tubule epithelial cells (RPTECs) to elucidate the strategies used by Leptospira to colonize the kidney. RESULTS Kinetics analysis of kidney colonization in a mouse model of chronic infection performed by quantitative real-time PCR and immunofluorescence, showed that the LP strain reached the kidney by 3 days post infection (pi) and attached to the basal membrane side of the renal epithelial cells. At 10 days pi, some leptospires were attached to the luminal side of the tubular epithelia and the number of colonizing leptospires gradually increased. On the other hand, the HP strain was cleared during hematogenous dissemination and did not colonize the kidney. Transmission electron microscopy analysis of LP-infected kidneys at 25 days pi showed aggregated leptospires and membrane vesicles attached to the epithelial brush border. Leptospiral kidney colonization altered the organization of the RPTEC brush border. An in vitro model of infection using TCMK-1 cells, showed that leptospiral infection induced a host stress response, which is delayed in LP-infected cells. CONCLUSIONS After hematogenous dissemination, leptospires create protective and replicative niches in the base membrane and luminal sides of the RPTECs. During the long-term colonization, leptospires attached to the RPTEC brush borders and membrane vesicles might be involved in the formation of a biofilm-like structure in vivo. Our results also suggested that the virulent strain is able to manipulate host cell stress responses to promote renal colonization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takayoshi Yamaguchi
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
- Present address: Department of Food and Nutrition Science, Junior College, Sagami Women’s University, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0383 Japan
| | - Naomi Higa
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
| | - Nobuhiko Okura
- Department of Molecular Anatomy, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
| | - Arina Matsumoto
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
- Present address: Okinawa Industrial Technology Center, Okinawa, 904-2234 Japan
| | - Idam Hermawan
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
| | - Tetsu Yamashiro
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
| | - Toshihiko Suzuki
- Department of Bacterial Pathogenesis, Infection and Host Response, Graduate School of Medicine and Dental Sciences, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, Tokyo, 113-8510 Japan
| | - Claudia Toma
- Department of Bacteriology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, 903-0215 Japan
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Proteomic approach and expression analysis revealed the differential expression of predicted leptospiral proteases capable of ECM degradation. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2018; 1866:712-721. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Mehrotra P, Ramakrishnan G, Dhandapani G, Srinivasan N, Madanan MG. Comparison of Leptospira interrogans and Leptospira biflexa genomes: analysis of potential leptospiral-host interactions. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2018; 13:883-891. [PMID: 28294222 DOI: 10.1039/c6mb00856a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis, a potentially life-threatening disease, remains the most widespread zoonosis caused by pathogenic species of Leptospira. The pathogenic spirochaete, Leptospira interrogans, is characterized by its ability to permeate human host tissues rapidly and colonize multiple organs in the host. In spite of the efforts taken to comprehend the pathophysiology of the pathogen and the heterogeneity posed by L. interrogans, the current knowledge on the mechanism of pathogenesis is modest. In an attempt to contribute towards the same, we demonstrate the use of an established structure-based protocol coupled with information on subcellular localization of proteins and their tissue-specificity, in recognizing a set of 49 biologically feasible interactions potentially mediated by proteins of L. interrogans in humans. We have also presented means to adjudge the physicochemical viability of the predicted host-pathogen interactions, for selected cases, in terms of interaction energies and geometric shape complementarity of the interacting proteins. Comparative analyses of proteins of L. interrogans and the saprophytic spirochaete, Leptospira biflexa, and their predicted involvement in interactions with human hosts, aided in underpinning the functional relevance of leptospiral-host protein-protein interactions specific to L. interrogans as well as those specific to L. biflexa. Our study presents characteristics of the pathogenic L. interrogans that are predicted to facilitate its ability to persist in human hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prachi Mehrotra
- Indian Institute of Science Mathematics Initiative, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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Ratet G, Santecchia I, Fanton d’Andon M, Vernel-Pauillac F, Wheeler R, Lenormand P, Fischer F, Lechat P, Haake DA, Picardeau M, Boneca IG, Werts C. LipL21 lipoprotein binding to peptidoglycan enables Leptospira interrogans to escape NOD1 and NOD2 recognition. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006725. [PMID: 29211798 PMCID: PMC5764436 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2017] [Revised: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis, potentially severe in humans, caused by spirochetal bacteria, Leptospira interrogans (L. interrogans). Host defense mechanisms involved in leptospirosis are poorly understood. Recognition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and lipoproteins by Toll-Like Receptors (TLR)4 and TLR2 is crucial for clearance of leptospires in mice, yet the role of Nucleotide Oligomerization Domain (NOD)-like receptors (NOD)1 and NOD2, recognizing peptidoglycan (PG) fragments has not previously been examined. Here, we show that pathogenic leptospires escape from NOD1 and NOD2 recognition both in vitro and in vivo, in mice. We found that leptospiral PG is resistant to digestion by certain hydrolases and that a conserved outer membrane lipoprotein of unknown function, LipL21, specific for pathogenic leptospires, is tightly bound to the PG. Leptospiral PG prepared from a mutant not expressing LipL21 (lipl21-) was more readily digested than the parental or complemented strains. Muropeptides released from the PG of the lipl21- mutant, or prepared using a procedure to eliminate the LipL21 protein from the PG of the parental strain, were recognized in vitro by the human NOD1 (hNOD1) and NOD2 (hNOD2) receptors, suggesting that LipL21 protects PG from degradation into muropeptides. LipL21 expressed in E. coli also resulted in impaired PG digestion and NOD signaling. We found that murine NOD1 (mNOD1) did not recognize PG of L. interrogans. This result was confirmed by mass spectrometry showing that leptospiral PG was primarily composed of MurTriDAP, the natural agonist of hNOD1, and contained only trace amounts of the tetra muropeptide, the mNOD1 agonist. Finally, in transgenic mice expressing human NOD1 and deficient for the murine NOD1, we showed enhanced clearance of a lipl21- mutant compared to the complemented strain, or to what was observed in NOD1KO mice, suggesting that LipL21 facilitates escape from immune surveillance in humans. These novel mechanisms allowing L. interrogans to escape recognition by the NOD receptors may be important in circumventing innate host responses. Leptospirosis is a widespread zoonosis caused by spirochetal bacteria, Leptospira interrogans (L. interrogans). L. interrogans are primarily extracellular pathogens although some reports suggest they may replicate within macrophages. In humans, leptospirosis can cause mild or severe disease, potentially leading to death, although rats or mice, which constitute the reservoir, are asymptomatic carriers. Host defense mechanisms involved in leptospirosis remain poorly understood. Toll-Like Receptor (TLR)2 and TLR4 are crucial for the clearance of L. interrogans, but the role of the cytosolic NOD receptors in leptospirosis is unknown. Here, we report that pathogenic leptospires escape the sensing of bacterial peptidoglycan through the NOD response. We found that an outer membrane lipoprotein of L. interrogans binds to and protects the peptidoglycan from degradation into muropeptides, thereby blocking signaling through NOD proteins. Moreover, in absence of this lipoprotein, the peptidoglycan of L. interrogans is properly sensed by human NOD1 but not by murine NOD1. This is due to the near absence of muramyl tetrapeptide, the murine NOD1 agonist, in the peptidoglycan of pathogenic leptospires. These novel mechanisms of NOD avoidance may facilitate the escape of leptospires from the innate immune system of their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwenn Ratet
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
| | - Ignacio Santecchia
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
| | - Martine Fanton d’Andon
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
| | - Frédérique Vernel-Pauillac
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
| | - Richard Wheeler
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
| | | | - Frédéric Fischer
- Institut Pasteur, Unité de pathogenèse de Helicobacter, Paris, France
| | - Pierre Lechat
- Institut Pasteur, Hub Bioinformatique et Biostatistique, C3BI, USR 3756 IP CNRS, Paris, France
| | - David A. Haake
- Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Urology, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | | | - Ivo G. Boneca
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
| | - Catherine Werts
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Biologie et Génétique de la Paroi Bactérienne, Paris, France
- INSERM, équipe Avenir, Paris, France
- * E-mail:
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DNA vaccines against leptospirosis: A literature review. Vaccine 2017; 35:5559-5567. [PMID: 28882437 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.08.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Leptospirosis is an infectious disease caused by pathogenic Leptospira species. The vaccines that are currently available for leptospirosis are composed of whole-cell preparations and suffer from limitations such as low efficacy, multiple side-effects, poor immunological memory and lack of cross-protection against different serovars of Leptospira spp. In light of the global prevalence of this disease, the development of a more effective vaccine against leptospirosis is of paramount importance. Genetic immunization is a promising alternative to conventional vaccine development. In the last 25years, several novel strategies have been developed for increasing the efficacy of DNA vaccines. Examples of such strategies include the introduction of novel plasmid vectors, adjuvants, alternate delivery routes, and prime-boost regimens. Herein we discuss the latest and most promising advances that have been made in developing DNA vaccines against leptospirosis. We also deliberate over the future directions that must be undertaken in order to improve results in this field.
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Chen X, Li SJ, Ojcius DM, Sun AH, Hu WL, Lin X, Yan J. Mononuclear-macrophages but not neutrophils act as major infiltrating anti-leptospiral phagocytes during leptospirosis. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181014. [PMID: 28700741 PMCID: PMC5507415 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 06/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To identify the major infiltrating phagocytes during leptospirosis and examine the killing mechanism used by the host to eliminate Leptospira interrogans. METHODS Major infiltrating phagocytes in Leptospira-infected C3H/HeJ mice were detected by immunohistochemistry. Chemokines and vascular endothelial cell adhesion molecules (VECAMs) of Leptospira-infected mice and leptospirosis patients were detected by microarray and immunohistochemistry. Leptospira-phagocytosing and -killing abilities of human or mouse macrophages and neutrophils, and the roles of intracellular ROS, NO and [Ca2+]i in Leptospira-killing process were evaluated by confocal microscopy and spectrofluorimetry. RESULTS Peripheral blood mononuclear-macrophages rather than neutrophils were the main infiltrating phagocytes in the lungs, liver and kidneys of infected mice. Levels of macrophage- but not neutrophil-specific chemokines and VECAMs were significantly increased in the samples from infected mice and patients. All macrophages tested had a higher ability than neutrophils to phagocytose and kill leptospires. Higher ROS and NO levels and [Ca2+]i in the macrophages were involved in killing leptospires. Human macrophages displayed more phagolysosome formation and a stronger leptospire-killing ability to than mouse macrophages. CONCLUSIONS Mononuclear-macrophages but not neutrophils represent the main infiltrating and anti-leptospiral phagocytes during leptospirosis. A lower level of phagosome-lysosome fusion may be responsible for the lower Leptospira-killing ability of human macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Chen
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Division of Basic Medical Microbiology, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Shi-Jun Li
- Guizhou Provincial Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guiyang, Guizhou, P.R. China
| | - David M. Ojcius
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of the Pacific, Arthur Dugoni School of Dentistry, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Ai-Hua Sun
- Faculty of Basic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Wei-Lin Hu
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Division of Basic Medical Microbiology, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Xu’ai Lin
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Division of Basic Medical Microbiology, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
| | - Jie Yan
- Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
- Division of Basic Medical Microbiology, State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, P.R. China
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Fraser T, Brown PD. Temperature and Oxidative Stress as Triggers for Virulence Gene Expression in Pathogenic Leptospira spp. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:783. [PMID: 28536558 PMCID: PMC5423269 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a zooanthroponosis aetiologically caused by pathogenic bacteria belonging to the genus, Leptospira. Environmental signals such as increases in temperatures or oxidative stress can trigger response regulatory modes of virulence genes during infection. This study sought to determine the effect of temperature and oxidative stress on virulence associated genes in highly passaged Leptospira borgpeterseneii Jules and L. interrogans Portlandvere. Bacteria were grown in EMJH at 30°C, 37°C, or at 30°C before being transferred to 37°C. A total of 14 virulence-associated genes (fliY, invA, lenA, ligB, lipL32, lipL36, lipL41, lipL45, loa22, lsa21, mce, ompL1, sph2, and tlyC) were assessed using endpoint PCR. Transcriptional analyses of lenA, lipL32, lipL41, loa22, sph2 were assessed by quantitative real-time RT-PCR at the temperature conditions. To assess oxidative stress, bacteria were exposed to H2O2 for 30 and 60 min with or without the temperature stress. All genes except ligB (for Portlandvere) and ligB and mce (for Jules) were detectable in the strains. Quantitatively, temperature stress resulted in significant changes in gene expression within species or between species. Temperature changes were more influential in gene expression for Jules, particularly at 30°C and upshift conditions; at 37°C, expression levels were higher for Portlandvere. However, compared to Jules, where temperature was influential in two of five genes, temperature was an essential element in four of five genes in Portlandvere exposed to oxidative stress. At both low and high oxidative stress levels, the interplay between genetic predisposition (larger genome size) and temperature was biased towards Portlandvere particularly at 30°C and upshift conditions. While it is clear that expression of many virulence genes in highly passaged strains of Leptospira are attenuated or lost, genetic predisposition, changes in growth temperature and/or oxidative intensity and/or duration were factors which acted in isolation or together with other regulatory cues to contribute to the variable gene expression observed in this study. Overall, differential gene expression in serovar Portlandvere was more responsive to temperature and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tricia Fraser
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Biochemistry Section, University of the West IndiesMona, Jamaica.,Veterinary Services Division, Ministry of AgricultureHope Gardens, Jamaica
| | - Paul D Brown
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Biochemistry Section, University of the West IndiesMona, Jamaica
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Haridas V, Ranjbar S, Vorobjev IA, Goldfeld AE, Barteneva NS. Imaging flow cytometry analysis of intracellular pathogens. Methods 2017; 112:91-104. [PMID: 27642004 PMCID: PMC5857943 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Imaging flow cytometry has been applied to address questions in infection biology, in particular, infections induced by intracellular pathogens. This methodology, which utilizes specialized analytic software makes it possible to analyze hundreds of quantified features for hundreds of thousands of individual cellular or subcellular events in a single experiment. Imaging flow cytometry analysis of host cell-pathogen interaction can thus quantitatively addresses a variety of biological questions related to intracellular infection, including cell counting, internalization score, and subcellular patterns of co-localization. Here, we provide an overview of recent achievements in the use of fluorescently labeled prokaryotic or eukaryotic pathogens in human cellular infections in analysis of host-pathogen interactions. Specifically, we give examples of Imagestream-based analysis of cell lines infected with Toxoplasma gondii or Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Furthermore, we illustrate the capabilities of imaging flow cytometry using a combination of standard IDEAS™ software and the more recently developed Feature Finder algorithm, which is capable of identifying statistically significant differences between researcher-defined image galleries. We argue that the combination of imaging flow cytometry with these software platforms provides a powerful new approach to understanding host control of intracellular pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viraga Haridas
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, United States
| | - Shahin Ranjbar
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, United States
| | - Ivan A Vorobjev
- School of Science and Technology, Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan; A.N. Belozersky Institute of Physico-Chemical Biology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia; Department of Cell Biology and Histology, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia
| | - Anne E Goldfeld
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, United States.
| | - Natasha S Barteneva
- Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, United States; School of Science and Technology, Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan.
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Fouts DE, Matthias MA, Adhikarla H, Adler B, Amorim-Santos L, Berg DE, Bulach D, Buschiazzo A, Chang YF, Galloway RL, Haake DA, Haft DH, Hartskeerl R, Ko AI, Levett PN, Matsunaga J, Mechaly AE, Monk JM, Nascimento ALT, Nelson KE, Palsson B, Peacock SJ, Picardeau M, Ricaldi JN, Thaipandungpanit J, Wunder EA, Yang XF, Zhang JJ, Vinetz JM. What Makes a Bacterial Species Pathogenic?:Comparative Genomic Analysis of the Genus Leptospira. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004403. [PMID: 26890609 PMCID: PMC4758666 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis, caused by spirochetes of the genus Leptospira, is a globally widespread, neglected and emerging zoonotic disease. While whole genome analysis of individual pathogenic, intermediately pathogenic and saprophytic Leptospira species has been reported, comprehensive cross-species genomic comparison of all known species of infectious and non-infectious Leptospira, with the goal of identifying genes related to pathogenesis and mammalian host adaptation, remains a key gap in the field. Infectious Leptospira, comprised of pathogenic and intermediately pathogenic Leptospira, evolutionarily diverged from non-infectious, saprophytic Leptospira, as demonstrated by the following computational biology analyses: 1) the definitive taxonomy and evolutionary relatedness among all known Leptospira species; 2) genomically-predicted metabolic reconstructions that indicate novel adaptation of infectious Leptospira to mammals, including sialic acid biosynthesis, pathogen-specific porphyrin metabolism and the first-time demonstration of cobalamin (B12) autotrophy as a bacterial virulence factor; 3) CRISPR/Cas systems demonstrated only to be present in pathogenic Leptospira, suggesting a potential mechanism for this clade's refractoriness to gene targeting; 4) finding Leptospira pathogen-specific specialized protein secretion systems; 5) novel virulence-related genes/gene families such as the Virulence Modifying (VM) (PF07598 paralogs) proteins and pathogen-specific adhesins; 6) discovery of novel, pathogen-specific protein modification and secretion mechanisms including unique lipoprotein signal peptide motifs, Sec-independent twin arginine protein secretion motifs, and the absence of certain canonical signal recognition particle proteins from all Leptospira; and 7) and demonstration of infectious Leptospira-specific signal-responsive gene expression, motility and chemotaxis systems. By identifying large scale changes in infectious (pathogenic and intermediately pathogenic) vs. non-infectious Leptospira, this work provides new insights into the evolution of a genus of bacterial pathogens. This work will be a comprehensive roadmap for understanding leptospirosis pathogenesis. More generally, it provides new insights into mechanisms by which bacterial pathogens adapt to mammalian hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derrick E. Fouts
- J. Craig Venter Institute, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Michael A. Matthias
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Haritha Adhikarla
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
| | - Ben Adler
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
| | - Luciane Amorim-Santos
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz/MS, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Douglas E. Berg
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Dieter Bulach
- Victorian Bioinformatics Consortium, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alejandro Buschiazzo
- Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Laboratory of Molecular and Structural Microbiology, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Institut Pasteur, Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Paris, France
| | - Yung-Fu Chang
- Department of Population Medicine & Diagnostic Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, United States of America
| | - Renee L. Galloway
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (DHHS, CDC, OID, NCEZID, DHCPP, BSPB), Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - David A. Haake
- VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Daniel H. Haft
- J. Craig Venter Institute, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Rudy Hartskeerl
- WHO/FAO/OIE and National Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Leptospirosis, KIT Biomedical Research, Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Albert I. Ko
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz/MS, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Paul N. Levett
- Government of Saskatchewan, Disease Control Laboratory Regina, Canada
| | - James Matsunaga
- VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
- David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Ariel E. Mechaly
- Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Laboratory of Molecular and Structural Microbiology, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Jonathan M. Monk
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Ana L. T. Nascimento
- Centro de Biotecnologia, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Programa Interunidades em Biotecnologia, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Karen E. Nelson
- J. Craig Venter Institute, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bernhard Palsson
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - Sharon J. Peacock
- Department of Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mathieu Picardeau
- Institut Pasteur, Biology of Spirochetes Unit, National Reference Centre and WHO Collaborating Center for Leptospirosis, Paris, France
| | - Jessica N. Ricaldi
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt; Facultad de Medicina Alberto Hurtado, Universidd Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
| | | | - Elsio A. Wunder
- Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America
- Centro de Pesquisas Gonçalo Moniz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz/MS, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - X. Frank Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Jun-Jie Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States of America
| | - Joseph M. Vinetz
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- Instituto de Medicina Tropical Alexander von Humboldt; Facultad de Medicina Alberto Hurtado, Universidd Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
- Instituto de Medicina “Alexander von Humboldt,” Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia, Lima, Peru
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Complete Genome Sequences of Low-Passage Virulent and High-Passage Avirulent Variants of Pathogenic Leptospira interrogans Serovar Manilae Strain UP-MMC-NIID, Originally Isolated from a Patient with Severe Leptospirosis, Determined Using PacBio Single-Molecule Real-Time Technology. GENOME ANNOUNCEMENTS 2015; 3:3/4/e00882-15. [PMID: 26272567 PMCID: PMC4536678 DOI: 10.1128/genomea.00882-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report the complete genome sequences of low-passage virulent and high-passage avirulent variants of pathogenic Leptospira interrogans serovar Manilae strain UP-MMC-NIID, a major causative agent of leptospirosis. While there were no major differences between the genome sequences, the levels of base modifications were higher in the avirulent variant.
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Eshghi A, Pappalardo E, Hester S, Thomas B, Pretre G, Picardeau M. Pathogenic Leptospira interrogans exoproteins are primarily involved in heterotrophic processes. Infect Immun 2015; 83:3061-73. [PMID: 25987703 PMCID: PMC4496612 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00427-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Accepted: 05/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a life-threatening and emerging zoonotic disease with a worldwide annual occurrence of more than 1 million cases. Leptospirosis is caused by spirochetes belonging to the genus Leptospira. The mechanisms of disease manifestation in the host remain elusive, and the roles of leptospiral exoproteins in these processes have yet to be determined. Our aim in this study was to assess the composition and quantity of exoproteins of pathogenic Leptospira interrogans and to construe how these proteins contribute to disease pathogenesis. Label-free quantitative mass spectrometry of proteins obtained from Leptospira spirochetes cultured in vitro under conditions mimicking infection identified 325 exoproteins. The majority of these proteins are conserved in the nonpathogenic species Leptospira biflexa, and proteins involved in metabolism and energy-generating functions were overrepresented and displayed the highest relative abundance in culture supernatants. Conversely, proteins of unknown function, which represent the majority of pathogen-specific proteins (presumably involved in virulence mechanisms), were underrepresented. Characterization of various L. interrogans exoprotein mutants in the animal infection model revealed host mortality rates similar to those of hosts infected with wild-type L. interrogans. Collectively, these results indicate that pathogenic Leptospira exoproteins primarily function in heterotrophic processes (the processes by which organisms utilize organic substances as nutrient sources) to maintain the saprophytic lifestyle rather than the virulence of the bacteria. The underrepresentation of proteins homologous to known virulence factors, such as toxins and effectors in the exoproteome, also suggests that disease manifesting from Leptospira infection is likely caused by a combination of the primary and potentially moonlight functioning of exoproteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azad Eshghi
- Institut Pasteur, Biology of Spirochetes Unit, Paris, France
| | - Elisa Pappalardo
- University of Oxford, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Svenja Hester
- University of Oxford, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Thomas
- University of Oxford, Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Gabriela Pretre
- Institut Pasteur, Biology of Spirochetes Unit, Paris, France
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Liu B, Wang Y, Guo X, Zhu W, Zhang Y, He P. Carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester labeling method to study the interaction between Leptospira and macrophages. J Microbiol Methods 2015; 107:205-13. [PMID: 25455022 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2014.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Leptospirosis, which is caused by pathogenic species of the genus Leptospira, has emerged as one of the most widespread zoonotic diseases in the world. The exact mechanism of pathogenesis remains unknown, and the interaction between Leptospira and macrophages is not well understood. In this study, we report that carboxyfluorescein diacetate succinimidyl ester (CFDA-SE) can efficiently label different Leptospira interrogans strains without affecting bacterial motility, viability, or virulence. Following co-incubation, CFDA-SE-labeled leptospires associated with macrophages were quantified by flow cytometry or confocal microscopy. In addition, we showed that trypan blue efficiently quenched the extracellular fluorescence from the adherent leptospires, which enabled intracellular and extracellular bacteria to be distinguished.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boyu Liu
- Department of Immunology and Microbiology, Institute of Medical Science, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China.
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Comparison of Bacterial Burden and Cytokine Gene Expression in Golden Hamsters in Early Phase of Infection with Two Different Strains of Leptospira interrogans. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0132694. [PMID: 26146835 PMCID: PMC4492770 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0132694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/17/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis, a zoonotic infection with worldwide prevalence, is caused by pathogenic spirochaetes of Leptospira spp., and exhibits an extremely broad clinical spectrum in human patients. Although previous studies indicated that specific serovars or genotypes of Leptospira spp. were associated with severe leptospirosis or its outbreak, the mechanism underlying the difference in virulence of the various Leptospira serotypes or genotypes remains unclear. The present study addresses this question by measuring and comparing bacterial burden and cytokine gene expression in hamsters infected with strains of two L. interrogans serovars Manilae (highly virulent) and Hebdomadis (less virulent). The histopathology of kidney, liver, and lung tissues was also investigated in infected hamsters. A significantly higher bacterial burden was observed in liver tissues of hamsters infected with serovar Manilae than those infected with serovar Hebdomadis (p < 0.01). The average copy number of the leptospiral genome was 1,302 and 20,559 in blood and liver, respectively, of hamsters infected with serovar Manilae and 1,340 and 4,896, respectively, in hamsters infected with serovar Hebdomadis. The expression levels of mip1alpha in blood; tgfbeta, il1beta, mip1alpha, il10, tnfalpha and cox2 in liver; and tgfbeta, il6, tnfalpha and cox2 in lung tissue were significantly higher in hamsters infected with serovar Manilae than those infected with serovar Hebdomadis (p < 0.05). In addition, infection with serovar Manilae resulted in a significantly larger number of hamsters with tnfalpha upregulation (p = 0.04). Severe distortion of tubular cell arrangement and disruption of renal tubules in kidney tissues and hemorrhage in lung tissues were observed in Manilae-infected hamsters. These results demonstrate that serovar Manilae multiplied more efficiently in liver tissues and induced significantly higher expression of genes encoding pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines than serovar Hebdomadis even in tissues for which a significant difference in leptospiral load was not observed. In addition, our results suggest a serovar Manilae-specific mechanism responsible for inducing severe damage in kidneys and hemorrhage in lung.
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Miras I, Saul F, Nowakowski M, Weber P, Haouz A, Shepard W, Picardeau M. Structural characterization of a novel subfamily of leucine-rich repeat proteins from the human pathogen Leptospira interrogans. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015; 71:1351-9. [PMID: 26057675 DOI: 10.1107/s139900471500704x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 04/08/2015] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenic Leptospira spp. are the agents of leptospirosis, an emerging zoonotic disease. Analyses of Leptospira genomes have shown that the pathogenic leptospires (but not the saprophytes) possess a large number of genes encoding proteins containing leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domains. In other pathogenic bacteria, proteins with LRR domains have been shown to be involved in mediating host-cell attachment and invasion, but their functions remain unknown in Leptospira. To gain insight into the potential function of leptospiral LRR proteins, the crystal structures of four LRR proteins that represent a novel subfamily with consecutive stretches of a 23-amino-acid LRR repeat motif have been solved. The four proteins analyzed adopt the characteristic α/β-solenoid horseshoe fold. The exposed residues of the inner concave surfaces of the solenoid, which constitute a putative functional binding site, are not conserved. The various leptospiral LRR proteins could therefore recognize distinct structural motifs of different host proteins and thus serve separate and complementary functions in the physiology of these bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Miras
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme de Cristallographie, CNRS-UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - Frederick Saul
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme de Cristallographie, CNRS-UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - Mireille Nowakowski
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme Protéines Recombinantes, CNRS-UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - Patrick Weber
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme de Cristallographie, CNRS-UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - Ahmed Haouz
- Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme de Cristallographie, CNRS-UMR 3528, Paris, France
| | - William Shepard
- Synchrotron SOLEIL, L'Orme des Merisiers, Saint Aubin, BP48, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
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Abstract
The mechanisms of disease pathogenesis in leptospirosis are poorly defined. Recent developments in the application of genetic tools in the study of Leptospira have advanced our understanding by allowing the assessment of mutants in animal models. As a result, a small number of essential virulence factors have been identified, though most do not have a clearly defined function. Significant advances have also been made in the in vitro characterization of leptospiral interaction with host structures, including extracellular matrix proteins (such as laminin, elastin, fibronectin, collagens), proteins related to hemostasis (fibrinogen, plasmin), and soluble mediators of complement resistance (factor H, C4b-binding protein), although none of these in vitro findings has been translated to the host animal. Binding to host structures may permit colonization of the host, prevention of blood clotting may contribute to hemorrhage, while interaction with complement resistance mediators may contribute to survival in serum. While not a classical intracellular pathogen, the interaction of leptospires and phagocytic cells appears complex, with bacteria surviving uptake and promoting apoptosis; mutants relating to these processes (such as cell invasion and oxidative stress resistance) are attenuated in vivo. Another feature of leptospiral biology is the high degree of functional redundancy and the surprising lack of attenuation of mutants in what appear to be certain virulence factors, such as LipL32 and LigB. While many advances have been made, there remains a lack of understanding of how Leptospira causes tissue pathology. It is likely that leptospires have many novel pathogenesis mechanisms that are yet to be identified.
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Abstract
Pathogenic Leptospira has the capacity to infect a broad range of mammalian hosts. Leptospirosis may appear as an acute, potentially fatal infection in accidental hosts, or progress into a chronic, largely asymptomatic infection in natural maintenance hosts. The course that Leptospira infection follows is dependent upon poorly understood factors, but is heavily influenced by both the host species and bacterial serovar involved in infection. Recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by a variety of host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) activates the host immune system. The outcome of this response may result in bacterial clearance, limited bacterial colonization of a few target organs, principally the kidney, or induction of sepsis as the host succumbs to infection and dies. This chapter describes current knowledge of how the host recognizes Leptospira and responds to infection using innate and acquired immune responses. Aspects of immune-mediated pathology and pathogen strategies to evade the host immune response are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L Zuerner
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University for Agricultural Sciences, 75007, Uppsala, Sweden,
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Toma C, Murray GL, Nohara T, Mizuyama M, Koizumi N, Adler B, Suzuki T. Leptospiral outer membrane protein LMB216 is involved in enhancement of phagocytic uptake by macrophages. Cell Microbiol 2014; 16:1366-77. [DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Toma
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology and Immunology; Graduate School of Medicine; University of the Ryukyus; Okinawa 903-0215 Japan
| | - Gerald L. Murray
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics; Department of Microbiology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. 3800 Australia
| | - Toshitsugu Nohara
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology and Immunology; Graduate School of Medicine; University of the Ryukyus; Okinawa 903-0215 Japan
| | - Masaru Mizuyama
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology and Immunology; Graduate School of Medicine; University of the Ryukyus; Okinawa 903-0215 Japan
| | - Nobuo Koizumi
- Department of Bacteriology I; National Institute of Infectious Diseases; Tokyo 162-8640 Japan
| | - Ben Adler
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics; Department of Microbiology; Monash University; Clayton Vic. 3800 Australia
| | - Toshihiko Suzuki
- Department of Molecular Bacteriology and Immunology; Graduate School of Medicine; University of the Ryukyus; Okinawa 903-0215 Japan
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW In the past years, the importance of studying leptospirosis in a translational context has become more evident. This review addresses recent findings in the study of leptospirosis infection, focusing on those applicable to public health, or that will affect management and diagnosis of cases of leptospirosis. RECENT FINDINGS We review here recent findings regarding translational aspects of leptospirosis research. Briefly, PCR or a combination of serology and PCR seem to have a higher sensitivity than the current gold standard (microagglutination test). More clinical trials are needed to determine the best treatment for mild and severe leptospirosis. Dendritic cells and γδ T cells seem to have an important role in the immune response to leptospirosis. Environmental assessment is emerging as a very useful tool. SUMMARY In order to understand leptospirosis, multiple aspects need to be considered, including host, pathogen and environment. In this review, we will address newer diagnostics, current advances in immunology and treatment and the growing role of environmental assessment.
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High-temperature protein G is an essential virulence factor of Leptospira interrogans. Infect Immun 2013; 82:1123-31. [PMID: 24366253 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01546-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospira interrogans is a global zoonotic pathogen and is the causative agent of leptospirosis, an endemic disease of humans and animals worldwide. There is limited understanding of leptospiral pathogenesis; therefore, further elucidation of the mechanisms involved would aid in vaccine development and the prevention of infection. HtpG (high-temperature protein G) is the bacterial homolog to the highly conserved molecular chaperone Hsp90 and is important in the stress responses of many bacteria. The specific role of HtpG, especially in bacterial pathogenesis, remains largely unknown. Through the use of an L. interrogans htpG transposon insertion mutant, this study demonstrates that L. interrogans HtpG is essential for virulence in the hamster model of acute leptospirosis. Complementation of the htpG mutant completely restored virulence. Surprisingly, the htpG mutant did not appear to show sensitivity to heat or oxidative stress, phenotypes common in htpG mutants in other bacterial species. Furthermore, the mutant did not show increased sensitivity to serum complement, reduced survival within macrophages, or altered protein or lipopolysaccharide expression. The underlying cause for attenuation thus remains unknown, but HtpG is a novel leptospiral virulence factor and one of only a very small number identified to date.
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Lehmann JS, Fouts DE, Haft DH, Cannella AP, Ricaldi JN, Brinkac L, Harkins D, Durkin S, Sanka R, Sutton G, Moreno A, Vinetz JM, Matthias MA. Pathogenomic inference of virulence-associated genes in Leptospira interrogans. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2468. [PMID: 24098822 PMCID: PMC3789758 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Leptospirosis is a globally important, neglected zoonotic infection caused by spirochetes of the genus Leptospira. Since genetic transformation remains technically limited for pathogenic Leptospira, a systems biology pathogenomic approach was used to infer leptospiral virulence genes by whole genome comparison of culture-attenuated Leptospira interrogans serovar Lai with its virulent, isogenic parent. Among the 11 pathogen-specific protein-coding genes in which non-synonymous mutations were found, a putative soluble adenylate cyclase with host cell cAMP-elevating activity, and two members of a previously unstudied ∼15 member paralogous gene family of unknown function were identified. This gene family was also uniquely found in the alpha-proteobacteria Bartonella bacilliformis and Bartonella australis that are geographically restricted to the Andes and Australia, respectively. How the pathogenic Leptospira and these two Bartonella species came to share this expanded gene family remains an evolutionary mystery. In vivo expression analyses demonstrated up-regulation of 10/11 Leptospira genes identified in the attenuation screen, and profound in vivo, tissue-specific up-regulation by members of the paralogous gene family, suggesting a direct role in virulence and host-pathogen interactions. The pathogenomic experimental design here is generalizable as a functional systems biology approach to studying bacterial pathogenesis and virulence and should encourage similar experimental studies of other pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Lehmann
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, California, United States of America
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Helaine S, Holden DW. Heterogeneity of intracellular replication of bacterial pathogens. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 16:184-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2012.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2012] [Revised: 12/20/2012] [Accepted: 12/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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