The academic achievement of adolescents from immigrant families: the roles of family background, attitudes, and behavior

Culture, executive functions, and academic achievement

Although it is well known that children of East Asian immigrants show higher academic achievement than native-born North American children, the social-cognitive determinants of this difference remain poorly understood. Given the importance of executive functions (EF) for academic achievement, and evidence that EF develops more quickly in East Asian compared to North American cultures, it is conceivable that differences in academic achievement might be rooted in EF differences between these groups. We examine this possibility by reviewing evidence of cross-cultural differences in EF development but find core concepts and findings limited in several key respects. To address these limitations, we propose a framework for relating EF, culture, and academic achievement that draws on new theoretical ideas about the nature of EF and its relation to social context. We conclude by discussing avenues for future research on the relations between culture, executive functions, and academic achievement.

An Unusual College Experience: 16-Month Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms and Anxiety among Chinese New Undergraduate Students of 2019 during the COVID-19 Pandemic

BACKGROUND

This study examines the trajectories of the mental health conditions of 13,494 new undergraduate students who enrolled in 2019 in China from the beginning of the pandemic to the local recurrence of the pandemic, and found factors which may be associated with diverse trajectories.

METHODS

The trajectories of depression-anxiety outcomes were modeled using the growth mixture model. The multinomial logistic regression model was used to identify variables associated with different trajectory groups.

RESULTS

Both depression and anxiety in the new college students slightly increased during the 16-month period. The slopes of depression and anxiety were lower after the local outbreak. From the trajectories of depression and anxiety, five heterogeneous groups were identified: low-stable (64.3%), moderate-increased (18.2%), high-stable (11.1%), recovery (4.5%), and rapid-increased (1.8%). Environmental, somatic, and social factors were used to differentiate the low-stable group from the other groups. We found that college students with female gender, more conflict with parents, and feelings of loneliness during the pandemic were more likely to enter a high stability trajectory compared to a recovery trajectory.

CONCLUSION

Most participants showed a stable mental health status, while others experienced deteriorating or chronic mental health problems, especially those who had sleep disturbances, less social support before the pandemic, or conflicts with parents during the pandemic. These students may need additional support and monitoring from college mental health providers to improve their wellbeing.

Developing eminence in STEMM: An interview study with talent development and STEMM experts

In the present day, we need outstanding scientists, engineers, mathematicians, and medical science researchers more than ever to solve the world's most pressing issues, such as climate change, water contamination, and cyber security. Naturally, we ask the question: What does it take to develop eminence in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and medical science (STEMM)? To answer this question, we interviewed two relevant groups of experts: 14 talent development researchers and 14 STEMM experts. The interview questions were developed based on the theoretical framework of the Actiotope Model of Giftedness and the related educational and learning capital approach that differentiates five types of exogenous resources (educational capital) and five types of endogenous resources (learning capital) that feed into talent development toward eminence. The results show that all types of capital were regarded as important by the experts for developing eminence in STEMM. However, there were also differences. We describe the educational and learning capital that talent development researchers and STEMM experts considered to be important for talent development in STEMM, as well as the similarities and differences between the two groups.

Generational differences in selected aspects of social situation and health status of foreigners living in the Czech Republic

OBJECTIVES

Demographic differentiation caused by the history of migration in the Czech and Slovak Republics led the authors of this article to analyse generational differences in the groups of foreigners living in the Czech Republic (CR) and the impact of generational differences on selected aspects of their social situation and perceived health. The crucial research question was whether and to what degree do different generations of foreigners vary from each other and what impact this has had on their social situation and health determinants.

METHODS

The main goal was to examine mutual relationships between selected characteristics of social situation and health determinants in various groups of foreigners living in the CR. A total of 1,003 questionnaires among foreigners officially living in the Czech Republic were collected and analysed. In the area of subjective perception of health, a comparison of foreigners with Czech citizens (representative sample of Czech seniors; 1,172 respondents) in the age category 65+ was made in order to find out whether this perception differs between senior foreign nationals and senior Czechs.

RESULTS

Older individuals (50-64 years and 65+ years) appeared to have the best integration into Czech society. This age generation felt positive about stay and migration status in the CR. Older foreigners differ from older Czech citizens who tend to refer to their health as very good to rather good compared to foreigners who described their health as neither good nor bad. The middle generation (30-49 years) of foreigners was characterized by hard work and the initial stages of integration into Czech society. This group also reported positive feelings about living in the CR relative to their home country.

CONCLUSION

The oldest generation of foreigners is the best integrated in the Czech Republic (with regard to selected aspects tested in this article). This generation is able to offer new immigrant effective integration strategies. However, they assess their subjective health one degree worse in comparison with Czech seniors (representative sample), this finding should lead to the setting of preventive programmes related to a healthy lifestyle, including lifestyle for foreigners living in the Czech Republic.

Educational Concerns, Health Concerns and Mental Health During Early COVID-19 School Closures: The Role of Perceived Support by Teachers, Family, and Friends

This study investigated whether school closures and health-related uncertainties in the early phases of the COVID-19 pandemic posed risk factors for adolescents’ mental health and whether perceived social support by parents, teachers, and friends functioned as protective factors. In particular, we argued that perceived social support would buffer negative associations between educational and health concerns and mental health. Based on a person-centered approach, we first examined resilience profiles. These profiles reflect configurations regarding the levels of these risk and protective factors and levels of mental health. Second, we analyzed whether these risk and protective factors predicted adolescents’ mental health differently by using a variable-centered approach. The sample consisted of 1’562 adolescents (Mage = 16.18, SD = 1.48, range = 14-20 years; 72% females) in lower and higher secondary education from three regions: German-speaking part of Switzerland, N = 486; Italian-speaking part of Switzerland, N = 760; and Northern Italy N = 316. Results from the person-centered approach revealed three latent profiles characterized by low (19%), average (47%), or high resilience (34%). Lower resilience was associated with higher educational concerns, lower perceived social support, and lower mental health, while high resilience was characterized by lower concerns, higher support, and higher mental health. Importantly, educational concerns varied more between profiles than health concerns, and perceived teacher and family support varied more than perceived friend support. Corroborating these findings, the variable-centered approach (i.e., a path analysis) revealed that educational concerns were a stronger predictor than health concerns and pointed to a higher relative importance of perceived family support for adolescents’ mental health relative to perceived teacher and friend support. Taken together, the findings suggest that adolescents’ educational concerns and perceived family support, respectively, were stronger risk and protective factors for their mental health during school closures related to the COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, adolescents from regions being more exposed to the COVID-19 pandemic, namely, Italian-speaking part of Switzerland and Northern Italy, were more likely classified in the low or the average rather than in the high resilience profile compared to students from the region with lower exposure, that is, the German-speaking part of Switzerland.

The Relationship Between Family Functioning and Internalizing Problems in Chinese Adolescents: A Moderated Mediation Model

Research has consistently found that poor family functioning is a risk factor for adolescents' internalizing problems. However, studies of the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relation are insufficient. In this study, we explore the association between family functioning and adolescents' internalizing problems by testing the mediating roles of positive youth development (PYD) attributes and the moderating role of migrant status. A large cross-sectional sample of 11,865 Chinese adolescents (mean age = 14.45 years, standard deviation = 1.55 years) were used to measure internalizing problems, family functioning, PYD, migrant status, and other demographic information. After controlling for covariates (age, gender, grade, and socioeconomic status), the results revealed that PYD mediated the relation between family functioning and internalizing problems. Moreover, migrant status moderated the relationship between family functioning and internalizing problems. Specifically, the effects of family functioning on internalizing problems were stronger among local-born adolescents than among migrant adolescents. The findings indicate that improving family functioning and PYD attributes may be promising approaches to prevent/reduce adolescent internalizing problems.

Current State and Future Trends: A Citation Network Analysis of the Academic Performance Field

Background: In recent years, due to its complexity and relevance, academic performance has become a controversial research topic within the health and educational field. The main purposes of this study were to analyze the links between publications and authors via citation networks, to identify the different research areas and to determine the most cited publications. Methods: The publication search was performed through the Web of Science database, using the term "Academic Performance" for a time interval from 1952 to 2019. The software used to analyze the publications was the Citation Network Explorer. Results: We found a total of 16,157 publications with 35,213 citations generated in the network, and 2018 had the highest number of publications of any year. The most cited publication was published in 2012 by Richardson et al. with a citation index score of 352. By using the clustering function, we found nine groups related to different areas of research in this field: health, psychology, psychosociology, demography, physical activity, sleep patterns, vision, economy, and delinquency. Conclusions: The citation network showed the main publications dealing with the different factors that affect academic performance, and it was determined that psychological and psychosocial factors were the most relevant.

A 10-Year Prospective Study of Socio-Professional and Psychological Outcomes in Students From High-Risk Schools Experiencing Academic Difficulty

Early academic difficulty reduces the probability of pursuing higher education and has consequences for a wide range of personal and socio-professional outcomes. However, the role of academic performance is often difficult to assess independently from school-based influences. This prospective investigation uses a nested high-risk paradigm to examine the role of personal, familial and school-based factors in the prediction of 10-year outcomes. A sample of 131 secondary school students were selected based on scores in the highest or lowest quartiles in national exams, and both groups were selected equally from regular or low-performing schools. Ten years later, 100 of these individuals participated in a follow-up assessment of academic, socio-professional and personal outcomes. Academic difficulty and specific parental professions were strongly associated with a lower probability of pursuing higher education and with a greater likelihood of part-time or minimum-wage employment. No effect was observed for school status and it did not interact with academic performance in predicting the majority of outcomes. Strategies designed to improve individual academic performance and that address familial difficulties should remain priorities for improving long-term outcomes. The lack of influence of school-based characteristics may indicate the efficacy of strategies aimed at reducing inequalities in resources at the institutional level.

Are self-esteem and academic achievement reciprocally related? Findings from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has shown that self-esteem is associated with academic achievement. However, few studies have used longitudinal data to examine how self-esteem and achievement co-develop over a long time span, and even fewer have focused on ethnic minority youth.

METHOD

We used data from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth (N = 674) to examine the bidirectional associations between self-esteem and academic achievement from 5th to 11th grade. Global and domain-specific self-esteem (academic, honesty, peer relationships, appearance) were assessed at ages 10, 12, 14, and 16 using Marsh et al.'s (2005) Self-Description Questionnaire. Academic achievement was assessed at the same ages using self-reported grades and standardized test scores from school records.

RESULTS

Youth with high global and academic self-esteem showed relative improvements in their grades (but not test scores), and youth who received higher grades and test scores showed relative increases in global and academic self-esteem. Youth with high honesty self-esteem showed relative increases in grades and test scores, and youth with higher grades showed relative increases in peer relationship self-esteem.

CONCLUSION

Students who feel better about themselves tend to show improvements in their grades, and getting better grades and test scores promotes more positive self-views.

Online Mentoring for Talented Girls in STEM: The Role of Relationship Quality and Changes in Learning Environments in Explaining Mentoring Success

Although participation rates of women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) are continually improving, low rates are still an issue in many countries. While previous studies found positive effects of online mentoring for increasing girls' interests in STEM, research concerning explanatory mechanisms is lacking. We found evidence that in a 1-year online mentoring program for girls (age: M = 13.82 years, N = 998) in STEM, suitably implemented mentoring (operationalized via relationship quality in a program that systematically incorporates structural and organizational aspects of successful mentoring) was associated with positive changes in the learning environments of the mentees (as indicated by their increasing educational capital). These positive changes were associated with increases in the program-related mentoring outcomes STEM activities and elective intentions in STEM. Finally, we found that suitably implemented online mentoring was indirectly related to an increase in these two mentoring outcomes via an increase in educational capital. These results indicate the importance of paying close attention to learning environments when planning interventions.

A College Knowledge Program for Latino Immigrant Families: Examining Parental Academic Involvement and Adolescents' Academic Goals

The current study examined how parents’ and adolescents’ reports of parental involvement were associated with adolescents’ academic goals before and after participating in a college knowledge program. Twelve parent-adolescent dyads (M_age = 13.58) participated in the program. Thematic analysis was used to analyze these data and create themes that emerged based on patterns in parents’ and adolescents’ semi-structured interviews. Findings suggested that while parents’ reports of their involvement remained relatively the same (high involvement), half of the adolescents indicated increases in their academic goals and perceived parental involvement after participating in the program. This study highlights the role of a college knowledge program on parents’ and adolescents’ changes in perceived parental involvement and academic goals. The study findings identify an avenue to help families access additional capital that can help their children pursue their academic goals.

Switching to Green Lifestyles: Behavior Change of Ant Forest Users

Ant Forest is an emerging mobile application platform that engages people in environment-friendly behavior with fragmented time and helps them cultivate ecological awareness and habit. Users grow virtual trees on the platform with the energy saved from daily low-carbon activities, and Ant Forest plants real saplings in desertified areas when the "trees" become big enough. Facilitating the public's participation in such green welfare, Ant Forest is a new-generation persuasive system with functions like social media and gamification. In addition to perceived persuasiveness in the existing literature, this study includes sense of achievement and perceived entertainment as extrinsic and intrinsic motivations, respectively, to explain people's continuous use of such a system and consequent behavior change. The results of a survey suggest that primary task support, perceived credibility, and perceived social support associated with Ant Forest positively affect the user's continuance intention through the mediation of perceived persuasiveness, sense of achievement, and perceiving entertaining. Furthermore, perceived persuasiveness and continuance intention lead to ultimate behavior change. The findings suggest the importance of both persuasive and motivational considerations in the implementation of new-generation persuasive systems to make them effective in the long run.

Can Identity Conflicts Impede the Success of Ethnic Minority Students? Consequences of Discrepancies Between Ethnic and Ideal Selves

Because of stigma and underrepresentation, many ethnic minority students may find it difficult to align their ethnicities with their ideal selves. However, these difficulties and their potential consequences have been empirically neglected. To inform this gap in the literature, we propose that the novel concept of ethnic/ideal self-discrepancies (i.e., perceived mismatches between who a person aspires to be and this person's conception of their ethnic self) is associated with the academic outcomes of ethnic minority students. As hypothesized, large ethnic/ideal self-discrepancies predict high academic disengagement, according to cross-sectional data from Study 1 ( n = 147) and Study 2 ( n = 105), as well as high academic disengagement 2 months later according to half-longitudinal data from Study 2 ( n = 78). In Study 3 ( n = 99), ethnic minority students experimentally induced to perceive high ethnic/ideal self-discrepancies reported significantly higher academic disengagement than ethnic minority students in a low discrepancy condition.

Ethnic pride, self-esteem, and school belonging: A reciprocal analysis over time

School belonging (i.e., social connectedness to school) has positive implications for academic achievement and well-being. However, few studies have examined the developmental antecedents of school belonging, particularly for students of Mexican origin. To address this gap in the research literature, the present study examined reciprocal relations between school belonging and two self-affirmation beliefs-self-esteem and ethnic pride-using data from a longitudinal study of Mexican-origin students followed from fifth to ninth grade (N = 674, Mage at Wave 1 = 10.4 years, 50% girls). Furthermore, we evaluated whether the associations were stronger for boys than girls. Using multiple group analysis in a structural equation modeling framework, results indicate that, among boys, ethnic pride was prospectively associated with increases in self-esteem, self-esteem was associated with increases in school belonging, and the direct association between ethnic pride and school belonging was bidirectional. For girls, ethnic pride was prospectively associated with later school belonging. Discussion focuses on the gender differences in observed effects and implications for school programs and interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record

Poverty Dynamics and Academic Trajectories of Children of Immigrants

Using Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999 (ECLS-K), we investigated the relationship between poverty and academic trajectories for children in immigrant families in the United States. We used family socioeconomic status (SES) which considers parental education, parental occupation, and family income to define poverty in correspondence with the U.S. federal poverty threshold. Three dimensions of poverty were examined including depth (i.e., not-poor, near-poor, poor or extreme poor), stability (i.e., continuously or intermittently), and duration (i.e., for how many times in poverty). Our results indicated that living in poverty, particularly when it was extreme, volatile, and for long spell could compromise children's reading and math achievements during the first nine schooling years. Children of immigrants were doing as well as, if not better than, children of native-borns in certain areas (i.e., math) or in facing of certain pattern of poverty (i.e., long-spell). However, deep poverty and volatile changes in family SES could compromise academic achievements for children of immigrants throughout their first nine years of schooling, a period holds important key to their future success. Implications to practice and policy as well as future directions were discussed.

Contextual explanations for numeracy and literacy skill disparities between native and foreign-born adults in western countries

Using new direct measures of numeracy and literacy skills among 85,875 adults in 17 Western countries, we find that foreign-born adults have lower mean skills than native-born adults of the same age (16 to 64) in all of the examined countries. The gaps are small, and vary substantially between countries. Multilevel models reveal that immigrant populations' demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, employment, and language proficiency explain about half of the cross-national variance of numeracy and literacy skills gaps. Differences in origin countries' average education level also account for variation in the size of the immigrant-native skills gap. The more protective labor markets in immigrant-receiving countries are, the less well immigrants are skilled in numeracy and literacy compared to natives. For those who migrate before their teens (the 1.5 generation), access to an education system that accommodates migrants' special needs is crucial. The 1 and 1.5 generation have smaller numeracy and literacy skills gaps in more ethnically diverse societies.

Differences in sleep habits, study time, and academic performance between US-born and foreign-born college students

PURPOSE

To inform the design of a sleep improvement program for college students, we assessed academic performance, sleep habits, study hours, and extracurricular time, hypothesizing that there would be differences between US-born and foreign-born students.

METHODS

Questionnaires queried participants on bedtimes, wake times, nap frequency, differences in weekday and weekend sleep habits, study hours, grade point average, time spent at paid employment, and other extracurricular activities. Comparisons were made using chi square tests for categorical data and t tests for continuous data between US-born and foreign-born students.

RESULTS

Of 120 participants (55 % women) with racial diversity (49 whites, 18 blacks, 26 Hispanics, 14 Asians, and 13 other), 49 (41 %) were foreign-born. Comparisons between US-born and foreign-born students showed no differences in average age or gender though US-born had more whites. There were no differences between US-born and foreign-born students for grade point averages, weekday bedtimes, wake times, or total sleep times. However, US-born students averaged 50 min less study time per day (p = 0.01), had almost 9 h less paid employment per week (14.5 vs 23.4 h per week, p = 0.001), and stayed up to socialize more frequently (63 vs 43 %, p = 0.03). Foreign-born students awakened an hour earlier and averaged 40 min less sleep per night on weekends.

CONCLUSIONS

Cultural differences among college students have a profound effect on sleep habits, study hours, and extracurricular time. The design of a sleep improvement program targeting a population with diverse cultural backgrounds must factor in such behavioral variations in order to have relevance and impact.

Intergenerational Transmission of Educational Attitudes in Chinese American Families: Interplay of Socioeconomic Status and Acculturation

This longitudinal study examined the influence of parents' educational attitudes on adolescents' educational attitudes and identified antecedents (i.e., parent education, family income, and parent acculturation), consequences (i.e., academic achievement and engagement), and a potential moderator (i.e., adolescent acculturation) of the transmission process. The sample was 444 Chinese American mothers, fathers, and adolescents (12-15 at W1). Using path analysis, this study found significant two-way interactions among parent education, income, and acculturation in predicting parents' concurrent positive educational attitudes, which, in turn, predicted adolescents' attitudes at W2. The latter link was further moderated by W1 and W2 adolescent acculturation for mother-adolescent and father-adolescent dyads. Adolescents' positive educational attitudes at W2, in turn, were positively associated with their concurrent academic achievement and engagement.

Coping as a Mediator Between Losing Face and Depressive and Social Anxiety Symptoms Among Asian Americans

Applying the proximal–distal framework, we were interested in whether the relationship between loss of face (LOF) concerns to depression and social anxiety were mediated by coping among 154 Asian Americans (AA). Utilizing a convenience sample from an online survey of AA, we ran ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions to examine whether direct and indirect coping explained the relationship between LOF concerns, depression, and social anxiety. LOF was positively associated with both direct and indirect coping. LOF also was positively associated with depression and social anxiety. The relationship between LOF and depression was significantly mediated by indirect coping but not direct coping. Higher levels of indirect coping explained the relationship between LOF and depression. In addition, the relationship between LOF and social anxiety was significantly mediated by indirect coping and direct coping. The relationship between LOF and social anxiety was partially explained by lower levels of direct coping and higher levels of indirect coping. LOF, however, continued to significantly predict social anxiety even after accounting for coping strategies. These results suggest that the LOF has a distal relationship to depression and social anxiety. Coping has a more proximal relationship to depression and social anxiety. By identifying proximal factors to depression and social anxiety, it is possible to reduce symptoms of depression and social anxiety among AA without mitigating the endorsement of traditional cultural values.

School Belonging, Generational Status, and Socioeconomic Effects on Mexican-Origin Children's Later Academic Competence and Expectations

This study examined factors that relate to academic competence and expectations from elementary to middle school for 674 fifth grade students (50% boys; M_age = 10.86 years) of Mexican origin. Models predicting academic competence and expectations were estimated using a Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) framework, with longitudinal data from fifth to eighth grades. School belonging (i.e., social and emotional connectedness to school) predicted greater academic competence and expectations over time. Findings indicate that student feelings of belonging in school may act as a resource that promotes academic competence and expectations. Furthermore, family income, parent education, and generational status had direct effects on academic competence and expectations to some degree, suggesting the importance of contextual factors in this process.

The Decade of Immigrant Dispersion and Growth: A Cohort Analysis of Children of Immigrants' Educational Experiences 1990-2002

The 1990s marked the beginning of a new era of immigration in terms of volume and settlement patterns and also witnessed significant changes in the social contexts confronting immigrants. These changes could have significant repercussions for immigrant youth. While previous research on high school dropout behavior suggests immigrant youth are faring better in US schools, our research provides a less optimistic outlook. Using the National Educational Longitudinal Study (1988) and Educational Longitudinal Study (2002), we use multivariate analysis, regression decomposition and fixed effect models to examine how reading and math test scores of children of immigrants changed during the 1990s.

Prospective associations between bilingualism and executive function in Latino children: sustained effects while controlling for biculturalism

The study purpose was to test 1-year prospective associations between English-Spanish bilingualism and executive function in 5th to 6th grade students while controlling for biculturalism. Participants included 182 US Latino students (50 % female). Self-report surveys assessed biculturalism, bilingualism, and executive function (i.e., working memory, organizational skills, inhibitory control, and emotional control, as well as a summary executive function score). General linear model regressions demonstrated that bilingualism significantly predicted the summary executive function score as well as working memory such that bilingual proficiency was positively related to executive function. Results are the first to demonstrate (a) prospective associations between bilingualism to executive function while controlling for the potential third variable of biculturalism, and (b) a principal role for working memory in this relationship. Since executive function is associated with a host of health outcomes, one implication of study findings is that bilingualism may have an indirect protective influence on youth development.

Parent-child acculturation profiles as predictors of Chinese American adolescents' academic trajectories

Acculturation plays a critical role in the adjustment of Asian Americans, as a large proportion of them are immigrants in the US. However, little is known about how acculturation influences Asian American adolescents' academic trajectories over time. Using a longitudinal sample of 444 Chinese American families (54% female children), the current study explored the effect of mothers', fathers', and adolescents' individual acculturation profiles and parent-child acculturation dissonance on adolescents' academic trajectories from 8th to 12th grade. Academic performance was measured by grade point average (GPA), and by standardized test scores in English language arts (ELA) and Math every year. Latent growth modeling analyses showed that adolescents with a Chinese-oriented father showed faster decline in GPA, and Chinese-oriented adolescents had lower initial ELA scores. Adolescents whose parents had American-oriented acculturation profiles tended to have lower initial Math scores. These results suggest that Chinese and American profiles may be disadvantageous for certain aspects of academic performance, and bicultural adolescents and/or adolescents with bicultural parents are best positioned to achieve across multiple domains. In terms of the role of parent-child acculturation dissonance on academic trajectories, the current study highlighted the importance of distinguishing among different types of dissonance. Adolescents who were more Chinese-oriented than their parents tended to have the lowest initial ELA scores, and adolescents experiencing more normative acculturation dissonance (i.e., who were more American-oriented than their parents) had the highest initial ELA scores. No effects of parent-child acculturation dissonance were observed for GPAs or standardized Math scores. Altogether, the current findings add nuances to the current understanding of acculturation and adolescent adjustment.

Stability and Change in Adjustment Profiles Among Chinese American Adolescents: The Role of Parenting

Asian American adolescents are often depicted as academically successful but psychologically distressed, a pattern known as the achievement/adjustment paradox. In a sample of 444 Chinese American adolescents (54 % females), we identified three distinct patterns of adjustment in early adolescence, middle adolescence, and emerging adulthood: the well-adjusted group, which was the largest, exhibited high achievement and low psychological distress; the poorly-adjusted group exhibited poor achievement and moderate distress; and the paradox group exhibited relatively high achievement and high distress. More than half of the adolescents remained in the same profile over time. Adolescents with supportive parents were more likely to stay well-adjusted, and those with "tiger" parents were more likely to stay in the paradox group over time. The present study focused on the critical role of parenting in early adolescence, highlighting variations in Chinese American adolescents' adjustment in multiple domains over time.

The Longitudinal Relation Between Academic Support and Latino Adolescents’ Academic Motivation

This study examined whether longitudinal trajectories of academic support from mothers, fathers, and teachers predicted trajectories of Latino adolescents’ ( N = 323) academic motivation. Findings indicated those boys’ perceptions of mothers’ and fathers’ academic support and girls’ perceptions of mothers’ academic support declined throughout high school. Furthermore, girls’ academic motivation increased significantly over time. Although neither boys’ nor girls’ trajectories of support predicted trajectories of academic motivation, initial levels of academic support predicted adolescents’ academic motivation in the ninth grade. Finally, girls who reported lower academic motivation during the ninth grade also tended to report steeper increases in academic motivation over time. Findings underscore the importance of examining the unique impact of academic support from multiple individuals in adolescents’ lives.

Foreign-born Peers and Academic Performance

The academic performance of foreign-born youth in the United States is well studied, yet little is known about whether and how foreign-born students influence their classmates. In this article, I develop a set of expectations regarding the potential consequences of immigrant integration across schools, with a distinction between the effects of sharing schools with immigrants who are designated as English language learners (ELL) and those who are not. I then use administrative data on multiple cohorts of Florida public high school students to estimate the effect of immigrant shares on immigrant and native-born students' academic performance. The identification strategy pays careful attention to the selection problem by estimating the effect of foreign-born peers from deviations in the share foreign-born across cohorts of students attending the same school in different years. The assumption underlying this approach is that students choose schools based on the composition of the entire school, not on the composition of each entering cohort. The results of the analysis, which hold under several robustness checks, indicate that foreign-born peers (both those who are ELL and those who are non-ELL) have no effect on their high school classmates' academic performance.

Understanding Differences in College Persistence: A Longitudinal Examination of Financial Circumstances, Family Obligations, and Discrimination in an Ethnically Diverse Sample

Ethnic and generation differences in motivation and achievement have been well-established. However, less work has examined the role of social factors on educational outcomes among individuals from diverse backgrounds. With a longitudinal sample of 408 Latino, Asian, and European-American students, we examine family, discrimination, and financial factors in 12th grade and two years later as predictors of persistence four years after high school, and as mediators of ethnic and generation differences in persistence. Results indicate that family obligations, discrimination, and financial burdens are associated with reduced rates of persistence, while high school GPA, SES, and financial aid are associated with higher rates of persistence. Ethnic differences in persistence are related to high school GPA and SES, as well as financial circumstances. Reducing ethnic disparities in college persistence should thus involve attention not only to academic factors, but also to family circumstances that may cause college attendance to be a hardship.

Family-Related Antecedents of Early Adolescent Immigrants’ Psychological and Sociocultural School Adjustment in Germany

Immigrant students in many European countries have lower educational attainments than their mainstream classmates. The present study investigated family-related conditions for early adolescents’ acculturation orientations and psychological and sociocultural school adjustment in Germany. Analyses were based on data from 695 mostly second- and third-generation secondary school students from more than 50 countries. Parental acculturation expectations and cultural practices in the family (e.g., religion and language use) as well as their level of school involvement were the best predictors of pupils’ psychological and sociocultural outcomes. The importance of religion in the family differed most across immigrant groups and was strongly linked to adolescents’ ethnic orientation. Implications for research, educators, and policy makers are discussed.

Generational Patterns in Mexican Americans' Academic Performance in an Unwelcoming Political Context

Research has shown that immigrant students often do better academically than their U.S.-born peers from the same ethnic group but it is unclear whether this pattern holds for Mexican Americans. We examined the academic performance of four generations of Mexican American students from fifth to 10th grade looking for generation differences and explanations for them. Using data from 749 families, we tested a model with fifth grade variables that differed by generation as potential mediators linking student generation to 10th grade academic performance. Results showed that immigrants were academically behind at fifth grade but caught up by seventh. Only economic hardship mediated the long term relationship between student generation and 10th grade academic performance; maternal educational expectations and child language hassles, English usage, discrimination, and mainstream values helped explained the early academic deficit of immigrant children. The results identified potential targets for interventions to improve Mexican American students' academic performance.

Friend affiliations and school adjustment among Mexican-American adolescents: the moderating role of peer and parent support

Studies examining friendships among Mexican-American adolescents have largely focused on their potentially negative influence. The current study examined the extent to which deviant and achievement-oriented friend affiliations are associated with Mexican-American adolescents' school adjustment and also tested whether support from friends and parents moderates these associations. High school students (N = 412; 49 % male) completed questionnaires and daily diaries; primary caregivers also completed a questionnaire. Although results revealed few direct associations between friend affiliations and school adjustment, several moderations emerged. In general, the influence of friends' affiliation was strongest when support from friends was high and parental support was low. The findings suggest that only examining links between friend affiliations and school outcomes does not fully capture how friends promote or hinder school adjustment.

Examining youth and program predictors of engagement in out-of-school time programs

Prior research suggests that youths' engagement in out-of-school time programs may be a crucial factor linking program participation to positive outcomes during adolescence. Guided by the theoretical concept of flow and by stage-environment fit theory, the present study explored correlates of engagement in youth programs. Engagement was conceptualized as the extent to which youth found the program activities enjoyable, interesting, and challenging. The current study examined how program content, monetary incentives, and youth demographic characteristics were linked to youth engagement among a sample of primarily low-income middle and high school youth attending 30 out-of-school programs (n = 435, 51 % female). Results from multilevel models suggested that program content and staff quality were strongly associated with youth engagement. Youth who reported learning new skills, learning about college, and learning about jobs through activities in the program were more engaged, as were youth who found the staff caring and competent. Results demonstrated that the link between learning content for the future and engagement was stronger for older youth than younger youth. In addition, there was a trend suggesting that providing a monetary incentive was associated negatively with youth engagement. Taken as a whole, these findings have important implications for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers interested in understanding the characteristics of out-of-school time programs that engage older youth.

Distinct trajectories in the transition to adulthood: are children of immigrants advantaged?

Studies on children of immigrants have generally ignored distinct developmental trajectories during adolescence and their role in the transition to adulthood. This study identifies distinct trajectories in cognitive, sociobehavioral, and psychological domains and estimates their consequences for young adults. Drawing data from a nationally representative sample of 10,795 adolescents aged 13-17 who were followed up to ages 25-32, the study uses growth mixture modeling to test advantages for children of immigrants. The analysis shows a 1.5-generation advantage in academic achievement and school engagement, as well as a weaker second-generation advantage in academic achievement, but no disadvantage in depression for children of immigrants. In addition, these results hold for children of Hispanic origin. Theoretical and policy implications are discussed.

Academic achievement of legal immigrants' children: the roles of parents' pre- and postmigration characteristics in origin-group differences

Using data from the New Immigrant Survey, a study based on a nationally representative sample of legal immigrants, the present study extends prior research on the academic outcomes of immigrants' children by examining the roles of pre- and postmigration parental characteristics and the home environment. An analysis of 2,147 children aged 6-12 shows that parents' premigration education is more strongly associated with children's academic achievement than any other pre- or postmigration attribute. Premigration parental attributes account for the test score disadvantage of Mexican-origin children of legal immigrants, relative to their non-Latino counterparts. The findings reveal continuities and discontinuities in parental socioeconomic status and demonstrate that what parents bring to the United States and their experiences after arrival influence children's academic achievement.

Longitudinal linkages among parent-child acculturation discrepancy, parenting, parent-child sense of alienation, and adolescent adjustment in Chinese immigrant families

Parent-child acculturation discrepancy is a risk factor in the development of children in immigrant families. Using a longitudinal sample of Chinese immigrant families, the authors of the current study examined how unsupportive parenting and parent-child sense of alienation sequentially mediate the relationship between parent-child acculturation discrepancy and child adjustment during early and middle adolescence. Acculturation discrepancy scores were created using multilevel modeling to take into account the interdependence among family members. Structural equation models showed that during early adolescence, parent-child American orientation discrepancy is related to parents' use of unsupportive parenting practices; parents' use of unsupportive parenting is related to increased sense of alienation between parents and children, which in turn is related to more depressive symptoms and lower academic performance in Chinese American adolescents. These patterns of negative adjustment established in early adolescence persist into middle adolescence. This mediating effect is more apparent among father-adolescent dyads than among mother-adolescent dyads. In contrast, parent-child Chinese orientation discrepancy does not demonstrate a significant direct or indirect effect on adolescent adjustment, either concurrently or longitudinally. The current findings suggest that during early adolescence, children are more susceptible to the negative effects of parent-child acculturation discrepancy; they also underscore the importance of fathering in Chinese immigrant families.

Reinforcement sensitivity and risk for psychopathology following exposure to violence: a vulnerability-specificity model in Latino youth

Urban Latino youth are exposed to high rates of violence, which increases risk for diverse forms of psychopathology. The current study aims to increase specificity in predicting responses by testing the hypothesis that youths' reinforcement sensitivity-behavioral inhibition (BIS) and behavioral approach (BAS)-is associated with specific clinical outcomes and increases risk for the development of such problems following exposure to violence. Utilizing a short-term longitudinal design, Latino youth (N = 168) provided reports of BIS/BAS and emotional/behavioral problems at Time 1, exposure to violence between Time 1 and Time 2, and clinical symptoms at Time 2. Results suggested that reinforcement sensitivity moderated the relation between violence exposure and psychopathology, such that increasing levels of BIS were associated with elevated risk for internalizing and posttraumatic stress symptoms following exposure to violence whereas BAS increased risk for externalizing problems. The importance of building on existing knowledge to understand minority youth psychopathology is discussed.

A prospective study of Mexican American adolescents' academic success: considering family and individual factors

Mexican American youth are at greater risk of school failure than their peers. To identify factors that may contribute to academic success in this population, this study examined the prospective relationships from 5th grade to 7th grade of family (i.e., human capital [a parent with at least a high school education], residential stability, academically and occupationally positive family role models, and family structure) and individual characteristics (i.e., externalizing symptoms, bilingualism, gender, and immigrant status) to the academic performance of 749 Mexican American early adolescents (average age = 10.4 years and 48.7% were girls in 5th grade) from economically and culturally diverse families as these youth made the transition to junior high school. Results indicated that while controlling for prior academic performance, human capital and positive family role models assessed when adolescents were in 5th grade positively related to academic performance in 7th grade. Further, being a girl also was related to greater 7th grade academic success, whereas externalizing symptoms were negatively related to 7th grade academic performance. No other variables in the model were significantly and prospectively related to 7th grade academic performance. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed.

Ethnic identity and gender as moderators of the association between discrimination and academic adjustment among Mexican-origin adolescents

Existing work has identified perceived discrimination as a risk factor that may contribute to the relatively poorer academic outcomes exhibited by Mexican-origin adolescents in the U.S. The current study examined the longitudinal associations among perceived discrimination and three indices of adolescent adjustment in the school setting (i.e., grade point average, teacher reports of externalizing, adolescents' deviant peer associations) among 178 Mexican-origin adolescents (53% female). Ethnic identity affirmation was examined as a protective factor expected to reduce the negative effects of discrimination on adolescents' adjustment, and gender was examined as a potential moderator of the associations of interest. Findings indicated that the deleterious effects of discrimination on adolescents' adjustment in school were particularly salient for Mexican-origin male adolescents. Importantly, ethnic identity affirmation emerged as a protective factor for Mexican-origin male adolescents by buffering the negative effects of discrimination on their externalizing behaviors in school.

WELFARE AND THE CHILDREN OF IMMIGRANTS: TRANSMISSION OF DEPENDENCE OR INVESTMENT IN THE FUTURE?

The public concern that immigrant families might be using a disproportionate share of social benefits and transmitting some form of public dependency to their children, combined with the rising levels of immigrants entering the country, fueled the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act in 1996, which limited public assistance to many immigrant families. This paper uses the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 to explore the association between exposure to welfare and young adult outcomes of high school graduation, college enrollment and labor force participation with a focus on parental nativity status as well as broad country of origin group. Results indicate a persistent negative association between welfare legacy and high school graduation; a negative association that is most pronounced for children of natives. Results also show the largest positive effect of welfare receipt among the most disadvantaged group, the young adult children of immigrants from Mexican and Central American countries. The main finding of this study suggests that the negative impacts of welfare receipt might be lessened and in some cases reversed among the young adults from immigrant families. Such findings challenge the common notion that immigrant families use welfare as a crutch across generations and raise serious concern about U.S. immigration and welfare policies.

Latino adolescents' loneliness, academic performance, and the buffering nature of friendships

This longitudinal study examined Latino adolescents' feelings of loneliness and the repercussions of loneliness for later educational success. Participants were 640 Latino students (56% girls, 62% Mexican/Mexican-American) who reported on loneliness across the first 2 years of high school. Growth mixture modeling identified three distinct loneliness trajectory classes for the Latino adolescents--consistently low, chronically high, and low but increasing. Language brokering, language use, and school mobility emerged as predictors of class membership. Increasingly and chronically lonely youth experienced academic difficulty, both in terms of academic progress and exit exam success, but support from friends served as a buffer of the negative relationship between loneliness and academic success. This study highlights the pernicious effects of loneliness and suggests promoting prosocial friendship support as a means of facilitating more positive academic outcomes for Latino youth.

Childhood trauma and psychiatric disorders as correlates of school dropout in a national sample of young adults

The effect of childhood trauma, psychiatric diagnoses, and mental health services on school dropout among U.S.-born and immigrant youth is examined using data from the Collaborative Psychiatric Epidemiology Surveys, a nationally representative probability sample of African Americans, Afro-Caribbeans, Asians, Latinos, and non-Latino Whites, including 2,532 young adults, aged 21-29. The dropout prevalence rate was 16% overall, with variation by childhood trauma, childhood psychiatric diagnosis, race/ethnicity, and nativity. Childhood substance and conduct disorders mediated the relation between trauma and school dropout. Likelihood of dropout was decreased for Asians, and increased for African Americans and Latinos, compared to non-Latino Whites as a function of psychiatric disorders and trauma. Timing of U.S. immigration during adolescence increased risk of dropout.

Assessing racial/ethnic differences in the social consequences of early-onset psychiatric disorder

Individuals with early onset of psychiatric disorder have worse social outcomes than individuals with adult onset. It is unknown whether this association varies by racial/ ethnic group. Identifying groups at risk for poor social outcomes is important for improving clinical and policy interventions. We compared unemployment, high school dropout, arrest, and welfare participation by race/ethnicity and time of onset using a nationally representative sample of Whites, Blacks, Asians, and Latinos with lifetime psychiatric disorder. Early onset was associated with worse social outcomes than adult onset. Significant Black-White and Latino-White differences in social outcomes were identified. The association between early onset and negative social outcomes was similar across Whites, Latinos, and Blacks. For Asians, the association between unemployment and early onset was opposite that of Whites. Increasing early detection and treatment of psychiatric illness should be prioritized. Further study will clarify the association between onset and social outcomes among sub-ethnic populations.

Developmental pathways from parental substance use to childhood academic achievement

This cross-sectional study examined the pathways to childhood academic achievement in 209 African American and Puerto Rican children and their mothers. There were three pathways to childhood academic achievement: (a) the mother-child relationship and the child's personality mediated between low parental substance use and childhood academic achievement; (b) the child's personality mediated between high parental education and childhood academic achievement; and (c) there was a direct relationship between the child's gender and childhood academic achievement. Policy and clinical implications suggest the importance of increasing educational opportunities for all parents by providing substance use treatment and self-esteem workshops.

The forgotten treasure: bilingualism and Asian children's emotional and behavioral health

OBJECTIVES

We investigated the relation between the language status of children and their behavioral and emotional well-being during their early school years.

METHODS

Behavioral and emotional well-being were drawn from teacher-reported data and included externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Three-level growth curve analyses were conducted on a subsample (n = 12 586) of children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, kindergarten cohort, who originated from Asian countries. US-born, non-Hispanic White children served as the comparison group.

RESULTS

All children started with a similar level of internalizing and externalizing behaviors at kindergarten entry. The growth rate of problem behaviors was slowest in fluent bilingual and non-English-dominant bilingual children compared with White English-monolingual children. By contrast, problem behaviors increased at a significantly faster rate in non-English-monolingual children, who had the highest level of problem behaviors among all children by fifth grade.

CONCLUSIONS

By fifth grade, fluent bilingual and non-English-dominant bilingual children had the lowest levels of internalizing and externalizing behaviors, whereas non-English-monolingual children had the highest levels of both behavior problems. Our data suggest emotional and behavioral benefits of being bilingual.